Materials Science and Engineering
Materials Science – investigating relationships
that exist between the structure and properties of
materials.
Materials Engineering – is, on the basis of these
structure-property correlations, designing or
engineering the structure of a material to produce
a pre-determined set of properties
Materials in day to day life
Materials: The Milestones of Progress
• Development and advancement of Human societies-
closely related with materials
• Civilizations have been named based on the level of their
materials development – Stone age, Bronze age e Quest for newer
materials:
The driving force for the progress- stone age to modern
age
Quest for more advanced materials to meet the growing
needs as the civilization progressed.
Stone age
300,000 BC Stone age – People living in caves and hunting
with stone-made weapons
200,000 BC Discovery of fire – Said to be the most significant
discovery in human civilization. However, till the time the fire was
controlled to contain and utilize the heat, it was not significant.
Containing the fire – Was not possible without
materials. Started with clay (a ceramic material) pots
and now we have all kinds of means to control and contain fire.
Introduction of metals
5500 BC First metals to be discovered – Copper and Gold
5000 BC Material processing - Annealing and Shaping. Throwing
copper into camp fire and hammering in early days
4000 BC Melting and casting of metals. Melting of Gold to give
it different shapes
3500 BC Reduction of copper from its ore – Nile Valley The
dawn of metallurgy. Perhaps discovered by chance much before by
early Potters
Discovery of Alloy - Metal Combinations
3000 BC The discovery of alloy – combination of metals
Mixing of Tin with Copper – Bronze
Copper ore invariably contains some Tin – Mixing of
different ores having different Tin content produced
the first Bronzes.
Iron and Steel – Building blocks of human civilization
1450 BC Iron wheels – discovery of iron making. Revolution in
warfare and cultivation
1500 AD Invention of Blast furnace – Production of pig iron
from ores
1855 AD Sir Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) Bessemer steel
making patent
20th Century Many other steel making processes
Early 20th Century – The goldenera
1886 AD Hall process- Electrochemical process for extraction
of Aluminium from Alumina (Al2O3) 1890 - 1910 AD
1890-1910 AD Revolution in Transportation –
Discovery of automobiles and Aeroplane
1939 Process for making Nylon –
Introduction of plastics
The Electronic Revolution
Zone refining – A metallurgical process to produce ultra pure Si
1960’S Ultra pure Si through zone refining – Si
chip, the heart of electronics. Smaller and
smaller Si wafers - Miniaturization
Superconductors
High temperature ceramic MRI Machine, Brain Scan –
superconductors Advancement in Medical
science
Magnetic Levitation: Maglevtrain :– 300 – 500 kmph
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Correlations
• Structure of a material usually relates to the
arrangement of its internal components which can be
further classified into four categories described in the next
section.
• A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and
magnitude of response to a specific imposed stimulus.
Structure
•Macroscopic – viewable with the un-aided eye
•Microscopic – groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated
together
•Atomic – organization of atoms or molecules
•Sub atomic – electrons and nuclei (protons and neutrons)
In addition to structure and properties, two other important
components are involved in the science and engineering of
materials – namely, processing and performance. With regard to
the relationships of these four components, the structure of a
material will depend on how it is processed. Furthermore, a
materials performance will be a function of its properties.
The 4 components of the discipline of materials science and
engineering and their interrelationship
Processing
Structure
Properties
Performance
Classification of Materials
1.) Metals
Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic
elements and often also nonmetallic elements. Atoms in metals
and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner, and in
comparison to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense.
2.) Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic
elements; they are most frequently oxides, nitrides and carbides.
For example, common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide,
silicone dioxide, silicon carbide, etc. Ceramic materials are more
resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than
metals and polymers.
3.) Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials.
Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based
on carbon, hydrogen and other nonmetallic elements. These
materials typically have low densities, whereas their mechanical
characteristics are generally dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic
materials – they are not as stiff nor as strong as these other
material types.
4.) Composites
A composite is composed of two or more materials, which come
from metals, ceramics and polymers. The design goal of a
composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not
displayed by any single material, and also to incorporate the best
characteristics of each of the component materials.
5.) Advanced Materials
Materials that are utilized in high-technology applications are
termed as advanced materials. These materials are typically
traditional materials whose properties have been enhanced, and
also newly developed, high-performance materials.
These type of materials is further classified into four kinds, namely,
semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials and nanomaterials.
a) Semiconductors
Have electrical properties that are intermediate between the
electrical conductors (metals and alloys) and insulators (ceramics
and polymers)
b) Biomaterials
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the
human body to replace diseased or damaged body parts.
c) Smart Materials
The adjective “smart” implies that these materials are able to
sense changes in their environment and then respond to these
changes in predetermined manners.
d) Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials may be one of the four basic materials, however,
unlike those other materials, they are not distinguished on the
basis of their chemistry, but rather, size.
Summary:
• One aspect of materials science is the investigation of
relationships that exist between the structures and properties of
materials. By structure we mean how some internal
component(s) of the materials is (are) arranged. In terms of (and
with increasing) dimensionality, structural elements include
subatomic, atomic microscopic, and macroscopic.
• On the basis of chemistry and atomic structure, materials are
classified into three general categories: metals (metallic elements),
ceramics (compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements),
and polymers (compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
other nonmetallic elements.) In addition, composites are
composed of at least two different material types.
• Another materials category is the advanced materials that are
used in high-tech applications. These include semiconductors
(having electrical conductivities intermediate between conductors
and insulators), (which must be compatible with body tissues),
smart materials (those that sense and respond to changes in their
environments in predetermined manners), and nanomaterials
(those that have structural features on the order of a nanometer,
some of which may be designed on the atomic/molecular level)
CHAPTER 2- ATOMIC STRUCTURE & INTER-ATOMIC BONDING
Both the composition and the structure of a material have a
profound influence on its properties and behavior.
The structure of materials at five different levels:
1. macrostructure;
2. microstructure;
3. nanostructure;
4. short- and long-range atomic arrangements
5. atomic structure
1. Microstructure - a length-scale of ~10 to
1000 nm
Length-scale is a characteristic length or range of
dimensions over which we are describing the properties of
a material or the phenomena occurring in materials.
Microstructure features - average grain size, grain size distribution,
grain shape, grain orientation, and other features related to defects
in materials
Grain is a small crystal of the material
2. Macrostructure - macroscopic level where the length scale is
~>100,000 nm
Macrostructure features - porosity, surface coatings, and such
features as internal or external micro-cracks
Atomic structure includes all atoms and their arrangements, which
constitute the building blocks of matter. It is from these building
blocks that all the nano, micro, and macrolevels of structures
emerge.
Atomic Arrangement
1. Amorphous - short-range atomic arrangements
2. Crystalline - long-range arrangements
Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) – e.g. small
accelerometer sensor obtained by the micromachining of silicon
3. Nanostructure - (i.e., the structure and properties of
materials at a nano-scale or @length-scale 1–100 nm
The term ‘‘nanotechnology’’ is used to describe a set of
technologies that are based on physical, chemical, and biological
phenomena occuring at a nano-scale.
The Structure of the Atom
Atom - composed of a nucleus surrounded by electrons
Nucleus - contains neutrons and positively charged protons and
carries a net positive charge
The negatively charged electrons are held around the nucleus by an
electrostatic attraction.
Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of electrons
or protons in each atom
The mass of each proton and neutron is 1.67 x 10^-24 g, but the
mass of each electron is only 9.11 x 10^-28 g.
Atomic mass M, which is equal to the average number of protons
and neutrons in the atom, is also the mass in grams of the
Avogadro number NA of atoms.
Atomic mass unit, or amu,- An alternate unit for atomic mass
which is 1/12 the mass of carbon 12.
Atomic Structure – ex. Diamond
Atomic Arrangements: Long-Range Order (LRO) – ex. Lead-
zirconium-titanate [Pb(ZrxTi1-x )O3 ] or PZT
Atomic Arrangements: Short-Range Order (SRO) – ex. Ions in silica-
based (SiO2 )
Nanostructure – ex. Nano-sized particles (@5–10 nm) of iron oxide
are used in ferrofluids or liquid magnets
Microstructure – ex. The mechanical strength of many metals and
alloys depends very strongly on the grain size
Macrostructure – ex. Relatively thick coatings, such as paints on
automobiles and other applications, are used not only for
aesthetics, but also to provide corrosion resistance
The Electronic Structure of the Atom
Quantum Numbers - numbers in an atom that assign electrons to
discrete energy levels.
4 Quantum Numbers:
Principal quantum number n
Azimuthal quantum number l - describe the energy levels in each
quantum shell
Magnetic quantum number ml
Spin quantum number ms - is assigned values +1/2 and -1/2 and
reflects the different electron spins.
Valence - number of electrons in an atom that participate in
bonding or chemical reactions
Electronegativity - describes the tendency of an atom to gain an
electron
Periodic Table - contains valuable information about specific
elements, and can also help identify trends in atomic size, melting
point, chemical reactivity, and other properties.
Atomic Bonding
1. metallic bond - The metallic elements have more electropositive
atoms that donate their valence electrons to form a ‘‘sea’’ of
electrons surrounding the atoms. E.g. Aluminum
Ductility refers to the ability of materials to be stretched or bent
without breaking
2. covalent bond - Materials with covalent bonding are
characterized by bonds that are formed by sharing of valence
electrons among two or more atoms. E.g. Silicon Atom
A directional relationship is formed when the bonds between
atoms in a covalently bonded material form specific angles,
depending on the material
3. ionic bond - When more than one type of atoms are present in a
material, one atom may donate its valence electrons to a different
atom, filling the outer energy shell of the second atom. The
oppositely charged ions are then attracted to one another and
produce the ionic bond.
The electrostatic attraction between these oppositely charged ions
holds them together in a crystalline structure. The oppositely
charged ions are then attracted to one another and produce the
ionic bond
Cation - The atom that contributes the electrons is left with a net
positive charge
Anion - atom that accepts the electrons acquires a net negative
charge
4. van der Waals bond - Secondary bonds, or van der Waals
(physical) bonds, are weak in comparison to the primary or
chemical bonds; bonding energies range between about 4 and 30
kJ/mol. Secondary bonding exists between virtually all atoms or
molecules, but its presence may be obscured if any of the three
primary bonding types is present.
Polar molecules - It exists by virtue of the direction of bonds and
the nature of atoms
3 types of van der Waals interactions
London forces - If the interactions are between two dipoles that
are induced in atoms or molecules (e.g., carbon tetrachloride)
Keesom forces - When an induced dipole (that is, a dipole that is
induced in what is otherwise a non-polar atom or molecule)
interacts with a molecule that has a permanent dipole moment,
Debye forces - If the interactions are between molecules that are
permanently polarized (e.g., water molecules attracting other
water molecules or other polar molecules)
Hydrogen Bond - The bonding between molecules that have a
permanent dipole moment, known as the Keesom force
Mixed Bonding - In most materials, bonding between atoms is a
mixture of two or more types
Compounds formed from two or more metals (intermetallic
compounds)
First three of bonds are relatively strong and are known as primary
bonds. The van der Waals bonds are secondary bonds
Binding Energy and Interatomic Spacing
Interatomic Spacing - The equilibrium distance between atoms
results from a balance between repulsive and attractive forces.
Binding energy - or the energy required to create or break the
bond
Modulus of elasticity of a material (the slope of the stress-strain
curve in the elastic region (E), also known as Young’s modulus) is
related to the slope of the force-distance curve
Yield Strength - a level of stress at which the material begins to
deform easily with increasing stress
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) - describes how much a
material expands or contracts when its temperature is changed.
Atomic Bonding in Solids
3 different types of primary or chemical bond are found in solids
Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic
Ionic bonding - is perhaps the easiest to describe and visualize. It is
always found in compounds composed of both metallic and
nonmetallic elements, elements situated at the horizontal
extremities of the periodic table.
Coulombic - that is, positive and negative ions, by virtue of their
net electrical charge, attract one another
Ionic bonding is termed nondirectional—that is, the magnitude of
the bond is equal in all directions around an ion.
 • Correlations between bonding type and material class were
Covalent Bonding - is found in materials whose atoms have small noted:
differences in electronegativity—that is, that lie near one another Polymers—covalent
in the periodic table. Metals—metallic
The covalent bond is directional - it is between specific atoms and
Ceramics—ionic/mixed ionic–covalent
may exist only in the direction between one atom and another that
participates in the electron sharing
Molecular solids—van der Waals
Hybridization - —the mixing (or combining) of two or more atomic Semi-metals—mixed covalent–metallic
orbitals with the result that more orbital overlap during bonding Intermetallics—mixed metallic–ionic
results. C h a p t e r 3 The Structure of
Metallic bonding - the final primary bonding type, is found in Crystalline Solids
metals and their alloys Crystalline- is one in which the atoms are situated in a
They may be thought of as belonging to the metal as a whole, or repeating or periodic array over large atomic distances
forming a “sea of electrons” or an “electron cloud.” Crystal Structure - the manner in which atoms, ions, or
Secondary bonds, or van der Waals (physical) bonds, are weak in molecules are spatially arranged.
comparison to the primary or chemical bonds; bonding energies Crystalline solids are defined as a three-dimensional
range between about 4 and 30 kJ/mol. Secondary bonding exists structure consisting of a highly ordered and repeating regular
between virtually all atoms or molecules, but its presence may be
pattern of atoms or molecules, forming a crystal lattice.
obscured if any of the three primary bonding types is present.
Basic Concepts
Secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular dipoles.
1. Unit Cells - Smallest block of 3d space containing a group of
Hydrogen bonding - a special type of secondary bonding, is found
atoms, ions, or molecules
to exist between some molecules that have hydrogen as one of the
Lattice - A three-dimensional framework of points that represents
constituents.
the repeating pattern of the crystal's structure.
Polar molecules - Permanent dipole moments exist in some
Lattice Point - A specific position or location within a crystal lattice
molecules by virtue of an asymmetrical arrangement of positively
structure
and negatively charged regions
Crystal Lattice - The arrangement of unit cells in a crystal
Summary
Coordination Number - Describes the number of nearest neighbors
Electrons In Atoms
or atoms or ions that surround a central atom or ion in a crystal
• The two atomic models are Bohr and wave mechanical. Whereas
lattice or a molecule
the Bohr model assumes electrons to be particles orbiting the
Atomic Packing Factor - Quantifies how efficiently atoms or ions
nucleus in discrete paths, in wave mechanics we consider them to
are packed together in a crystal structure or a solid material.
be wavelike and treat electron position in terms of a probability
APF = (Volume of atoms in unit cell) / (Total volume of unit cell)
distribution.
• The energies of electrons are quantized—that is, only specific
Types of Unit Cells
values of energy are allowed. Simple Cubic - The simple cubic has a coordination number of 6
• The four electron quantum numbers are n, l, ml , and ms. They and contains 1 atom per unit cell
specify, respectively, electron orbital size, orbital shape, number of Body-centered Cubic (BCC) - The body-centered cubic (BCC)
electron orbitals, and spin moment. has a coordination number of 8 and contains 2 atoms per
• According to the Pauli exclusion principle, each electron state can unit cell
accommodate no more than two electrons, which must have Face-centered Cubic (FCC) (Unit Cell) - The face-centered
opposite spins cubic (FCC) has a coordination number of 12 and contains 4
The Periodic Table atoms per unit cell
• Elements in each of the columns (or groups) of the periodic table Closed-Packed Structure
have distinctive electron configurations. For example: Group 0 Refers to a specific arrangement of atoms, ions, or
elements (the inert gases) have filled electron shells. Group IA molecules in a crystalline lattice where the particles are
elements (the alkali metals) have one electron greater than a filled closely packed together to maximize the efficient use of
electron shell space.
Bonding Forces and Energies Types
• Bonding force and bonding energy are related to one another Hexagonal Closed-Packed - The hexagonal closest packed (HCP)
according to Equations 2.5a and 2.5b. has a coordination number of 12 and contains 6 atoms per
• Attractive, repulsive, and net energies for two atoms or ions
unit cell
depend on interatomic
Face-Centered Cubic - The face-centered cubic (FCC) has a
separation per the schematic plot of Figure 2.10b
Primary Interatomic Bonds coordination number of 12 and contains 4 atoms per unit
• For ionic bonds, electrically charged ions are formed by the cell.
transference of valence electrons from one atom type to another. Crystal systems refer to a classification system used in
• There is a sharing of valence electrons between adjacent atoms crystallography to describe the various ways in which atoms
when bonding is covalent. or ions are arranged in three-dimensional space within a
• Electron orbitals for some covalent bonds may overlap or crystal lattice
hybridize. Hybridization of s and p orbitals to form sp3 and sp2 The 14 Distinct Crystal Systems:
orbitals in carbon was discussed. Configurations of these hybrid 1. Cubic Crystal System
orbitals were also noted. Characteristics:
• With metallic bonding, the valence electrons form a “sea of Highest degree of symmetry with three
electrons” that is uniformly dispersed around the metal ion cores equal axes at 90-degree angles.
and acts as a form of glue for them All edges of the unit cell have the same
Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding length.
• Relatively weak van der Waals bonds result from attractive forces Symmetry elements: 4 three-fold axes, 3
between electric dipoles, which may be induced or permanent. four-fold axes, 6 two-fold axes.
• For hydrogen bonding, highly polar molecules form when Real-Life Examples:
hydrogen covalently bonds to a nonmetallic element such as Cubic Crystal System
fluorine Sodium chloride (table salt), diamond, and iron at high
Mixed Bonding temperatures.
• In addition to van der Waals bonding and the three primary 2. Tetragonal Crystal System
bonding types, covalent– ionic, covalent–metallic, and Characteristics:
metallic–ionic mixed bonds exist. Three axes, two of which are equal in length and perpendicular to
• The percent ionic character (%IC) of a bond between two each other.
elements (A and B) depends on their electronegativities (X’s) Third axis is of different length.
Symmetry elements: 1 four-fold axis, 4 two-fold axes.
according to Equation 2.16
Real-Life Examples:
Bonding TypeMaterial Classification Correlations Tetragonal Crystal System
Rutile, zircon, and scheelite. Body-Centered Tetragonal
3. Orthorhombic Crystal System theoretical.
Characteristics: 12. Base-Centered Tetragonal
Three axes of different lengths, all at 90-degree angles. Characteristics:
Rectangular prism unit cell. Variation of the tetragonal system with
Symmetry elements: 3 two-fold axes. lattice points at the base centers.
Real-Life Examples: Symmetry elements: 1 four-fold axis, 4 two-fold axes.
Orthorhombic Crystal System Real-Life Examples:
Sulfur, aragonite, and orthoclase feldspar. None in this specific variation; it's
4. Rhombohedral (Trigonal) Crystal System theoretical.
Characteristics: 13. Body-Centered Orthorhombic
Three axes of equal length, not necessarily at 90-degree angles. Characteristics:
Rhombohedral unit cell. Variation of the orthorhombic system with a lattice point at the
Symmetry elements: 1 three-fold axis, 3 center of the unit cell.
two-fold axes. Symmetry elements: 3 two-fold axes.
Real-Life Examples: Real-Life Examples:
Rhombohedral (Trigonal) None in this specific variation; it's
Calcite and dolomite. Body-Centered Orthorhombic
Crystal System theoretical.
5. Hexagonal Crystal System 14. Face-Centered Orthorhombic
Characteristics: Characteristics:
Four axes, three of which are equal in length and lie in the same Variation of the orthorhombic system with lattice points on the
plane. face centers.
The fourth axis is perpendicular to the Symmetry elements: 3 two-fold axes.
plane. Real-Life Examples:
Symmetry elements: 1 six-fold axis, 6 two-fold axes. None in this specific variation; it's
Hexagonal Crystal System Face-Centered Orthorhombic
Real-Life Examples: theoretical.
Quartz, graphite, and beryllium.
Crystal Systems Vs. Bravais Lattices
Crystal Systems - The external shape and symmetry of the
crystal.
6. Monoclinic Crystal System Bravais Lattices - The internal arrangement of lattice points.
Characteristics: DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS
Three axes of different lengths. • Crystalline material has a crystal structure in which the
One angle is not equal to 90 degrees. atoms are positioned in a perfect ordered pattern which is
Symmetry elements: 1 two-fold axis. repetitive over large atomic distances.
Real-Life Examples: • Defects have a profound impact on the macroscopic
Gypsum, azurite, and orthorhombic sulfur. properties of materials.
Monoclinic
• Sometimes defects are deliberately created to improve
Crystal System
properties of crystals.
7. Triclinic Crystal System
Point Defects are the irregularities or deviations from ideal
Characteristics:
arrangement around a point or an atom in a crystalline substance.
Three axes of different lengths.
Vacancy Defects
None of the angles are 90 degrees.
• Atom missing from an atomic site
Symmetry elements: None.
• Occur due to imperfect packing during crystallization
Real-Life Examples:
• This results in decrease in density of the substance
Microcline feldspar and turquoise.
Triclinic Crystal System • Number of vacancy defects depend on temperature
8. Simple Monoclinic Interstitials Defects
Characteristics: • Addition of an extra atom within crystal structure
Variation of the monoclinic system with • This defects increase the density of the substance
additional lattice points. • Causes atomic distortion
Symmetry elements: 1 two-fold axis. • Vacancy and interstitials are inverse phenomena
Real-Life Examples: Line defects
Some pyroxenes and amphiboles. • Line defects are the irregularities or deviations from ideal
Simple Monoclinic arrangement in entire rows of lattice points.
9. Base-Centered Monoclinic • Interatomic bonds are significantly distorted in the
Characteristics: immediate vicinity of the dislocation line.
Variation of the monoclinic system with • Dislocation affects the mechanical properties
lattice points at the base center. Edge Dislocation
Symmetry elements: 1 two-fold axis. • Positive Dislocation
Real-Life Examples: • Negative Dislocation
Potassium chloride (KCl), potassium Screw Dislocation
Base-Centered Monoclinic The lattice/atomic planes follow helical or spiral along the
bromide (KBr). dislocation line
10. Face-Centered Monoclinic How Do Crystal Defects Affect
Characteristics: Material Properties?
Variation of the monoclinic system with Crystal Defects control and affect a lot of properties of materials.
lattice points on the face centers. Electric and thermal conductivity in metals can be strongly reduced
Symmetry elements: 1 two-fold axis. by point defects whereas electric conductivity in semiconductors
Real-Life Examples: can be controlled by substitution defects. Ionic conductivity means
Lead iodide (PbI2). vacancy defects can control the movement of ions.
11. Body-Centered Tetragonal Crystalline vs Amorphous
Characteristics: Crystalline - Regular atomic arrangement (three dimensional
Variation of the tetragonal system with a lattice point at the center repeating pattern "crystal lattice")
of the unit cell. Non-Crystalline (also known as amorphous meaning "without
Symmetry elements: 1 four-fold axis, 4 two-fold axes. form") - Irregular atomic arrangement
Real-Life Examples: Example of Crystalline Materials
None in this specific variation; it's
Metals
• Gold FCC
Uses: For Jewelry, Electronics, and Dentistry
• Iron BCC
Uses: For Construction, Appliances, Vehicle and Medical
• Titanium HCP
Uses: For Aircraft, Spacecraft, Armor plating, Missiles, and
for Dental implants.
Example of Crystalline Materials
Minerals
• Diamond - Cubic
Uses: For Jewelry, Industrial (e.g Cutting, Drilling,
Polishing), and Medical
• Quartz - Trigonal
Uses: For Jewelry, Glass-making, and Electronics
• Apatite - Hexagonal
Uses: For Jewelry, Fertilizer, Pharmaceuticals, and
Explosives
• Axinite - Triclinic
Uses: For Jewelry, and Medical
• Gypsum - Monoclinic
Uses: For Construction, Fertilizer and Pharmaceuticals
• Sulfur - Orthorhombic
Uses: For Fertilizer, Car batteries, Oil refining, Mineral
extraction and Gun powder
• Zircon - Tetragonal
Uses: For foundry (casting metals)
Example of Non-crystalline Materials
• Glass (bottles, windows, TV screen, etc)
Uses: For Food Container, Tableware, Housing, Buildings,
Medical equipment, Automotive,
Transportation, Appliances, and Electronics
Properties: Transparent, Hard, Brittle, Good electrical
insulator
• Rubber (car tires, medical gloves, toys, etc)
Uses: For Medical equipment, Clothes, Automotive,
Transportation
Properties: Flexible, Elastic, Durable, Resistant to heat,
light and chemicals, Heat and Electrical insulator
• Plastic (plastic bottles, cups, etc.)
Uses: For Containers, Packaging, Furniture, and
Decorations)
Properties: Light, Flexible, Durable, Good insulator
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
Stress strain behavior
The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the
magnitude of an imposed stress.
This is known as Hooke’s law, and the constant of proportionality E
(GPa or psi)6 is the modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus.
Elastic Deformation
Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional
It is none permanent.
It is time dependent
This dependent elastic behavior is known as ANELASTICITY
Elongation (Elastic) Computation
Elongation is calculated by dividing the deformation (increase
in length) of a sample by the sample ' s initial length and
multiplying the result by 100 (to convert to a percentage).
Hooke’s law— relationship between engineering stress and
engineering strain for elastic deformation (tension and
compression)
Elastic deformation is nonpermanent
A parameter termed Poisson’s ratio 𝜈 is defined as the ratio
of the lateral and axial strains
It is therefore desirable to know the stress level at which
plastic deformation begins, yielding or where the
phenomenon of yielding occurs.
Proportional limit - For metals that experience this gradual
elastic–plastic transition, the point of yielding may be
determined as the initial departure from linearity of the
stress–strain curve
Yield strength - The stress corresponding to the intersection
of this line and the stress–strain curve as it bends over in the
plastic region
yield point phenomenon - The elastic–plastic transition is
very well defined and occurs abruptly
tensile strength - stress at the maximum on the engineering
stress–strain curve
necking - a small constriction or neck begins to form at some
point, and all subsequent deformation is confined at this
neck
Ductility is another important mechanical property. It is a
measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been
sustained at fracture. A metal that experiences very little or
no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle.
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy
when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to
have this energy recovered.
Toughness is a mechanical term that may be used in several
contexts. For one, toughness (or more specifically, fracture
toughness) is a property that is indicative of a material’s
resistance to fracture when a crack (or other stress-
concentrating defect) is present
True stress 𝜎T is defined as the load F divided by the
instantaneous cross-sectional area Ai over which
deformation is occurring (i.e., the neck, past the tensile
point)
hardness, which is a measure of a material’s resistance to
localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent or a scratch).
Rockwell Hardness Tests
The Rockwell tests constitute the most common method
used to measure hardness because they are so simple to
perform and require no special skills
Brinell Hardness Tests
In Brinell tests, as in Rockwell measurements, a hard,
spherical indenter is forced into the surface of the metal to
be tested.
Knoop and Vickers Microindentation Hardness Tests
Two other hardness-testing techniques are the Knoop
(pronounced nup) and Vickers tests (sometimes also called
diamond pyramid)
ELASTIC RECOVERY AFTER PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Upon release of the load during the course of a stress– strain
test, some fraction of the total deformation is recovered as
elastic strain. During the unloading cycle, the curve traces a
near straight-line path from the point of unloading (point D),
and its slope is virtually identical to the modulus of elasticity,
or parallel to the initial elastic portion of the curve. The
magnitude of this elastic strain, which is regained during
unloading
The process by which plastic deformation is produced by
dislocation motion is termed slip
The number of dislocations, or dislocation density in a
material, is expressed as the total dislocation length per unit
volume or, equivalently, the number of dislocations that
intersect a unit area of a random section.
As a consequence, there are regions in which compressive,
tensile, and shear lattice strains are imposed on the
neighboring atoms.
This combination of the slip plane and the slip direction is
termed the slip system
Resolved shear stress - perpendicular alignments to the
stress direction
critical resolved shear stress - slip in a single crystal
commences on the most favorably oriented slip system when
the resolved shear stress reaches some critical value
Yield strength of a single crystal — dependence on the
critical resolved shear stress and the orientation of the most
favorably oriented slip system
Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers
(Mechanical Behaviour of Polymers/Polymer Types)
CHAIN ARCHITECTURE
LINEAR >> BRANCHING >> CROSSLINKS >> GRAFTED
MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
APPLICATIONS
1. PACKAGING
2. MEDICAL DEVICES
3. CONSUMER GOODS
4. CONSTRUCTIONS
5. AUTOMOTIVE
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES
TEXTILES
ADHESIVES
POLYMERS ON RESEARCH
NANOCOMPOSITES
SMART MATERIALS
BIO-BASED POLYMERS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THERMOPLASTICS
Thermoplastics are polymers that can be softened through
heating before being processed and then left to cool and
harden. Once cooled, they show no changes in chemical
properties, meaning they can be remelted and re-used
several times
Elastic deformation in thermoplastics is the result of two
mechanisms. An applied stress causes the covalent \ bonds
within the chain to stretch and distort, allowing the chains to
elongate elastically. When the stress is removed, recovery
from this distortion is almost instantaneous.
PLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF AMORPHOUS THERMOPLASTICS
These polymers deform plastically when the stress exceeds
the yield strength
CREEP AND STRESS RELAXATION
IN A SIMPLE MODEL, THE RATE AT WHICH STRESS
RELAXATION OCCURS IS RELATED TO THE RELAXATION TIME
L, WHICH IS CONSIDERED A PROPERTY OF THE POLYMER
(MORE COMPLEX MODELS CONSIDER A DISTRIBUTION OF
RELAXATION TIMES). THE STRESS AFTER TIME T IS GIVEN BY
WHERE “LOWER CASE Σ” IS THE ORIGINAL STRESS. THE
RELAXATION TIME, IN TURN, DEPENDS ON THE VISCOSITY
AND, THUS, THE TEMPERATURE:
WHERE “LOWER CASE Σ” IS A CONSTANT AND Q IS THE
ACTIVATION ENERGY RELATED TO THE EASE WITH WHICH
POLYMER CHAINS SLIDE PAST EACH OTHER. STRESS
RELAXATION OCCURS MORE RAPIDLY AT HIGHER
TEMPERATURES AND FOR POLYMERS WITH A LOW
VISCOSITY. THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLE SHOWS HOW STRESS
RELAXATION CAN BE ACCOUNTED FOR WHILE DESIGNING
WITH POLYMERS.
TOUGHNESS THE ABILITY OF A POLYMER TO EXHIBIT PLASTIC
DEFORMATION AND RESISTANCE TO AN IMPACT LOAD
WITHOUT FAILURE, IS A VERY DESIRABLE PROPERTY OF A
MATERIAL OR PRODUCT
IMPACT BEHAVIOR - THE IMPACT PROPERTIES OF THE
POLYMERIC MATERIALS ARE DIRECTLY RELATED TO THE
OVERALL TOUGHNESS OF THE MATERIAL.
DEFORMATION OF CRYSTALLINE POLYMERS- AT A
MICROSCOPIC LEVEL, DEFORMATION IN POLYMERS
INVOLVES STRETCHING AND ROTATING OF MOLECULAR
BONDS.
ELASTOMERS
CRAZING - CRAZING IS AN UNDERLYING MODE OF POLYMER
Geometric
FRACTURE AND HAS BEEN WIDELY STUDIED
Isoprene or natural
BLUSHING - BLUSHING TAKES PLACE WHEN MOISTURE GOES
In the transform of isoprene, the
THROUGH CONDENSATION ON A COATED SURFACE DURING
methyl
THE PROCESS OF CURING. AT TIMES, THE MOISTURE MAY BE
opposite sides of the newly formed double bond.
GENERATED FROM POROUS SUBSTRATES. BLUSHING
arrangement
MANIFESTS AS MILKY OR WHITE PATCHES, WITH HAZY
crystallizes and forms
EFFECTS IN CLEAR TYPES OF COATINGS
STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR
1) BRITTLE FRACTURE- CHARACTERIZED BY NO YIELD POINT,
A REGION OF HOOKEAN BEHAVIOR AT LOW STRAINS AND
FAILURE CHARACTERIZED BY CHONCHOIDAL LINES SUCH AS
SEEN IN INORGANIC GLASSES.
2) YIELD BEHAVIOR- CHARACTERIZED BY A MAXIMUM IN
THE STRESS/STRAIN CURVE FOLLOWED BY YIELDING
DEFORMATION WHICH IS USUALLY ASSOCIATED WITH
CRAZING OR SHEAR BANDING AND USUALLY DUCTILE
FAILURE. DUCTILE FAILURE EXHIBITS A HIGH EXTENT OF
DEFORMATION ON THE FAILURE SURFACE. YIELD BEHAVIOR
CAN RESULT IN NECKING WHICH EXHIBITS A CLOSE TO
CONSTANT LOAD REGIME AND A TERMINAL INCREASE IN THE
STRESS.
3) RUBBER-LIKE BEHAVIOR- CHARACTERIZED BY THE
ABSENCE OF A YIELD POINT MAXIMUM BUT EXHIBITING A
PLATEAU IN AN ENGINEERING STRESS/STRAIN CURVE. OFTEN
RUBBER-LIKE BEHAVIOR EXHIBITS A TERMINAL INCREASE IN
THE STRESS FOLLOWED BY FAILURE WHICH RESULTS IN A
TEAR WITH LITTLE PERMANENT DEFORMATION EXHIBITED IN
THE FAILURE SURFACE, E.G. JELL-O
Materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics
when deformed under stress are known to be viscoelastic.
And this would include any polymeric material—from butter
to bicycle helmets.
Fractures can be characterized by a series of concentric crack
growth bands that grow from the surface initiation site
PLASTICS ARE MATERIALS THAT HAVE SOME STRUCTURAL
RIGIDITY UNDER LOAD AND ARE USED IN GENERAL-PURPOSE
APPLICATIONS.
POLYETHYLENE, POLYPROPYLENE, POLY(VINYL CHLORIDE),
POLYSTYRENE, AND THE FLUOROCARBONS, EPOXIES,
PHENOLICS, AND POLYESTERS MAY ALL BE CLASSIFIED AS
PLASTICS. THEY HAVE A WIDE VARIETY OF COMBINATIONS
OF PROPERTIES. SOME PLASTICS ARE VERY RIGID AND
BRITTLE
ELASTOMERS ARE ALWAYS AMORPHOUS AND ARE USED IN
SERVICE, ANY RUBBERY MATERIAL COMPOSED OF LONG
CHAINLIKE MOLECULES, OR POLYMERS, THAT ARE CAPABLE
OF RECOVERING THEIR ORIGINAL SHAPE AFTER BEING
STRETCHED TO GREAT EXTENTS
FIBERS
POLYMERS ARE CAPABLE OF BEING DRAWN INTO LONG
FILAMENTS HAVING AT LEAST A 100:1 LENGTH-TO-DIAMETER
RATIO. MOST COMMERCIAL FIBER POLYMERS ARE USED IN
THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, BEING WOVEN OR KNIT INTO CLOTH
OR FABRIC
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
Coatings
COATINGS ARE FREQUENTLY APPLIED TO THE SURFACE OF
MATERIALS TO SERVE ONE OR MORE OF THE FOLLOWING
FUNCTIONS: (1) TO PROTECT THE ITEM FROM THE
ENVIRONMENT, WHICH MAY PRODUCE CORROSIVE OR
DETERIORATIVE REACTIONS. (2) TO IMPROVE THE ITEM’S
APPEARANCE. (3) TO PROVIDE ELECTRICAL INSULATION
Adhesives - ADHESIVES - IS A SUBSTANCE USED TO BOND
TOGETHER THE SURFACES OF TWO SOLID MATERIALS
(TERMED ADHERENDS). THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF BONDING
MECHANISMS: MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL. *MECHANICAL
BONDING - THERE IS ACTUAL PENETRATION OF THE
ADHESIVE INTO SURFACE PORES AND CREVICES. *CHEMICAL
BONDING - INVOLVES INTERMOLECULAR FORCES BETWEEN
THE ADHESIVE AND ADHEREND
Films - POLYMERIC MATERIALS HAVE FOUND WIDESPREAD
(RUBBERS)
USE IN THE FORM OF THIN FILMS. FILMS HAVING
Isomers
THICKNESSES BETWEEN
rubber 0.025 AND 0.125 MM (0.001 AND
0.005 IN.) ARE FABRICATED AND USED EXTENSIVELY AS BAGS
hydrogen atom and the
FOR group
PACKAGING
at the FOOD
centerPRODUCTS AND
of the repeat OTHER
unit are located on
MERCHANDISE, AS TEXTILE PRODUCTS, AND INThis
A HOST OF
OTHER USES
leads to relatively straight chains; the polymer
Foam - FOAMS AREaPLASTIC MATERIALS THAT CONTAIN A
hard rigid polymer called gutta percha
RELATIVELY HIGH VOLUME PERCENTAGE OF SMALL PORES
AND TRAPPED GAS BUBBLES
Silicones - SILICONES HAVE A DIVERSE SET OF DESIRABLE BIO-
PROPERTIES AND ARE USED IN A WIDE VARIETY OF
APPLICATION TYPES. DEPENDING ON DEGREE OF
CROSSLINKING, SILICONES CAN BE PREPARED TO EXIST AS
ELASTOMERS, GELS, AND FLUIDS
POLYMER BIOMATERIALS
MAY BE DIVIDED INTO TWO MAIN CLASSIFICATIONS:
SYNTHETIC (MAN-MADE)
NATURAL (DERIVED FROM PLANTS OR ANIMALS)

Ultra-High-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene is a linear

polyethylene that has an extremely high molecular weight.
Its typical Mw is approximately 4 × 106 g/mol, which is an
order of magnitude greater than that of high-density
polyethylene.
It is used in some important biomedical applications. When
crosslinked (chemically or by ionizing radiation). UHMWPE
materials are extremely resistant to wear and abrasion, have
very low coefficients of friction, and offer self-lubricating and
nonstick surfaces
Thermoplastic elastomers are a type of polymeric material
that, at ambient conditions, exhibits elastomeric (or rubbery)
behavior yet is thermoplastic
Liquid crystal polymers are a group of chemically complex
and structurally distinct materials that have unique
properties and are used in diverse applications. The
molecular structures in both melt and solid states for
semicrystalline, amorphous, and liquid crystal polymers