‭Photosynthesis:‬

‭●‬ D ‭ efinition:‬‭Photosynthesis is the process by which‬‭plants synthesize carbohydrates (e.g., glucose) from raw‬
‭materials using energy from light.‬
‭●‬ ‭6CO2+6H2O-------------Light, Chlorophyll------------->C6H12O6+6O2‬
‭ lants' Need for Food:‬
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● ‭ iving organisms require food for both raw materials and energy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Plants also need energy and raw materials, but they primarily use the air, water, and soil salts to create‬
‭carbohydrates like glucose.‬
‭●‬ ‭Photosynthesis is the process responsible for converting these raw materials into food using sunlight energy.‬
‭ rocess of Photosynthesis:‬
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● ‭ hotosynthesis mainly occurs in the cells of leaves.‬
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‭●‬ ‭Water is absorbed from the soil by the roots and transported to the leaves through the xylem.‬
‭●‬ ‭Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the air through stomata in the leaves.‬
‭●‬ ‭In leaf cells, carbon dioxide and water combine to form sugar, using energy from absorbed sunlight.‬
‭●‬ ‭Chlorophyll, a green pigment in chloroplasts, absorbs light energy and facilitates the splitting of water‬
‭molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.‬
‭●‬ ‭Hydrogen molecules then combine with carbon dioxide to produce sugar.‬
‭●‬ ‭Photosynthesis is essentially the conversion of light energy into chemical energy in the form of‬
‭carbohydrates.‬
‭ tilization of Photosynthetic Products:‬
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‭ ‬ ‭Glucose produced during photosynthesis is quickly converted to sucrose for transport.‬
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‭●‬ ‭Sugar not needed for respiration is turned into starch for storage or converted into other molecules.‬
‭●‬ ‭Starch is relatively insoluble and does not affect cell osmotic balance.‬
‭●‬ ‭Some plants store starch in stems or roots, while others have specialized storage organs.‬
‭●‬ ‭Sucrose, a soluble form of sugar, is transported through the phloem to all plant parts.‬
‭●‬ ‭It is used in various ways, including growth in buds, fruit ripening, and underground storage organs.‬
‭●‬ ‭Plant cell walls are made of cellulose, a long-chain glucose molecule.‬
‭ espiration:‬
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● ‭ he sugar from photosynthesis can be used for energy through respiration.‬
‭●‬ ‭Respiration oxidizes glucose, producing carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy used for other chemical‬
‭reactions.‬
‭ ectar:‬
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‭ ‬ ‭Nectar in flowers contains a mixture of sugars, including glucose, fructose, and sucrose.‬
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‭●‬ ‭Insect-pollinated plants produce and store nectar to attract insects for pollination.‬
‭Mineral Requirements:‬
‭ ‬ ‭Plants need nitrate ions (NO3–) to make amino acids, which are used to produce proteins and enzymes.‬
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‭●‬ ‭Nitrates are absorbed from the soil by the roots.‬
‭●‬ ‭Plants require magnesium ions (Mg2+) for chlorophyll production, which is essential for photosynthesis.‬
‭●‬ ‭Magnesium is obtained from salts in the soil.‬
‭Effects of Mineral Deficiency:‬
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● ‭ itrates and magnesium ions are essential mineral elements, and their deficiency can affect plant growth.‬
‭●‬ ‭Deficiency symptoms vary among plant species.‬
‭●‬ ‭Nitrate deficiency results in stunted growth, weak stems, yellowing and dying lower leaves, and pale green‬
‭upper leaves.‬
‭●‬ ‭Magnesium deficiency causes chlorosis, making leaves turn yellow from the bottom upward.‬
‭ ources of Mineral Elements:‬
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‭ ‬ ‭Plants obtain mineral elements from the soil by absorbing ions from salts.‬
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‭●‬ ‭Salts, like potassium nitrate (KNO3), provide elements like potassium (K) and nitrogen (N).‬
‭●‬ ‭These salts originate from the breakdown of rocks into soil.‬
‭●‬ ‭Decaying plants and animals release minerals back into the soil, completing nutrient cycles.‬
‭Artificial Supplementation:‬
‭●‬ ‭In arable farming, nutrients are often depleted because crops are harvested and removed.‬
 ‭●‬ T ‭ o replace missing minerals, farmers use methods like spreading animal manure, sewage sludge, or artificial‬
‭fertilizers.‬
‭●‬ ‭Common fertilizers include ammonium nitrate, superphosphate, and compound NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus,‬
‭potassium).‬
‭ ater Cultures:‬
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● ‭ ater culture solutions can demonstrate the importance of mineral elements.‬
‭●‬ ‭A complete water culture contains salts providing all necessary elements for healthy plant growth.‬
‭●‬ ‭It includes potassium nitrate, magnesium sulfate, potassium phosphate, calcium nitrate, as well as carbon‬
‭dioxide, water, and sunlight.‬
‭●‬ ‭Hydroponics, or soil-less culture, is used in some horticulture practices, like growing plants in glasshouses.‬
‭ ontrolled Experiments:‬
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‭●‬ C ‭ ontrolled experiments involve setting up a control to ensure that results are due to the conditions being‬
‭studied and not other factors.‬
‭●‬ ‭Only one variable should be altered at a time to make valid comparisons.‬
‭●‬ ‭Hypotheses attempt to explain observations, and controlled experiments aim to test these hypotheses.‬
‭ estarching a Plant:‬
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‭ ‬ ‭Testing for starch helps determine if photosynthesis is taking place.‬
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‭●‬ ‭To start, plants must be destarched by leaving them in darkness to convert starch to sugar.‬
‭●‬ ‭An iodine solution turns blue when mixed with starch, providing a test for starch presence.‬
‭Experiments to Investigate Photosynthesis:‬
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● ‭ everal experiments test the conditions required for photosynthesis.‬
‭●‬ ‭These experiments investigate the role of chlorophyll, light, carbon dioxide, and oxygen production in‬
‭photosynthesis.‬
‭●‬ ‭Results and interpretations provide insights into how plants use photosynthesis to produce energy.‬
‭ aseous Exchange in Plants:‬
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‭●‬ P ‭ lants exchange gases with the environment, taking in carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen during‬
‭photosynthesis.‬
‭●‬ ‭During respiration, plants consume oxygen and produce carbon dioxide.‬
‭ imiting Factors in Photosynthesis:‬
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‭●‬ T ‭ he rate of photosynthesis can be limited by external factors, such as light intensity, temperature, or carbon‬
‭dioxide concentration.‬
‭●‬ ‭Plants optimize photosynthesis when these factors are balanced.‬
‭●‬ ‭Glasshouses, polytunnels, and artificial supplements are used to maximize crop yields.‬
‭ xperiments‬
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‭1. Effect of Changing Light Intensity on Photosynthesis:‬
‭●‬ E ‭ xperiment‬‭: In this experiment, the rate of photosynthesis‬‭is measured by counting the number of oxygen‬
‭bubbles released by a pond plant (e.g., Canadian pondweed) under varying light intensities.‬
‭●‬ ‭Results‬‭: The rate of bubbling (indicating oxygen production)‬‭increases with higher light intensity. The‬
‭experiment demonstrates that photosynthesis is dependent on light availability.‬
‭●‬ ‭Interpretation‬‭: Photosynthesis relies on light energy.‬‭As the light intensity increases, more light energy is‬
‭absorbed, leading to faster photosynthesis.‬
‭2. Effect of Changing Carbon Dioxide Concentration on Photosynthesis:‬
‭●‬ E ‭ xperiment‬‭: This experiment investigates how changing‬‭the carbon dioxide concentration affects the rate of‬
‭photosynthesis in pondweed.‬
‭●‬ ‭Results‬‭: As the concentration of sodium hydrogencarbonate‬‭(a source of carbon dioxide) solution increases,‬
‭the distance traveled by the meniscus (a marker indicating oxygen production) also increases.‬
‭●‬ ‭Interpretation‬‭: Carbon dioxide is a crucial raw material‬‭for photosynthesis. Increasing its concentration‬
‭enhances the rate of photosynthesis since it's readily available for the process.‬
‭3. Effect of Changing Temperature on Photosynthesis:‬
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‭ xperiment‬‭: This experiment, similar to experiment‬‭6, measures the rate of photosynthesis. However,‬
‭instead of varying light intensity, it focuses on changing the water temperature to understand the impact on‬
‭photosynthesis.‬
 ‭●‬ I‭nterpretation‬‭: Temperature plays a role in photosynthesis. Within a certain temperature range, higher‬
‭temperatures can increase the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in photosynthesis. However, extreme‬
‭temperatures can denature enzymes, leading to a decline in photosynthesis rate.‬
‭Overall, these experiments illustrate that photosynthesis is a complex process influenced by external factors such as‬
‭light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature. These factors can limit the rate of photosynthesis, and‬
‭optimizing these conditions can potentially increase plant growth and crop yield, which is vital for agriculture and‬
‭horticulture. Understanding these factors and how they interact with photosynthesis is crucial in plant science and‬
‭crop management.‬
‭Main Structures in a Leaf:‬
‭●‬ E ‭ pidermis:‬‭A single layer of cells on the upper and‬‭lower surfaces, covered by a waxy cuticle to reduce‬
‭water loss.‬
‭●‬ ‭Stomata and Guard Cells:‬‭Structures in the epidermis‬‭that control gas exchange (carbon dioxide in, oxygen‬
‭out).‬
‭●‬ ‭Mesophyll:‬‭The main photosynthetic tissue with two‬‭regions: palisade mesophyll (more chloroplasts) and‬
‭spongy mesophyll.‬
‭●‬ ‭Vascular Bundles (Veins):‬‭Network of veins made of‬‭xylem (carries water and salts) and phloem (carries‬
‭sugars and amino acids).‬
‭●‬ ‭Distribution of Chloroplasts:‬‭More chloroplasts in‬‭the upper (palisade) cells, as they receive more sunlight.‬
‭●‬ ‭Stomatal Opening:‬‭Controlled by changes in guard cell‬‭shape and potassium concentration.‬
‭ daptation of Leaves for Photosynthesis:‬
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● ‭ road, flat shape to increase the surface area for sunlight and carbon dioxide absorption.‬
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‭●‬ ‭Thin structure, allowing carbon dioxide to diffuse short distances to reach inner cells.‬
‭●‬ ‭Epidermis and cuticle reduce water loss and protect against pathogens.‬
‭●‬ ‭Mesophyll cells with chloroplasts perform photosynthesis, and their structure promotes efficient gas‬
‭exchange.‬