SURVEYING IN

CONSTRUCTION

LINEAR MEASUREMENT
 One   of   the   most   fundamental   surveying
operations   is   the   measurement   of
  horizontal distance between two points on
the surface of the earth.
 Two basic methods of determining distance:
 Direct
 Indirect
 Direct linear measurements are
methods  used  for  determining  horizontal  
distances with a tape (or chain) and/or with
an electronic distance measuring
  instrument.   
 Indirect method is method may require some
calculations from the data obtain using
theodolite, tachymetry, etc.
 using tapes and accessories to measure the
distance
 using optical means (i.e. stadia or
tacheometry) to measure the distance. Height
can also be determined using this method.
Distance Measurement:
 There are 3 types of distance measurements:
 Horizontal Distance, AB’ = A’B = D
 Vertical Distance, AA’ = BB’ = V
 Slope Distance AB = L
Measuring Slope Distance
along the ground:
Stepping
Tapes used in Surveying:
 Surveying tapes are available in lengths up to
100m, but a 30m tape is the most common
length in use. Two types of tapes are
commonly used:

 Steel Tapes
 All steel tapes are manufactured so that they
measure their normal length at a specific
temperature and under a certain pull, which
is generally 20˚C and 50N.

 With care it is possible to take

measurements using a steel tape with an
accuracy of 1 in 10,000 (or 3mm for a 30m
distance)
Tapes used in Surveying:

 Fibreglass Tapes

 Fiberglass tapes are manufactured from fiberglass strands

embedded in PVC.
 Compared to steel tapes they are lighter, more flexible and
less likely to break, but they stretch more when pulled. They
are also rust free.
 The accuracy of a fiberglass tape is lower at 1 in 1000 (i.e. a
precision of 30mm in a 30m length). The difference in accuracy
between the two tapes is reflected in the gradation on the
tapes scale, steel tapes are graded to the nearest mm while
fiberglass tapes are graded to the nearest cm
Common Mistakes in Taping

 The error that occurs most frequently is to misread the tape:

 - To help detect errors, long distances should be measured in
both directions
 - A good way of checking short distances is to take a second
measurement but to use different parts of the tape
 - Because it is difficult to use the end loop a false zero of 100
mm or 1 m is often used when taping
 - Great care is needed when doing this to avoid mistakes
occurring
 - Take approximate readings using the end loop as zero and
then take a more precise measurement with a false zero
The most common errors
Slope measurements and slope
corrections
 Stepping can be carried out to measure a horizontal
distance directly. The maximum tape length over which
this is done is 10 m. The limit the height through which a
distance is transferred to 1.5 m. This is difficult to do
properly so it is best to choose another way of measuring
if possible
 B
C

Sin θ = C/B
Cos θ = A/B
Tan θ = C/A
B2 = A2 + C2
 If a slope distance, L, has been measured, the
horizontal distance, D, can be obtained by
determining the slope angle θ of the
ground. A theodolite is used to measure θ , D
can be obtained directly using D = L cos θ
 Alternatively, the horizontal distance D can be
obtained by determining the height difference,
h, between the end points. Levelling is used to
determine h and D can be obtained directly
using D2 = L2 – h2
Linear Measurement Using
Lasers
 Advantages: Accuracy = ±3mm; Range = 200m;
Single Operator; useful when
 not possible to use tapes i.e. across large
gaps, to inaccessible heights/points etc
 Errors: requires baseline calibration; errors due
to weather
 Safety: Lasers must NOT be pointed in the eye !