Statistics Class work #1

8/29/23

 Quantitative and Qualitative(categorical) data

1. Identify Quantitative and Qualitative(categorical) variables. Also identify

nominal, ordinal, discrete and continuous.
a. A survey records the following information for each of the 75 students enrolled
in the college.

Gender: Categorical

Year (Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior): Categorical

Age: Quantitative

Number of courses taken: Quantitative

Midterm grades: Categorical

Project Submitted (0 = No, 1 = Yes).

Final Exam score: Quantitative

b. Identify nominal, ordinal, discrete and continuous data:

Nominal: Gender, Project submitted
Ordinal: Mid term grades, year
Discrete: Age, Number of courses taken

Continuous: midterm grades, final exam score

**We get data from sample and population

**Sample is a part of the population

 Different Sampling Techniques: Simple Random, Systematic, Convenience,

Stratified, Cluster, Voluntary Response.

Definitions:
Simple random sampling is defined as a sampling technique where every
item in the population has an equal chance/ likelihood of being selected
in the sample.

Systematic sampling is a statistical method by selecting an element from the

list at random and then every kth (10th or 23rd or 45th….) element is selected

Convenience sampling is defined as a method adopted by researchers where

they collect data conveniently.

Stratified sampling is a sampling technique wherein the researcher divides the

entire population into different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects some
of the subjects (proportional numbers) from the different subgroups

Cluster sampling is a sampling technique wherein the researcher divides the

entire population into different subgroups or strata, then selects every member
(all of them) from the different subgroups

Voluntary response sampling: A voluntary response sample is a sample

made up of individuals who volunteer to be included in the sample.
(TV or radio talk show, email)

2. Identify different sampling techniques(convenience, simple

random, stratified, systematic, voluntary response, cluster)

a. Put 100 numbered bingo balls into a bowl. Select 10 balls

from the bowl without looking .
random sampling

b. To gain the opinions on college facilities, a researcher performed a survey

by selecting every 20th student from the Record Department’s central list of
all students in the college. (systematic sampling)
c..In a study of the health outcomes of nursing staff in a county,
a proportion of a number of nurses are selected from three hospitals in the
county. (stratified sampling)

d. A TV show host asks his viewers to visit his website and respond to an
online poll. (voluntary response sampling)

e. Walking into a grocery store and choosing 10 people to take

part in a survey about their shopping habits. (convenience sampling)

f. An airline company wants to survey its customers one day, so they

randomly select 555 flights that day and survey every passenger on those
flights. (Cluster sampling)

g. Each student at a school has a student identification number. Counselors

have a computer generate 50 random identification numbers and those
students are asked to take a survey. (Simple random sampling)

h. Stopping people on the street at random to ask them to complete a

questionnaire. (convenience sampling)

3. Parameter and Statistic

A Statistic gives information(in numbers or percentages) from the sample

A Parameter gives information(in numbers or percentages) from the

population.
 Examples given below:

a. 43% students in my class got A in statistics. Here 43% is a

statistic(class is a sample).

b. 32% of the county got covid booster, 32% is a parameter(county is a

population)

Statistic or parameter ?

a. Researchers want to determine what percentage of Maryland residents are in

favor of the death penalty. Suppose that 7% of a random sample of 1200 residents
are in favor of the death penalty. This percentage (7%) would represent
statistic/parameter. (stastics)

b.The online MBA director at a large business school surveys a sample of current
students to determine their level of satisfaction with the program. She finds that
67% of them are “very satisfied” with the online program. This result is
statistic/parameter. (stastics)

c. All the third graders in a county were asked to complete a survey about
who likes vanilla ice cream. 90% response was in favor of the flavor. This is
statistic/parameter. (parameter)

d.The average Statistics test scores of all students in in PGCC:

(paeameter)

4. Experiment / observational study

Observational study is a study where researchers simply collect data based on

what is seen and heard and infer based on the data collected. Researchers
should not interfere with the subjects or variables in any way. There is basically
no manipulation of the environment in which the subject occurs.

An experiment is a study in which the researcher manipulates the level of

 some independent variables and then measures the outcome. Experiments
are powerful techniques for evaluating cause-and-effect relationships.
Experiments are conducted both in the laboratory and in real life situations.

5. Identify experimental study and observational study:

a. Measured lung capacity for 100 women of age 30 of which 50 have been
smoking a pack a day for 10 years while the other 50 have been smoke free
for10 years. (observational)

b. To determine whether a review session will improve his students’ test scores, a
Stat 113 instructor divides his class into two groups. He then requires one group to
attend a study session and compares the test results of each group. (experimental)

c. A Parks Department employee wants to know if latex paint is more durable than
non-latex paint. She has 50 park benches painted with latex paint and has 50 park
benches painted with non-latex paint. (experimental)

c. Consider someone on the busy street of a New York neighborhood asking

random people that pass by how many pets they have, then taking this data and
using it to decide if there should be more pet food stores in that area.
(observational)

e. A group of students is interested in knowing if the number of times they can sink
a basketball is related to the color of the basketball. The students shoot a series of
baskets and record their success using a regulation colored basketball. They then
switch to a blue colored basketball and shoot the same series of baskets. A
statistical analysis is performed. (experimental)

6. Bias

A study conducted by a procedure that tends to overestimate or underestimate a

population value is said to be biased.

1) Voluntary response bias

A voluntary response bias is one in which people are invited to log on to a
website, send a text message, or call a phone number, in order to express their
opinions.

2). Self interest bias:

Many advertisements contain data about their product being superior. The
advertiser, however, may not report any data that tends to show that the
product is inferior.

3). Social acceptability bias

People may admit to behavior that may reflect negatively on them which
affects many surveys. For example, a pollster may ask “Did you vote in the last
presidential election?” The problem with this direct approach is that people
are reluctant to answer “No,” because they are concerned that not voting is
socially less acceptable than voting.

4). Leading question bias

Consider this question: “Do you favor decreasing the heavy tax burden on
middle-class families?” The words “heavy” and “burden” suggest that taxes
are too high and encourage a “Yes” response.

5). Non-response bias

People cannot be forced to answer questions or to participate in a study. In
any study, a certain proportion of people who are asked to participate refuse
to do so. This is called Non response bias.
Example: Suppose you are researching workload among managers in a
supermarket chain. You decide to collect your data via a survey. Due to
constraints on their time, managers with the largest workload are less likely
to answer your survey questions.

6). Sampling bias

For example, consumer surveys are often conducted by randomly calling
people from a list of phone numbers. Because consumers without a phone
 number will be omitted from the sample, sampling bias is likely to occur. It is

almost impossible to avoid sampling bias completely.

[Note: Simple random sampling does not have any bias]

7. Percent problem

Imagine you just did a survey of your friends to find which kind of movies they
liked best. Total =24

Movie Friends

Comedy 4

Action 5

Romance 7

Drama 3

Science 5
fiction
Total 24

a. What percentage of your friends liked comedy movies? 4/24 = 0.1667

16.67%

b. What percentage of your friends liked action or romance?

(5+7)/24=12/24=50%
c.What percentage of your friends did not like drama?

Drama:3
Do not like drama: 24-3 = 21
21/24= 0.8750 = 87.5%