KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

2021/2022 ACADEMIC YEAR

FIRST SEMESTER

CE 367 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

TRAFFIC FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

DR. KENNETH A. TUTU

 TRAFFIC FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
• Transportation system must provide movement of people, goods and services in a safe and
efficient manner. To what extent does the system accomplish this purpose?
• The first step in understanding the performance of a transportation facility is to understand
the manner traffic stream behaves on the facility. Understanding traffic flow characteristics
helps in efficient and safe design of transportation facilities.
• Traffic stream refers to the flow of vehicles on a roadway.

Traffic Characterization
• Traffic can be characterized by the type of roadway facility on which it operates or by the
type of traffic flow on a roadway facility.

• Types of roadway facilities

o Uninterrupted flow
o Interrupted flow

• Types of flow on a facility

o Undersaturated flow
o Oversaturated flow

Type of Road Facility

Uninterrupted Flow Facilities Interrupted Flow Facilities
Traffic operates free from the influence of traffic Traffic operates under the influence of traffic signals,
signals, stop signs, yield signs, roundabout, railroad stop signs, yield signs, railroad crossing, roundabout
crossing or other interruptions. or other interruptions. These elements stop or slow
traffic periodically.
Traffic flow is influenced by interaction between: Traffic flow is influenced by:
(a) vehicles in the traffic stream; hence, traffic may (a) interaction btn. vehicles in the traffic stream
slow or stop in response to traffic congestion (b) interaction btn. vehicles and road geometry
(b) vehicles and road geometric features (c) Traffic control devices such as traffic signals,
stop sign, yield sign and roundabout.
Drivers do not expect to be required to stop by Drivers expect to be required to stop by fixed
factors external to the traffic stream elements of the facility (e.g., traffic signal, stop sign,
yield sign).
Congestion is due to factors internal to the traffic Congestion is due to factors internal to the traffic
stream. stream and traffic control devices.
Some facilities have traffic signals, yet they can A well-coordinated traffic signal system on an arterial
provide long sections of uninterrupted flow. roadway may cause almost uninterrupted traffic flow,
and yet it is still considered interrupted flow.
Examples are multilane highways, freeways Examples are urban streets, signalized intersections
(motorways)

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Types of Flow on a Facility
• Unsaturated Flow (or Undersaturated Flow)
o It can occur on either uninterrupted or interrupted flow facilities.
o Traffic flow is below that which the facility can handle.
o No queues are present resulting from previous interruptions.
o The arrival flow rate is less than the capacity of the roadway section.
o Downstream conditions do not impact traffic flow.
o Typically, undersaturated flow condition exists if traffic demand during a 15-minute
analysis period can be adequately serviced by the capacity of the facility.
o For uninterrupted facilities, travel speeds approximate free flow speeds and queues do
not form.
o For interrupted facilities, queues that form due to the fixed elements of the facility
dissipate within the 15-minute analysis period.

• Oversaturated Flow
o The facility is unable to handle demand sufficiently during the 15-minute analysis
period. Arrival flow rate of vehicles exceeds capacity of the roadway.
o If the demand exceeds capacity on regular basis, this is recurring congestion
o If the oversaturation is due to some unique event, such as reduction in capacity from a
crash or work zone, this is non-recurring congestion
o Downstream conditions affect traffic flow.

Approaches to Traffic Flow Analysis

• Two main approaches for understanding and quantifying traffic flow:
o Macroscopic Analysis:
 Traffic stream is considered as a homogenous body
 No distinction is made of the characteristics of the individual vehicles
 Aggregate traffic measures are used to represent the entire traffic stream
 Assesses overall operational efficiency of facility (e.g., traffic stream speed)

o Microscopic Analysis:
 Considers the movement of and interaction between individual vehicles
 Individual driver-vehicle combination is examined, such as car maneuvering.
 Used in highway safety analysis

Fundamental Characteristic
Analysis Type Speed Flow Density
Macroscopic Space mean speed Flow rate Density
Microscopic Time mean speed Headway Spacing

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Traffic Flow Parameters
• The following parameters characterize traffic flow:
o Flow (q)
o Speed (u)
o Density (k)
o Spacing (s) and headway (h)
o Clearance (c) and gap (g)
o Lane occupancy (R)

Traffic Volume and Flow Rate

• Volume is the total number of vehicles that pass a point on a roadway during a given time
interval. The period could be annually, daily, hourly, or sub-hourly.
• Rate of flow represents the number of vehicles passing a point during a time interval less
than one hour, but expressed as an equivalent hourly rate. Mathematically,

n
q=
t
Where:
q = Flow rate, vehicles per hour (veh/hr)
n = Number of vehicles counted during time, t
t = Specified time interval

• Flow rates are not actually a volume count, but a representation of the measured or predicted
traffic volume expressed in equivalent units of vehicles/hour.
o Volumes are directly measured, while flows are typically calculated.
o A sub-hour volume count can be expressed as a flow rate by multiplying the sub-hour
count by the number of intervals in an hour.
o Volume and flow indicate the demand users place on the roadway.
• Example: Calculate vehicle flow rate from the sample data below:
Period (AM) Measured Volume Rate of flow (veh/hr)
60
7:00–7:15 200 200 ∗ = 800
15
60
7:15–7:30 300 300 ∗ = 1200
15
60
7:30–7:45 500 500 ∗ = 2000
15
60
7:45–8:00 600 600 ∗ = 2400
15
Total 1600

• Although the volume is 1,600 veh/hr, the individual flow rates during the four 15-minute
periods are 800, 1200, 2000 and 2400 veh/hr, respectively. Note that 800, 1200, 2000 and
2400 vehicles do not actually pass the study location during the study hour, but they do pass
the location at that computed rate every 15 minutes.

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Spacing, Headway, Clearance and Gap

• Spacing is the distance between successive vehicles in a traffic stream, measured from front
bumper to front bumper. Headway is the corresponding time between successive vehicles as
they pass a point along a roadway. Thus, headway is the time equivalence of spacing.
• Vehicle spacings can be observed from aerial photographs.
• Headways can be measured using stopwatch observations as vehicles pass a point on a lane.
• Both spacing and headway are related to speed, flow rate and density as follows:

1000 (m⁄km)
Average density (veh⁄km) =
Avg. spacing (m⁄veh)

Avg. spacing (m⁄veh)

Avg. headway (sec⁄veh) =
Avg. speed (m⁄sec)
• Flow rate can be estimated by taking the inverse of the headway and multiplying by 3600.

1 3600 (sec⁄hr)
Avg. flow rate (veh⁄hr) = =
Avg. headway Avg. headway (sec⁄veh)
• Clearance is the distance between the rear bumper of a lead vehicle and front bumper of a
trailing vehicle. Gap is the time equivalence of clearance.
• The difference between spacing and clearance is the average length of a vehicle.
• The difference between headway and gap is the time equivalence of the average length of a
vehicle. Mathematically,
L
g=h−� �
u

c=g∗u
Where:
g = Mean gap, sec
L = Mean length of vehicle, m
c = Mean clearance, m
h = Mean headway, sec
u = Mean speed, m/sec

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Example: A stopwatch is started as soon as the front bumper of a vehicle touched an
observation point A–A′ on a roadway. The successive times the following vehicles’ front
bumpers touched the observation point are shown in the table below. Calculate the individual
headways and the average headway.
Successive Time Front Individual
Vehicle
Bumper Passed A–A′ (sec) Headway (sec)
1 0 --
2 5 h1-2 = 5–0 = 5
3 8 h2-3 = 8–5 = 3
4 12 h3-4 = 12–8 = 4
5 15 h4-5 = 15–12 = 3
6 19 h5-6 = 19–15 = 4
7 25 h6-7 = 25–19 = 6
8 28 h7-8 = 28–25 = 3
9 32 H8-9 = 32–28 = 4
10 36 H9-10 = 36–32 = 4
Average Headway 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑/𝟗𝟗 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒

Exercise: A traffic stream on the Accra-Tema Motorway had an average headway of 2.5 sec at a
mean seed of 55 km/hr. Estimate the density, flow rate, spacing and gap of the traffic stream
assuming the average length of vehicles is 6m. [Hint: Use the above equations].

Speed
• Speed provides an indication of quality of traffic operations on a facility.
• Speed is rate of motion; distance divided by time.
• Broad distribution of individual speeds in traffic stream.

Types of Speed Measurements

• Speed can be measured at a point or over a distance.
• Time mean speed (TMS) is measured at a point or over a short length. It is an instantaneous
(spot) speed. TMS is typically used for microscopic analysis.
• TMS is the arithmetic mean of spot speeds, computed as follows:

Sum of spot speeds ∑ni=1 ui

TMS = =
Number of vehicles n
Where:
TMS = Time mean speed, km/hr
ui = Individual spot speeds, km/hr
n = Number of vehicles for which spot speeds are measured

• Space mean speed (SMS) is measured as the distance traveled over a period. It is often used
in macroscopic analysis.

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• If travel times, t1, t2, t,3,…,tn, are observed for n vehicles traversing a roadway section of
length L, the SMS is calculated as:

L L L nL
SMS = t = = n =
∑ni=1 i 1 ∑ni=1 t i ∑i=1 t i ∑i=1 t i
n
n n n
Where:
SMS = Space mean speed, km/h
L = Length of roadway section, km
ti = Travel time of the ith vehicle to traverse section, hours
n = Number of vehicles for which travel times are measured

• SMS can also be computed as the harmonic mean of spot speeds, as follows:
n
SMS =
1 1 1
� + + ⋯+ �
Spot Speed1 Spot Speed2 Spot Speedi

Where:
n = Number of vehicles
Spot speed = Spot speed or TMS of vehicle 1, etc.

TMS versus SMS

• TMS is the arithmetic mean of spot speeds; SMS is harmonic mean of spot speeds
• TMS is always greater than SMS, except where all vehicles travel at the same speed, in
which case the two speeds will be similar.
• TMS and SMS are approximately related as follows:

Variance of SMS
TMS = SMS +
SMS

Variance of TMS
SMS = TMS −
TMS
Variance of TMS is computed as follows:
(TMS𝑖𝑖 − Avg. TMS)2
Variance of TMS = � � �
n

Variance of SMS is computed as follows:

(SMS𝑖𝑖 − Avg. SMS)2
Variance of SMS = � � �
n

TMS and SMS Calculation Examples

Example 1: Vehicles A, B and C pass a point on a roadway at 50, 45, 60 km/h, respectively.
What is the TMS of the vehicles?

Solution:
∑ni=1 ui 50 + 45 + 60
TMS = = = 52 km/hr
n 3
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Example 2: Vehicles A, B and C traverse a 1.5 km roadway section using 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 min.
respectively. What is the SMS of the vehicles?

Solution:

nL 3 ∗ 1.5
SMS = = = 36 km/hr
∑ni=1 t i 2.0 + 2.5 + 3.0
� �
60

[NB: The value of 60 converts the travel time from minutes to hour]

Example 3: The speeds of five vehicles were measured as spot speeds at the mid-point of a 1.6-
km roadway section. Calculate the TMS and SMS for the five vehicles assuming each vehicle
traveled at a uniform speed. [Note: TMS is always greater than SMS except where all vehicles travel
at the same speed, in which case the two speeds will be similar. Verify it in this example].

Vehicle Speed (km/hr)

1 91.7
2 99.8
3 88.5
4 95.0
5 93.3

Solution:

∑ni=1 ui 91.7 + 99.9 + 88.5 + 95.0 + 93.3

TMS = = = 93.7 km/hr
n 5

nL 5 ∗ 1.6
SMS = = = 93.5 km/hr
∑ni=1 t i 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6
� + + + + �
91.7 99.9 88.5 95.0 93.3

Alternatively (using the fact that SMS is the harmonic mean of spot speeds):
5
SMS = = 93.5 km/hr
1 1 1 1 1
� + + + + �
91.7 99.9 88.5 95.0 93.3

Example 4: Two points on a roadway, A–A′ and B–B′, form a trap distance of 75m apart. The
times for the front and rear bumpers of each vehicle to pass points A–A′ and B–B′, respectively,
are recorded in the table below.
(a) Calculate the SMS of the individual vehicles
(b) Calculate the average SMS of the vehicles
(c) Plot a cumulative distribution of the SMS and find the 15th, 50th and 85th percentile
SMS. Interpret the results.

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Solution:
(a) See the table below
(b) Average SMS = 23km/h
(c) 15th percentile SMS is 15km/hr, meaning 15% of the vehicles traveled at 15km/hr or lower.
Thus, 85% of the vehicles traveled at SMS above 15km/hr. 50th percentile (average) SMS
and 85th percentile SMS are 24km/hr and 32km/hr, respectively. Similar interpretation.

SMS Calculation
Vehicle Time of Passing Time of Passing Elapsed Trap Distance SMS SMS
A–A′ (sec) B–B′ (sec) Time (sec) (m) (m/sec) (km/hr)
1 0.0 8.5 8.5 75 8.8 31.8
2 15.5 21.5 6.0 75 12.5 45.0
3 30.0 40.5 10.5 75 7.1 25.7
4 50.0 58.5 8.5 75 8.8 31.8
5 68.5 79.0 10.5 75 7.1 25.7
6 90.5 100.0 9.5 75 7.9 28.4
7 115.0 125.5 10.5 75 7.1 25.7
8 140.0 155.5 15.5 75 4.8 17.4
9 165.8 174.5 8.7 75 8.6 31.0
10 185.3 196.2 10.9 75 6.9 24.8
11 210.2 225.2 15.0 75 5.0 18.0
12 250.2 261.5 11.3 75 6.6 23.9
13 275.5 285.6 10.1 75 7.4 26.7
14 300.5 315.5 15.0 75 5.0 18.0
15 325.0 342.4 17.4 75 4.3 15.5
16 362.4 385.0 22.6 75 3.3 11.9
17 400.0 415.7 15.7 75 4.8 17.2
18 430.5 445.8 15.3 75 4.9 17.6
19 460.5 485.1 24.6 75 3.0 11.0
20 500.0 520.5 20.5 75 3.7 13.2

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Example 5: Four vehicles traversed a 2-km roadway section and spot speeds of 56, 48, 45 and
62 km/hr were recorded. What is the TMS of the vehicles? Estimate the SMS.
Solution:
∑ni=1 ui 56 + 48 + 45 + 62
TMS = = = 52.75 km/hr
n 4

Variance of TMS
SMS = TMS −
TMS

(TMS𝑖𝑖 − Avg. TMS)2

Variance of TMS = � � �
n
(56 − 52.75)2 + (48 − 52.75)2 + (45 − 52.75)2 + (62 − 52.75)2
Variance of TMS = = 44.6875
4

Variance of TMS 44.6875

SMS = TMS − = 52.75 − = 51.9km/hr
TMS 52.75

Exercises on TMS and SMS

Question 1. The speed of 10 vehicles were measured as spot speeds at the mid-point of three
roadway sections (A, B and C). Calculate the TMS and SMS for the vehicles (in km/hr) on each
roadway section, assuming each vehicle traveled the entire roadway section at a uniform speed.
Roadway A (L = 0.75 miles) Roadway B (L = 0.85 miles) Roadway A (L = 0.50 miles)
Vehicle Speed (mph) Vehicle Speed (mph) Vehicle Speed (mph)
1 66 1 75 1 69
2 63 2 74 2 70
3 70 3 76 3 70
4 72 4 78 4 68
5 65 5 85 5 72
6 64 6 75 6 75
7 65 7 74 7 71
8 69 8 72 8 79
9 64 9 73 9 75
10 65 10 77 10 74

Question 2: Four race cars are traveling on a 2.5-km oval track. The four cars are traveling at
constant speeds of 195, 190, 185 and 180 km/hr, respectively. A spectator stood at a point on the
track for 30 minutes and recorded the instantaneous (spot speed) of each vehicle as it crossed his
point. Calculate the TMS and SMS for these cars for this period.
Question 3: The following vehicle speeds were recorded on a 1.0-km section of Sunyani Road
between 8 and 9 AM on Christmas day: 55, 54, 51, 55, 53, 53, 54 and 52 km/hr.
(a) Calculate the TMS and its variance (b) Calculate the SMS
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Types of Speeds
• Free flow speed (FFS) – The average speed of vehicles on a roadway section when volumes
are low and drivers are free to select their preferred speed without interference from other
vehicles or traffic control devices.
• 85th Percentile Speed: For a given roadway location, it is the speed that 85% of the
vehicles travel at or below. Conversely, 15% of the vehicles travel faster than the 85th
percentile speed. The 85th percentile speed is typically based on radar speed measurements
(spot speed or TMS) and is used to set speed limits for roadways.
• Mean (average) speed: The total of time mean speeds at a specific location divided by the
number of speed measurements.
• Design speed: The speed that is used as the basis for designing the geometric features of a
roadway. The design speed is not a measured speed.
• Operating speed: The typical speed of a vehicle or traffic stream travels at a specific
roadway location. It is general term and can refer to the 85th percentile speed or pace speed.
• Pace speed: The 10 km/hr speed range representing the speeds of the largest percentage of
vehicles in the traffic stream.
• Optimal speed: The speed at which traffic flow is at maximum (capacity).
• Posted speed limit: The maximum or minimum speed applicable to a roadway section as
indicated by a speed limit sign. The speed limit is not a measured speed.
• Running speed: The distance traveled divided by the running time (the time that a vehicle is
moving or moving faster that a pre-designated speed). It represents overall speed of a
journey excluding delays.
• Travel speed: The distance traveled divided by the overall travel time. The travel time
includes delays and times when the vehicle is stopped.
• Spot speed: The time mean speed of a vehicle measured at a point on the roadway

Density or Concentration
• Density is the number of vehicles occupying a certain length of lane or roadway averaged over time.
It is expressed as veh/km for the roadway section or veh/km per lane for one lane of a facility.
• It is a measure of how many vehicle occupy a roadway section at a given instant.
• Because density describes proximity of vehicles in a traffic stream, it is a common parameter
for describing freedom of maneuverability.
• Factors affecting density include vehicle length and clearance (gap) between vehicles.
• One way to measure density is through aerial or satellite photography, applying the equation:

n
k=
L
Where:
k = Density, veh/km
n = Number of vehicles occupying the same length of roadway at a specific point of time
L = Roadway length over which density is measured, km

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• Density is commonly calculated based on flow and speed (q = uk).
• Density can also be calculated by measuring occupancy.

Speed-Flow-Density Relationship
Greenshields formulated the general relationship below between the basic traffic flow
parameters of speed, flow and density, as follows:

q = uk
Where:
q = Rate of flow, veh/hr
u = Average travel speed, km/hr
k = Average density, veh/km

Example: A roadway segment with a flow of 1500 veh/hr and average speed of 50km/hr would
have a density of k = 1500 /50 = 30 veh/km.

Speed-Density Relationship
• Consider one vehicle traveling on a roadway section. Because of the low density, the driver
travels freely at a speed close to the design speed of the roadway. The vehicle speed is not
inhibited by the presence of other vehicles. This speed is called free flow speed (uf).
• As more vehicles join the traffic stream, the density will increase, and the average travel
speed will decline, because drivers slow to allow the maneuvers of other vehicles.
• Assume the roadway section becomes so congested (high density) that traffic comes to a
stop (speed, u = 0). Density will then be determined by the length of the vehicles and the
clearance drivers leave between them. This high-density condition is called jam density (kj).
• In 1935, Greenshields proposed linear model btn. speed & density for uninterrupted flow (Eqn. 1):
k
u = uf �1 − � (1)
kj

Where:
u = mean speed, km/hr
uf = Free flow speed, km/hr
k = Density, veh/km
kj = Jam density, veh/km

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• Greenshields’ model satisfies the following boundary conditions:
o Flow is zero a zero density.
o Flow is zero at maximum density.
o Free flow speed occurs at zero density.
o Flow–density curves are convex (i.e., there is a point of maximum flow).

• Traffic flow can be obtained from speed–density plot by multiplying coordinates of speeds
and densities for any point on the straight line. For example, the area vxPkx0 represents the
flow for speed vx and density kx.

(Image credit: Mannering & Washburn)

• Field studies show that speed–density relationship may have three sections:
o Nonlinear relationship at low densities, where speed declines from free-flow value
o Linear relationship in middle section, where speed declines linearly with density (Eqn. 1)
o Nonlinear relationship near the jam density, as speed asymptotically approaches zero
with increasing density.

Flow-Density Relationship
• Flow and density have a parabolic relationship. We know that:

q = uk (2)
where all terms are as defined previously.
Substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2:
k2
q = uf �k − � (3)
kj

• The general form of Equation 3 is shown in the figure below. In this figure:
o As the flow increases, so does the density, until a maximum flow rate is reached.
o The maximum flow rate, qcap, represents the highest rate of traffic flow the roadway can
accommodate; this is called the capacity of the roadway.
o Density that corresponds to capacity flow rate is kcap, and the corresponding speed is ucap.
o kcap represents the optimum density. From this point to the right, flow decreases as the
density increases.
o At jam density (kj), the flow is almost zero; traffic is coming to a halt, and lanes appear
like a parking lot.

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 (Image credit: Mannering & Washburn)

• Expressions for qcap, kcap and ucap are obtained by differentiating Equation 3. At maximum
flow, the differential is equal to zero.
dq 2k
= uf �1 − � = 0
dk kj
kj
k cap = (4)
2
Substituting Equation 4 into Equation 1 gives:
k cap
ucap = uf �1 − �
2k cap

uf
ucap = (5)
2

Equation 5 indicates that speed at maximum flow is half of the free flow speed.

Substituting Equations 4 and 5 in Equation 2:

uf kj
qcap = ucap k cap = � �∗� �
2 2

uf k j
qcap = (6)
4
• The slope of a straight line drawn from the origin through any point on the curve gives the
space mean speed. For instance, the line with the slope of vf corresponds to the mean free
flow speed, and it is tangential to the curve. This speed is possible when the density is near
zero. The line with the slope vo (or ucap) corresponds to the speed at capacity, and it passes
through the highest point of the curve.

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 (Image credit: Mannering & Washburn)

Speed-Flow Relationship
The following equation (Equation 7) can be obtained by re-arranging the terms in Equation 1.
u
k = k f �1 − � (7)
uf

Substituting Equation 7 into Equation 2 produces Equation 8, below:

u2
q = k j �u − � (8)
uf

Equation 8 is a parabolic curve, as shown below:

• Two speeds are possible for flows, q, up to the roadway capacity, qcap
• For any given flow, it is preferable to keep the average speed on the upper portion of the
speed-flow curve (above qcap). Speeds below ucap indicates traffic is in a congested condition.

(Image credit: Mannering & Washburn)

• Straight lines drawn from the origin to any point on the curve have slopes whose inverse is
equal to the density.
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 (Image credit: Mannering & Washburn)

Speed-Flow-Density Relationship
The relationships between speed, flow and density are represented in the figures below:

(Image credit: Mannering & Washburn)

Explanation:
• At Point A, density is close to zero, and there are only a very few vehicles on the road; the
volume is also close to zero and these few vehicles can choose their individual speeds or
change lanes with no restriction.
• At Point B, the number of vehicles has increased but the conditions are free flow, and there
are hardly any restrictions.
• From B and C the flow conditions are “normal”, but as density increases drivers experience
significant lack of freedom to maneuver to the speed and lane of their choice.
• Point C experiences maximum volume, and further increases in density reduce speeds
considerably. Such behavior is called forced flow and prevails from C almost to Point D.
• Point D is known as jam density. Flow is reduced almost to zero, with vehicles stacking up
almost bumper to bumper.
• Excellent driving conditions prevail from A to B, moderately good conditions from B to C,
but increasingly deteriorating conditions from C to D.

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Example Calculations on Speed-Flow-Density Relationships
Example 1: A roadway section has a free flow speed of 90km/hr and a capacity of 3600 veh/hr.
In a certain hour, 2500 vehicles were counted at a certain point on this roadway section.
Assuming a linear speed-density relationship, estimate the SMS of these 2500 vehicles.
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate the jam density from Equation 6:
uf k j
qcap = (6)
4
4qcap 4 ∗ 3600
kj = = = 160veh/km
uf 90
Step 2: Calculate the SMS (u) from Equation 8

u2
q = k j �u − � (8)
uf

u2
2500 = 160 �u − �
90

The space mean speed = 20km/hr or 70km/hr.

Example 2: Data obtained from aerial photography showed six vehicles on a 210 m-long
roadway section. Traffic data collected at the same time indicated an average headway of 3.7
sec. Determine the density, flow and SMS.
Solution:
n 6
Density, k = = = 28.6 veh/km
L 0.210km

3600 (sec⁄hr) 3600

Flow, q = = = 973 veh/hr
Avg. headway (sec⁄veh) 3.7
Given that q = uk
q 973
SMS, u = = = 34km/hr
k 28.6

Example 2: The data in the table below were obtained for highway section. Use regression
analysis to fit these data to the Greenshields model and determine the (a) mean free speed, (b)
jam density, (c) flow at capacity and (d) speed at maximum flow.
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 Speed (km/hr) Density (veh/km)
14.2 85
24.1 70
30.3 55
40.1 41
50.6 20
55.0 15

Solution:
Greenshields’ model for speed-density relationship is (recall Equation 1):
k
u = uf �1 − �
kj

𝐮𝐮𝐟𝐟
𝐮𝐮 = 𝐮𝐮𝐟𝐟 − 𝐤𝐤 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰: 𝐲𝐲 = 𝐚𝐚 + 𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛
𝐤𝐤 𝐣𝐣

Where:
u = mean speed, km/hr
uf = Free flow speed, km/hr
k = Density, veh/km
kj = Jam density, veh/km

Use MS Excel to fit a linear regression equation to the data to determine the constants uf and kj.
Step 1: Enter the speed and density data in Excel: speed in Column A and density in Column B.
Step 2: Select Data Analysis from the Data menu, select Regression, click OK

Step 3: Select the speed data for the Input Y Range and the density data for the Input X Range.
Click OK

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Step 4: A Summary Output for the regression analysis is placed in the next sheet. Under the
Coefficients column, the intercept (which is constant a = uf) in the fitted regression equation is
62.8127 and the X Variable 1 (which is the constant b = uf/kj) is –0.56845.

Therefore, the fitted Greenshields model is:

𝐮𝐮 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
(a) Mean free speed, uf = 62.8km/hr
(b) Jam density, kj
From the fitted Greenshields model, the slope of the straight line curve is:
uf
= 0.5685
kj
62.8127
= 0.5685
kj

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Jam density, kj = 110.5 veh/km
(c) Capacity, qcap. Capacity occurs at maximum flow.
From q = uk
But u = 62.8127 − 0.5685k
q = (62.8127 − 0.5685k)k
q = 62.8127k − 0.5685k 2
Differentiate q w.r.t. k, set equal to zero and solve for k to obtain the maximum density, kcap.
0 = 62.8127 – 1.137k
Density at kcap = 55.25 veh/km
Flow at capacity, qmax = 62.8127(55.25) – 0.5684(55.25)2 = 1735 veh/hr

(d) Speed at maximum flow, ucap:

𝐮𝐮 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
u = 62.8127 − 0.5685(55.25) = 31.4km/hr

Exercise 1: A traffic stream has capacity flow of 2200 veh/hr and jam density of 125 veh/km. If
the traffic stream is modeled using Greenshields’ model, determine the (a) free flow speed, (b)
optimum density, and (c) optimum speed [Ans: (a) 70.4 km/ℎ; (b) 35.2 km/ℎ; (c) 62.5 veh/km).
Exercise 2: A traffic engineer has the following speed-density data for a roadway section. Use
regression analysis to fit these data to the Greenshields model and estimate the (a) mean free
speed, (b) jam density, (c) maximum flow and the corresponding density. What are the average
headway and spacing when k = 50 veh/km?

Speed (km/hr) 60 52 41 34 22
Density (veh/km) 11 43 60 80 103

Lane Occupancy
• Occupancy is the percent of time that a roadway section is occupied by a vehicle.
• It is computed as follows:

Sum of lengths of vehicles on roadway section ∑ Li

Occupancy = =� �
Length of roadway section D

• Occupancy is converted to density using the equation:

Occupancy
Density =
Average vehicle length
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• Difference between density and occupancy: density measures vehicle concentration over
space, whilst occupancy measures vehicle concentration over time.
• Density is difficult to measure, and occupancy may be used as a surrogate for density.
• Measurement of occupancy considers the traffic composition and speed; hence, occupancy is
more meaningful than density.

Example: Four vehicles have lengths of 5.0, 6.0, 6.5 and 7.0m and are distributed over a 150-m
roadway section. Estimate the lane occupancy and density.
5 + 6 + 6.5 + 7
Lane Occupancy = = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
150

5 + 6 + 6.5 + 7
Avg. vehicle length = � � = 6.125m = 0.006125km
4

0.163
Density = = 26.6 veh/km = ~26 veh/km
0.006125

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