1

Module 5
Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Law

Learning Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

 Learn the concept of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL);

 Learn the concept Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL);
 Learn the voltage divider concepts and applications, and;
 Learn the current divider concepts and applications.

Allocated Time: 12 hours

2
5.1 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

The law, called Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), was developed by Gustav Kirchhoff in
the mid-1800s. It is a cornerstone of the entire field and, in fact, will never be outdated or
replaced.

The application of the law requires that we define a closed path of investigation,
permitting us to start at one point in the network, travel through the network, and find
our way back to the original starting point. The path does not have to be circular, square,
or any other defined shape; it must simply provide a way to leave a point and get back to
it without leaving the network. In 5.1.1, if we leave point a and follow the current, we will
end up at point b. Continuing, we can pass through points c and d and eventually return
through the voltage source to point a, our starting point.

Fig. 5.1.1. Example of applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to a series DC circuit

The path abcda is therefore a closed path, or closed loop. The law specifies that:

“The algebraic sum of the potential rises and drops around a closed path (or
closed loop) is zero”

In symbolic form it can be written as:

Kirchhoff’s voltage law in symbolic form (1)

where Σ represents summation, the closed loop, and V the potential drops and
rises. The term algebraic simply means paying attention to the signs that result in the
equations as we add and subtract terms.

The first question that often arises is, which way should I go around the closed path?
Should I always follow the direction of the current? To simplify matters, this text will
always try to move in a clockwise direction. By selecting a direction, you eliminate the
need to think about which way would be more appropriate. Any direction will work as
long as you get back to the starting point.

Another question is, how do I apply a sign to the various voltages as I proceed in a
clockwise direction? For a particular voltage, we will assign a positive sign when
proceeding from the negative to positive potential—a positive experience such as moving
from a negative checking balance to a positive one. The opposite change in potential level
results in a negative sign. In Fig. 26, as we proceed from point d to point a across the
voltage source, we move from a negative potential (the negative sign) to a positive
potential (the positive sign), so a positive sign is given to the source voltage E. As we
proceed from point a to point b, we encounter a positive sign followed by a negative sign,
so a drop in potential has occurred, and a negative sign is applied. Continuing from b to
c, we encounter another drop in potential, so another negative sign is applied. We then
arrive back at the starting point d, and the resulting sum is set equal to zero as defined
by Eq. (1).

Writing out the sequence with the voltages and the signs results in the following:

+ E – V1 – V2 = 0

Which can be rewritten as: E = V1 + V2

The result tells denotes that:

“The applied voltage of a series dc circuit will equal the sum of the voltage
drops of the circuit”

Kirchhoff’s voltage law can also be written in the following form:

(2)

revealing that:

“The sum of the voltage rises around a closed path will always equal the sum of
the voltage drops”

To demonstrate that the direction that you take around the loop has no effect on the
results, let’s take the counterclockwise path and compare results. The resulting sequence
appears as

–E + V2 + V1 = 0

Yielding the same result of: E = V1 + V2

KVL Example #1

Use Kirchhoff’s voltage law to determine the unknown voltage for the circuit in the
figure shown:

Solution: When applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, be sure to concentrate on the polarities
of the voltage rise or drop rather than on the type of element. In other words, do not treat
a voltage drop across a resistive element differently from a voltage rise (or drop) across a
source. If the polarity dictates that a drop has occurred, that is the important fact, not
whether it is a resistive element or source.

Application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the circuit in the clockwise direction results in

+E1 – V2 – V1 – E2 = 0

and

V1 = E1 – V2 – E2

= 16V – 4.2V – 9V

= 2.8V

The result clearly indicates that you do not need to know the values of the resistors or
the current to determine the unknown voltage. Sufficient information was carried by the
other voltage levels to determine the unknown.

KVL Example #2

Determine the unknown voltage for the circuit

Solution: In this case, the unknown voltage is not across a single resistive element but
between two arbitrary points in the circuit. Simply apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around a
path, including the source or resistor R3. For the clockwise path, including the source,
the resulting equation is the following:

+ VX – V2 – V3 = 0

and

VX = V2 + V3

= 6 V + 14 V

= 20 V

For the clockwise path, including resistor R3, the following results:

+E – V1 – VX = 0

and

VX = E – V1

= 32 V – 12 V

= 20 V

KVL Example #3

There is no requirement that the followed path have charge flow or current. In Example
#3, the current is zero everywhere, but Kirchhoff’s voltage law can still be applied to
determine the voltage between the points of interest. Also, there will be situations where
the actual polarity will not be provided. In such cases, simply assume a polarity. If the
answer is negative, the magnitude of the result is correct, but the polarity should be
reversed.

Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, determine voltages V1 and V2 for the network shown
below:
 +25 V – V1 + 15 V = 0

V1 = 40 V

For path 2, starting at point a in a clockwise direction,

– V2 – 20 V = 0

V2 = – 20 V

The minus sign in the solution simply indicates that the actual polarities are different
from those assumed.

KVL Example #4

The next example demonstrates that you do not need to know what elements are inside
a container when applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law. They could all be voltage sources or a
mix of sources and resistors. It doesn’t matter—simply pay strict attention to the
polarities encountered.

Try to find the unknown quantities in the next examples without looking at the
solutions. It will help define where you may be having trouble.

Example #4 emphasizes the fact that when you are applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
the polarities of the voltage rise or drop are the important parameters, not the type of
element involved.

Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, determine the unknown voltage for the circuit in the
figure below.

Solution: Note that in this circuit, there are various polarities across the unknown
elements since they can contain any mixture of components. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage
law in the clockwise direction results in

+60 V – 40 V – VX + 30 V = 0

VX = 60 V – 40 V + 30 V

VX = 50 V
 KVL Example #5

Determine the voltage VX for the circuit in the figure below. Note that the polarity of VX
was not provided.

Solution: For cases where the polarity is not included, simply make an assumption about
the polarity, and apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law as before. If the result has a positive sign,
the assumed polarity was correct. If the result has a minus sign, the magnitude is
correct, but the assumed polarity must be reversed. In this case, if we assume point a to
be positive and point b to be negative, an application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the
clockwise direction results in

–6 V – 14 V – VX + 2 V = 0

VX = – 20 V + 2 V

VX = – 18 V

5.2 VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

The KVL demonstrated that the sum of the voltages across the resistors of a series
circuit will always equal the applied voltage. It cannot be more or less than that value.
The next question is, How will a resistor’s value affect the voltage across the resistor? It
turns out that

The voltage across series resistive elements will divide as the magnitude of the
resistance levels.

In other words,

In a series resistive circuit, the larger the resistance, the more of the applied
voltage it will capture.

In addition,

The ratio of the voltages across series resistors will be the same as the ratio of
their resistance levels.

All of the above statements can best be described by a few simple examples. In Fig.
5.2.1, all the voltages across the resistive elements are provided.
 Fig. 5.2.1. Revealing how the voltage will divide across series resistive elements

The largest resistor of 6 captures the bulk of the applied voltage, while the smallest
resistor, R3, has the least. In addition, note that since the resistance level of R1 is six
times that of R3, the voltage across R1 is six times that of R3. The fact that the resistance
level of R2 is three times that of R1 results in three times the voltage across R2. Finally,
since R1 is twice R2, the voltage across R1 is twice that of R2. In general, therefore, the
voltage across series resistors will have the same ratio as their resistance levels.

Note that if the resistance levels of all the resistors in the above figure are increased by
the same amount, as shown in Fig. 5.2.2, the voltage levels all remain the same. In other
words, even though the resistance levels were increased by a factor of 1 million, the
voltage ratios remained the same. Clearly, therefore, it is the ratio of resistor values that
counts when it comes to voltage division, not the magnitude of the resistors. The current
level of the network will be severely affected by this change in resistance level, but the
voltage levels remain unaffected.

Fig. 5.2.2. The ratio of the resistive value determines the voltage division of a series dc
circuit

Based on the above, it should now be clear that when you first encounter a circuit
such as that in Fig. 5.2.3, you will expect that the voltage across the 1 MΩ resistor will be
much greater than that across the 1 kΩ or the 100Ω resistor. In addition, based on a
statement above, the voltage across the 1kΩ resistor will be 10 times as great as that
across the 100Ω resistor since the resistance level is 10 times as much. Certainly, you
would expect that very little voltage will be left for the 100Ω resistor. Note that the current
was never mentioned in the above analysis. The distribution of the applied voltage is
determined solely by the ratio of the resistance levels. Of course, the magnitude of the
resistors will determine the resulting current level.

Fig. 5.2.3. The largest of the series resistive elements will capture the major share of the
applied voltage.

To continue with the above, since 1 MΩ is 1000 times larger than 1 kΩ, voltage V1 will
be 1000 times larger than V2. In addition, voltage V2 will be 10 times larger than V3.
Finally, the voltage across the largest resistor of 1 MΩ will be (10)(1000) 10,000 times
larger than V3.

Now for some details, the total resistance is:

RT = R1 + R2 + R3

= 1 MΩ + 1 kΩ + 100 Ω

= 1,001,100 Ω

The current is:

𝐸 100 𝑉
𝐼𝑆 = = = 99.89 µ𝐴
𝑅𝑇 1,001,100 Ω

With

V1 = I1 R1 = IS R1 = (99.89 µA)(1 MΩ) = 99.89 V (Almost 100 V)

V2 = I2 R2 = IS R2 = (99.89 µA)(1 kΩ) = 99.89 mV (Almost 100 mV)

V3 = I3 R3 = IS R3 = (99.89 µA)(100 Ω) = 9.989 V (Almost 10 mV)

5.3 VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE

The Voltage Divider Rule (VDR) permits the determination of the voltage across a
series resistor without first having to determine the current of the circuit. The rule itself
can be derived by analyzing the simple series circuit in Fig. 5.3.1.

Fig. 5.3.1. Developing the voltage divider rule

First, determine the total resistance as follows:

RT = R1 + R2

Then

𝐸
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 =
𝑅𝑇

Apply Ohm’s Law to each resistor:

𝐸 𝐸
𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 = ( )𝑅1 = 𝑅1
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇

𝐸 𝐸
𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 = ( )𝑅2 = 𝑅2
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇

The resulting formula for V1 and V2 is

𝐸
𝑉𝑋 = 𝑅𝑋 Voltage divider rule
𝑅𝑇

Where VX is the voltage across the resistor RX, E is the impressed voltage across the
series elements, and RT is the total resistance of the series circuit.

The voltage divider rule states that the voltage across a resistor in a series circuit
is equal to the value of that resistor times the total applied voltage divided by the
total resistance of the series configuration.
Voltage Divider Example #1

a. Without making any calculations, how much larger would you expect the voltage
across R2 to be compared to that across R1?
b. Find the voltage V1 using only the voltage divider rule.
c. Using the conclusion of part (a), determine the voltage across R2.
d. Use the voltage divider rule to determine the voltage across R2, and compare your
answer to your conclusion in part (c).
e. How does the sum of V1 and V2 compare to the applied voltage?

Solutions:

a. Since the resistor R2 is three times R1, it is expected that V2 = 3V1

𝐸 64 𝑉
b. 𝑉1 = 𝑅1 = 20 Ω ( ) = 𝟏𝟔 𝑽
𝑅𝑇 20 Ω + 60 Ω
c. V2 = 3V1 = 3(16 V) = 48 V
𝐸 64 𝑉
d. 𝑉2 = 𝑅2 = 60 Ω ( ) = 𝟒𝟖 𝑽
𝑅𝑇 80 Ω

The results are an exact match

e. E = V1 + V2
64 V = 16 V + 48 V

Voltage Divider Example #2

 Using the voltage divider rule, determine the voltages V1 and V3 for the series circuit in
the above figure.

Solution:

RT = R1 + R2 + R3

= 2 kΩ + 5 kΩ + 8 kΩ

RT = 15 kΩ

𝐸 45 𝑉
𝑉1 = 𝑅1 = 2 𝑘Ω ( )= 𝟔𝑽
𝑅𝑇 15 kΩ

𝐸 45 𝑉
𝑉3 = 𝑅3 = 8 𝑘Ω ( ) = 𝟐𝟒 𝑽
𝑅𝑇 15 kΩ

Voltage Divider Example #3

Given the voltmeter reading in the figure below, find voltage V3.

Solution:

Even though the rest of the network is not shown and the current level has not been
determined, the voltage divider rule can be applied by using the voltmeter reading as the
full voltage across the series combination of resistors. That is,

(𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟) 5.6 𝑉
𝑉3 = 𝑅3 = 3 𝑘Ω ( )=𝟒𝑽
𝑅𝑇 3 kΩ + 1.2 kΩ
Voltage Divider Example #4

Design the voltage divider circuit based from the figure below such that the voltage
across R1 will be four times the voltage across R2; that is, VR1 = 4VR2.

Solution:

The total resistance is defined by RT = R1 + R2, however if VR1 = 4VR2 then R1 = 4R2

So that RT = R1 + R2 = 4R2 + R2 = 5R2

Applying Ohm’s Law, we can determine the total resistance of the circuit:

𝐸 20 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 = =( ) = 5 𝑘𝛺
𝐼𝑆 4 mA

And RT = 5R2

𝑅𝑇
𝑅2 = = 𝟏 𝑘𝛺
5 kΩ

Thus,

R1 = 4R2

R1 = (4) (1 kΩ)

R1 = 4 kΩ
5.4 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

Kirchhoff’s voltage law provides a very important relationship among the voltages of a
closed path. Kirchhoff is also credited with developing the following equally important
relationship between the currents of a network, called Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL):

The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving a junction (or region) of
a network is zero.

The law can also be stated in the following way:

The sum of the currents entering a junction (or region) of a network must equal
the sum of the currents leaving the same junction (or region).

In equation form, the above statement can be written as follows:

(6)

with Ii representing the current entering, or “in,” and IO representing the current
leaving, or “out.”

In Fig. 5.4.1, for example, the shaded area can enclose an entire system or a complex
network, or it can simply provide a connection point (junction) for the displayed currents.
In each case, the current entering must equal that leaving, as required by Eq. (6):

ΣIi = ΣIo

I1 + I4 = I2 + I3

4 A + 8 A = 2 A + 10 A

12 A = 12 A
KCL Example #1

Determine currents I1, I3, I4, and I5 for network shown below:

Solution:

In this configuration, four nodes are defined. Nodes a and c have only one
unknown current at the junction, so Kirchhoff’s current law can be applied at either
junction.

At node a

ΣIi = ΣIo

I = I1 + I2

5 A = I1 + 4 A

I1 = 5 A – 4 A = 1A

At node c

ΣIi = ΣIo

I2 = I4 = 4 A

At node b

ΣIi = ΣIo

I1 = I3 = 1 A

At node d
 ΣIi = ΣIo

I3 + I4 = I5

1 A + 4 A = I5 = 5 A

If we enclose the entire network, we find that the current entering from the far left is I =
5 A, while the current leaving from the far right is I5 = 5 A. The two must be equal since
the net current entering any system must equal the net current leaving.

KCL Example #2

Determine currents I3 and I4 in the figure below using Kirchhoff’s current law.

Solution:

There are two junctions or nodes in the figure. Node a has only one unknown, while
node b has two unknowns. Since a single equation can be used to solve for only one
unknown, we must apply Kirchhoff’s current law to node a first.

@node a

ΣIi = ΣIo

I1 + I2 = I3

I3 = 2A+3A=5A

@node b

ΣIi = ΣIo

I3 + I5 = I4

I4 = 5A+1A=6A
5.5 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

For series circuits we have the powerful voltage divider rule for finding the voltage
across a resistor in a series circuit. We now introduce the equally powerful current
divider rule (CDR) for finding the current through a resistor in a parallel circuit.

In Section 4, it was pointed out that current will always seek the path of least
resistance. In Fig. 38, for example, the current of 9 A is faced with splitting between the
three parallel resistors. Based on the previous sections, it should now be clear without a
single calculation that the majority of the current will pass through the smallest resistor
of 10 Ω, and the least current will pass through the 1 k resistor. In fact, the current
through the 100 Ω-resistor will also exceed that through the 1 kΩ resistor. We can take it
one step further by recognizing that the resistance of the 100 Ω-resistor is 10 times that
of the10 Ω resistor. The result is a current through the 10 Ω-resistor that is 10 times that
of the 100 Ω-resistor. Similarly, the current through the 100 Ω-resistor is 10 times that
through the 1 kΩ resistor.

In general, for two parallel elements of equal value, the current will divide
equally.

For parallel elements with different values, the smaller the resistance, the
greater is the share of input current.

For parallel elements of different values, the current will split with a ratio
equal to the inverse of their resistance values.

Fig. 5.5.1. Discussing the manner in which the current will split between three parallel
branches of different resistive value.
Current Divider Example #1

a. Determine currents I1 and I3 for the network in the figure below

b. Find the source current IS.

Solutions:

a. Since R1 is twice R2, the current I1 must be one-half I2, and

𝐼2 2 mA
𝐼1 = =( ) = 1 𝑚𝐴
2 2

Since R2 is three times R3, the current I3 must be three times I2, and

I3 = 3I2 = (3) (2 mA) = 6 mA

b. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law gives

ΣIi = ΣIo
IS = I1 + I2 + I3
IS = 1 mA + 2 mA + 6 mA = 9mA

Although the above discussions and examples allowed us to determine the relative
magnitude of a current based on a known level, they do not provide the magnitude of a
current through a branch of a parallel network if only the total entering current is known.
The result is a need for the current divider rule, which will be derived using the parallel
configuration in Fig. 5.5.2(a). The current IT (using the subscript T to indicate the total
entering current) splits between the N parallel resistors and then gathers itself together
again at the bottom of the configuration. In Fig. 5.5.2(b), the parallel combination of
resistors has been replaced by a single resistor equal to the total resistance of the parallel
combination as determined in the previous sections. The current IT can then be
determined using Ohm’s law:

V
𝐼𝑇 =
𝑅𝑇
 Fig. 5.5.2. Deriving the current divider rule: (a) parallel network of N parallel resistors; (b)
reduced equivalent of part (a)

Since the voltage V is the same across parallel elements, the following is true:

V = I1R1 = I2R2 = I3R3 = . . . = IXRX

where the product IXRX refers to any combination in the series. Substituting for V in the
above equation for IT, we have:

𝑅𝑇
𝐼𝑋 = 𝐼 Eqn. (1)
𝑅𝑋 𝑇

which states that the current through any branch of a parallel resistive network is
equal to the total resistance of the parallel network divided by the resistance of
the resistor of interest and multiplied by the total current entering the parallel
configuration.

Since RT and IT are constants, for a particular configuration the larger the value of RX
(in the denominator), the smaller is the value of IX for that branch, confirming the fact
that current always seeks the path of least resistance.

Current Divider Example #2

For the parallel network in the figure below, determine current I1 using Eqn. (1).
Solutions:

1
𝑅𝑇 =
1 1 1
+ +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1
𝑅𝑇 =
1 1 1
+ +
1 kΩ 10 kΩ 22 kΩ
1
𝑅𝑇 =
1𝑥 10−3 + 100 𝑥 10−6 + 45.46 𝑥 10−6

𝑅𝑇 = 𝟖𝟕𝟑. 𝟎𝟏 𝛀

𝑅𝑇 873.01 Ω
𝐼𝑋 = 𝐼𝑇 = (12 mA) = 10.48 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝑋 1 kΩ

Note also that for a parallel network, the current through the smallest resistor
will be very close to the total entering current if the other parallel elements of the
configuration are much larger in magnitude.

In the example above, the current through R1 is very close to the total current because
R1 is 10 times less than the next smallest resistance.

SPECIAL CASE: TWO PARALLEL RESISTORS

For the case of two parallel resistors as shown in Fig. 5.5.3, the total resistance is
determined by

Fig. 5.5.3. Deriving the current divider rule for the special case of only two parallel
resistors

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑇 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Substituting RT into Eqn. (1) for current I1 results in

1 2 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅𝑇 (𝑅 + )
1 𝑅2
𝐼1 = 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑇
𝑅1 𝑇 𝑅1
 And
𝑅2
𝐼1 = (𝑅 )𝐼𝑇 Eqn. (2a)
1 + 𝑅2

𝑅1
𝐼2 = (𝑅 )𝐼𝑇 Eqn. (2b)
1 + 𝑅2

for two parallel resistors, the current through one is equal to the resistance of the
other times the total entering current divided by the sum of the two resistances.

Since the combination of two parallel resistors is probably the most common parallel
configuration, the simplicity of the format for Eqn. (2) suggests that it is worth
memorizing. Take particular note, however, that the denominator of the equation is
simply the sum, not the total resistance, of the combination.

Current Divider Example #3

Determine current I2 for the network in the figure below using the current divider rule.

Solution:

𝑅1 4 kΩ
𝐼2 = (𝑅 )𝐼𝑇 = (4 kΩ+ 8 kΩ) 6 A = 2 A
1 + 𝑅2

Using Eqn. (1) gives

𝑅𝑇
𝐼1 = 𝐼
𝑅1 𝑇

Get the RT of parallel resistors 4 kΩ and 8 kΩ

(4 kΩ)(8 kΩ)
𝑅𝑇 = = 2.667 kΩ
4 kΩ + 8 kΩ
(2.667 kΩ)
𝐼1 = 6A
8 kΩ

𝐼1 = 𝟐 𝐀
Current Divider Example #4

Determine resistor R1 in the figure below to implement the division of current shown.

Solution:

There are essentially two approaches to this type of problem. One involves the direct
substitution of known values into the current divider rule equation followed by a
mathematical analysis. The other is the sequential application of the basic laws of electric
circuits. First we will use the latter approach.

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law gives

ΣIi = ΣIo

I = I1 + I2

I2 = 27 mA – 21 mA = 6 mA

The voltage V2: V2 = I2R2 = (6 mA)(7 Ω) = 42 mV

So that V1 = V2 = 42 mV

And

𝑉1 42 mV
𝑅1 = = = 𝟐𝛀
𝐼1 21 mA

Using the current divider rule:

𝑅𝑇
𝐼1 = 𝐼
𝑅1 𝑇

(7 Ω)
21 mA = 27 mA
(𝑅1 + 7 Ω)

24 mV
𝑅1 = = 𝟐𝛀
21 mA
 In summary, therefore, remember that current always seeks the path of least
resistance, and the ratio of the resistance values is the inverse of the resulting current
levels, as shown in Fig 5.5.4. The thickness of the blue band in Fig. 45 reflects the
relative magnitude of the current in each branch.

Fig. 5.5.4. Demonstrating how current divides through equal and unequal parallel resistors
.