LINEAR DISTANCE

MEASUREMENT
Conventional
 Previous Lecture
• Measurements
• Mistakes and Errors
• Source of errors
• Types of errors
• Quality of measurements
• Error propagation
• Significant figures
Reading:
Chapter 2 & 3
 Contents
• Types of distance measurements
• Distance measurement methods/devices
• Taping/chaining
– methods/techniques
– Errors and corrections in distance measurements
– Numeric example

Reading:
Chapter 6 part I and II
Types of Distance Measurement

4
 Linear measurements
• Distance
– Displacement between two or more points
– Used do define dimension of an object
• Distances could either be true horizontal or slope
distances.
• Horizontal distance is distance between two points in a
horizontal plane.
– It is primarily used for legal work
– Where a distance is measured along a slope, additional
data is required to project the slope distance.
• Slope, vertical angle or difference in elevation.
 Methods of Measurement
• Direct Method Accuracy
– Pacing 1:20 to 1 : 100
– Taping 1:500 to 1 : 20,000
– odometer 1:50 to 1 : 200
• Optical Method
– Stadia tacheometry
Indirect

1:500 to 1 : 1,000
• Electronic Method
– Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) (1mm + 1ppm)
– Hand held Laser
– GPS
Choice of device to use depends on the use of data

6
Device/Method Adv. Disadv.
Pacing Simple Topography affects accuracy
Low tech Pace factor changes from day to day
Only measures slope distance
Odometer Easy to use Accuracy influenced by technology
(Measuring Wheel) Low tech Can’t measure horizontal distance
Taping High accuracy can be Labor intensive
achieved Step taping must be used for slopes
Can measure horizontal greater than 5%
distance
 Taping
• Direct distance measurement
– Physically measuring distances
• Equipment for measurement of lines
Equipment Material
Chain Tempered steel
Steel band steel
tapes Varies (synthetic material,
glass fibre, coated steel
Manufactured under fixed conditions
of temperature and tensile force
1 chain = 100 links = 20.1168m
1 chain = 150 links
 Other equipment
• Optical square
– Used to measure right angles
– Either made of prism or mirror
• Ranging rods
– Used for marking any points that needs to be seen or align
• Abney level
– Measures ground slope
• Pegs
– Used to mark points that need to be permanently placed on the ground
• Tension handle
• Allows user to apply a specified tensile force
• Plumb bob
• Locate tape precisely over specified point
• Chaining arrows
• Mark tape length
 Tape measurements techniques
• Surface taping
– Tape is laid on the ground and fully supported on
the ground. Usually done where the topography is
even. Corrections:
Tape length, temp, tension, slope
• Catenary taping
– Tape is suspended clear of the ground. This
eliminates the effects of surface irregularities.
– Reduces uncertainty in the determination of tape
temperature Corrections:
Tape length, temp, tension, slope, sag
• Step taping
– Used in ground with variable slope. The distance is
measured in steps with the tape held horizontally.
– Measurements are done in steps of 5 – 10 m
– A plumb bob is used to transfer the distance to
the ground (A source of error).
– Easier to work downhill than up hill
– Should be avoided when high accuracy is required
 Sources of errors in taping
Instrumental A tape may be faulty due to a defect in its manufacturing or from
kinking. For example actual length different from nominal length.
Natural The actual horizontal distance between the ends of the tape can
vary due to the effects of:
 temperature,
 elongation due to tension, and
 sagging.
Personal Errors will arise from carelessness by the survey crew:
 poor alignment
 tape not horizontal
 improper plumbing
 faulty reading of the tape
• Mistakes
– Due to inexperience or carelessness of surveyor
– Mis – reading/ reading numbers incorrectly
– Erroneous booking
– Omitting or adding entire band/tape length
– Displacement of station errors

Elimination
• Careful and systematic checking of work
• Repeating measurements
• Redundant observations
 Errors and corrections
• Systematic errors
– Incorrect length of tape
– Slope
– Tension
– Temperature
– Sag
 Correction
• Incorrect length of tape
– Occurs when the length of the tape is not equal to
the standard tape or distance.
• Due to wear and tear (tape tends to stretch) or
• Manufacturing errors
– The error per tape length can be measured by
checking the tape against a standard tape.
• Standard tape – kept in office an not used for any field
work.
 𝑙𝑠 − 𝑙
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟, 𝐶𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑙

L = measured length (m)

ls = standard length/ actual length/true length of tape(m)
measured using a standard tape
l = nominal/(designated) length of tape (m)

The sign of correction is given by magnitude of l and ls

Measuring:
If tape long – add correction
If tape short – subtract correction
Setting Out:
If tape long – subtract correction
If tape short – add correction
1. The Figure shows that when the tape is too long, the distance measured
appears too short, and the correction is therefore positive. The reverse is
the case when the tape is too short.
2. When setting out a distance with a tape the rules in (1) are reversed.
3. It is better the correction, rather than the total corrected length. In this way
fewer significant figures are required.

Source: Schofield 2007

• Slope
– Measurement should be on the horizontal plane
– Slope lines must be reduced to horizontal
– Correction is always negative
a) Step taping
• No need to measure slope angle or vertical distance
• No corrections needed
b) Projecting slope distance to horizontal plane
• Applicable where the ground runs in long regular slopes
• Slope measured by
– Leveling
– Abney level or
– Procedure which gives surface heights at points along slope
i. Using slope angle (exact) A

L
B
𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −𝐿 1 − cos ∝
Can be used for steep
Measured length Slope angle slopes (greater than 30%)
ii. Using difference in level between the two points
(approximate)
• If slope is gentle Obtained from first term of binomial
expansion of Pythagorean theorem

∆ℎ2
𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =−
2𝐿

• h = height difference between the two points

Slope considered gentle if h/L is less than 20%

• Tension
– Caters for elasticity of tape material
– Occurs when the tape is pulled with a tension
greater than the standard value
𝑃 − 𝑃𝑠 For Steel tapes
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐿
𝐴𝐸 E is 210 kN/ mm2
P = tension applied on the tape in the field (N)
Ps = tension at which the tape was standardized (N)
A = cross sectional area of band (mm2)
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity (N mm-2)
L = length measured (m)
The sign of correction is given by magnitude of P and Ps
• Temperature
– Due to thermal characteristics of material
– Required if the temperature is not the same as
when the tape was standardized
𝐶𝑇 = 𝛼𝐿 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑠 For Steel tapes
 is 0.0000112 per °C

coefficient of linear expansion Field

temperature Standard temperature
Measured length
(temp at which tape was
standardized)
The sign of correction is given by magnitude of t and ts
• Sag
– If a tape was standardized on flat level, using
catenary will introduce a sag error due to its
weight.
– Tape not fully supported
𝑤 2 𝑙3
• 𝐶𝑠 = − 2
24𝑃
𝑊2𝑙
• 𝐶𝑠 = − 2
24𝑃 w = weight per unit length (N/m)
W = total weight of tape (N)
l = measured length of span (m)
= angle of slope between supports
P = tension applied
• Alignment
– Error due to alignment is generally the least important
– Utmost care in aligning a tape is not extremely important
since the error is practically negligible for measurements
of ordinary precision
– In high precision measurements, the tape men are kept
accurately on line with the aid of a transit or theodolite

𝑑2 d
𝑐𝐴 = −
2𝐿

d = distance by which other end is out of alignment

L = length measured (m)
 Setting out
• In general the sign of the correction is
reversed when setting out.
 Combined Formula
The true length is determined by incorporating all
the corrections as shown below:
𝐷 = 𝐿 ± 𝐶𝑙 − 𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 ± 𝐶𝑇 ± 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑠

𝐷 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ + 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Correction sign
Wrong tape length ±
slope -
Temperature ±
Pull/Tension ±
Sag -
Alignment - 27
 Steel Taping: Examples

A steel tape of nominal length 30 m was used to measure a line AB by suspending

it between supports. The following measurements were recorded

Line Length Measured Slope Angle Mean Temp. Tension

AB 29.872 m 3o 40’ 5o C 120 N

The standardisation length of the tape against a reference tape was known to be
30.014 m at 20oC and 50 N.

If the tape weighs 0.17 N/m and has a cross sectional area of 2 mm2, calculate the
horizontal length of AB.

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temperature correction  L m c  t 
 29.872  0.0000112  5  20 
 0.0050m
Ls  Ln
standardisation correction  L m 
Ln
w 2 Lm cos 2 
3
sag correction  - 29.872  30.014  30.000 
24T 2 
30.000

0.17  29.872  cos 2 3o 40
2 3
 0.0139m
24120 
2

 0.0022m
slope correction  - L m 1 - cos 

tension correction 
T - Ts Lm 
 29.872 1  cos 3o 40 
EA  0.0611m

120  50 29.872
200 103  2
 0.0052m

horizontal length AB = 29.872-0.0050+0.0139-0.0022-0.0611+0.0052

= 29.823m 29