DELTA EARTHMOVING INC.

In order to ensure that operators adhere to best practices in

addition to satisfying the bare minimum of legal requirements, traffic
commissioners need my enthusiastic support for this crucial document.
This manual outlines the recommended best practices for
maintaining tires. On hefty automobiles and heavy equipment. It
provides operators with a variety of information on tyre selection,
upkeep and safety, which includes taking into account the physical
condition and tyres' age. I have no doubt that the material will be very
helpful to many operators.
The bulk of the business performs well above the basic
requirements, and I am confident that this document will help operators
and drivers by giving them access to information that will keep best
practices in mind.
INTRODUCTION
Every Equipment and light vehicle on the road has tires, which are an
essential component for safety. They are also among the parts of Equipment that
are subject to the most regulation. Manufacturers of tires take considerable care
to create goods that are trustworthy, legal, and safe. The equipment operator is
accountable for the tyre's maintenance throughout its life because the
manufacturer cannot accompany a tire throughout its lifespan. Serviceable state.
This obligation is supported by legislative requirements that include both the tyre's
condition and the methods and procedures in place to guarantee that they are
always fit for purpose.

TYRE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

For any knowledgeable equipment operator, a tire management system is
necessary, and it should:

 That tyres in service are appropriate to the vehicle and operating conditions;
 That vehicle tyres are regularly and closely examined for damage and wear
with mechanisms in place to address any identified issues;
 That processes exist to distribute best practice in tyre management
throughout the fleet;
 That staff dealing with tyre management are properly trained and
empowered to act With sufficient authority;
 That any technician dealing with tyre inspections or repairs is properly
trained and qualified;
 That any on-site tyres are properly stored;
 That drivers are properly trained and equipped to recognise and report tyre
issues.

If there are any inconsistencies or gaps between the information in this guide and
the procedures you use internally, ones need to resolve problems right away.
TYRE CHOICE AND FITTING
BASIC PRINCIPLES
Briefly, the requirements of a tyre are:-
• To support the maximum authorised load at the vehicle’s legal maximum speed;
• To grip the road for control of the vehicle in all conditions;
• To give the best possible ride and longevity subject to the two criteria above.
A tyre is defined by the following characteristics:
• Size designation comprising section width, aspect ratio and rim diameter;
• Construction — normally radial but less frequently cross ply or bias belted;
• Type of tread pattern according to individual manufacturer’s designation;
• Load index and speed symbol (service description).
The operator must ensure that tyres are responsibly sourced and endorsed for UK
and European use. Any tyre chosen as a replacement should normally be of the
same size, construction, and service description as the original equipment. The
vehicle and tyre manufacturers’ data should be consulted before using a tyre with
a different specification

PRINCIPAL TYRE MARKINGS

1. Tyre Section width
2. Aspect ratio
3. Construction (R=radial)
4. Rim diameter (inches)
5. Load Index (single tyre)
6. Load Index (dual mounted)
7. Speed symbol
8. Load indices when used at alternative maximum speed
9. Location of tread wear indicator
10 Type approval number
11. Manufacturing date code
12. DOT manufacturing site code
13. Supplementary type approval information
TYRE CHOICE
Steering axle: It is generally not recommended to fit tyres designated for drive axle
use on the steering axle of a vehicle as the handling may be adversely affected. It
is strongly recommended that only new tyres or re-grooved new tyres should be
fitted to steering axles and this is a requirement of Tempo 100 certification.
On rear/ drive axles care should be taken to ensure that only tyres of the same
type, size, service description and wear are twinned together. The difference
between the remaining tread pattern depths on twinned tyres should not generally
be greater than 4mm at the same stage of tyre life (i.e. new, regrooved or
retreaded). It is not recommended to twin regrooved tyres with un regrooved tyres.
Equally, twinning different brands of tyre is not recommended as casing
characteristics may differ, possibly causing accelerated wear to one tyre. Particular
vigilance is required regarding the correct inflation of twinned tyres if accelerated
wear is to be avoided. Ensuring that the inner and outer valves are fitted 180°
opposite to each other and fitting a valve extension to the inner wheel will facilitate
regular tyre pressure maintenance. Many passenger carrying vehicle (PCV)
operators will have to register Local Service Buses with the Traffic Commissioner.
In those cases the vehicles can be fitted with “J” speed rated tyres, limited to a
maximum speed of 100 km/h. This enables the fitment of especially robust urban
bus tyres. Tyres with previous sidewall abrasion damage should be positioned so
that the worn sidewall is protected from further damage. Tyres with severe kerbing
damage (e.g. exposed and damaged reinforcement cords) must be removed from
service.
FITTING
The correct fitting of tyres to their rims is of the utmost importance. Ensure that an
appropriate quantity of a recommended tyre bead lubricant is applied. Do not use
anything that is oil-based as a tyre lubricant. Cleanliness is of first importance when
fitting tyres; tyres should never be fitted with oily hands and never ‘trodden-on’
with dirty boots. Correct fitting of tyres will ensure that the tyre is fitted
concentrically on the recommended rim, the bead area has not been distorted or
stretched, and that there is no damage to the bead area that may lead to ingress
of moisture or air into the casing of the tyre. Care must also be taken when
removing a tyre from the rim not to damage the bead area or casing plies in any
way.
DIRECTIONAL TYRES
A directional tyre is a tyre that the manufacturer recommends to be used in one
direction of rotation to optimise tread wear performance. The use of a directional
tyre in the opposite direction does not constitute an unsafe condition; although not
optimal, overall performance and handling will not be compromised. Nonetheless,
the use of a directional tyre in the opposite direction is not encouraged and should
be considered to be a temporary measure only. Continued use of a directional tyre
in the opposite direction may lead to uneven tyre wear and/or increased noise and
vibration. If a directional tyre shows an irregular wear profile, (for example, a
sloped wear pattern) it may be turned on the rim and run in the opposite direction
with no detriment to other performance criteria. In cases such as this, it is
recommended that all tyres on the same axle should be turned on the rim so that
all rotational arrow markings face in the same direction. When turning these tyres
on the rim or moving them from side to side on a vehicle, they should be treated in
all other respects in the same way as any other tyre.
TYRES IN SERVICE
IRREGULAR TREAD WEAR
Tyre wear should be checked frequently because once a wear pattern becomes
firmly established it becomes difficult to stop, even if the underlying cause is
corrected. Tyres on steering axles, particularly on the nearside, often wear more
on one shoulder than the other. This can be due to the road camber, the continuous
cornering and roundabouts on UK roads, misalignment or sometimes, under
inflation. Equally, drive axle tyres frequently wear faster on the inner edge of the
inner tyres. Turning the tyre on the rim, if carried out at the correct time, can
extend tyre life and provide cost savings.
A tyre should be turned on the rim early enough to equalise the wear. A difference
greater than 3mm from one shoulder to the other should instigate a turn on rim.
TYPES OF WEAR
Type of Cause Correction
wear
Over inflation or incorrect
matching of tyres and rims. Adjust pressure to the
Centre
May also occur on high recommended level for the
wear
torque drive axle particular tyre location and load.
applications.
Shoulder Adjust pressure to the
Under-inflation or incorrect
Wear – recommended level for the
matching of tyres and rims.
both sides particular tyre location and load.
 Excessive toe Identify and correct mechanical
One-sided
 Excessive camber defect. If wear is not too severe
Wear
 Non parallel axles turn tyre on rim.
  Bent axle
 Non – uniform tyre
and wheel assembly
 Severe operating
conditions.
 Mismounting of tyre
and wheel assembly
to trailer
 Mis-matched twins Identify and correct mechanical
Diagonal
 High speed empty defect. If wear is not too severe
Wear
running turn tyre on rim.
 Improper bearing
adjustment
 Toe out.
Excessive sharp braking.
Brakes locking, for example Avoid harsh braking. Check
Flat
as a result of incorrect brakes and braking system and
Spots
adjustment of trailer brake correct any malfunction.
controls or defective brakes

WHEEL ALIGNMENT
It is important that a vehicle’s wheels are correctly aligned. Poor alignment will
affect:
• Tyre wear
• Vehicle handling
• Fuel economy

CORRECT INFLATION

The maintenance of correct tyre pressures is extremely important, not only

from the performance and safety aspects but also from the tyre life point of view.
Furthermore, correct tyre pressures produce the best ride and handling of the
vehicle. Maximum tyre life is obtained when the correct tyre pressures have been
used throughout the tyre’s life.
 RESPONSES TO UNDER INFLATION
0-10%
Examine for external damage before re inflation Re-inflate as
under
soon as possible
inflation
10-20%
Examine for external damage before re inflation Re-inflate
under
immediately Monitor for continuing deflation
inflation
20%+
Remove tyre from rim and inspect for possible
Under
internal damage Monitor for continuing deflation
inflation

OTHER TYRE CONDITIONS

CUTS
Cuts could permit water to reach the casing or bracing plies, causing corrosion that
may weaken the structure of the tyre if the exposure is prolonged. In addition to
being potentially illegal, such damage could render the tyre unacceptable for
retreading.

OIL, PETROL, DIESEL

Many industrial chemicals and solvents, including oils, petrol and diesel, can
damage tyres. These contaminants should be removed using plenty of water and a
mild detergent. Severe contamination may render the tyre unusable.

OBJECT TRAPPED BETWEEN TWINNED TYRES

If an object is trapped between twinned tyres the tyres should be deflated before
attempting to remove it. Both tyres may have been damaged and should be
thoroughly inspected by a competent tyre technician before re-entering service.

SIDEWALL ABRASION
When the sidewall lettering starts to disappear, the vehicle operator should turn
the tyre on the rim. The reinforcement plies must not be exposed and the size and
service description markings must be visible on one side of the tyre for it to remain
legal.
AGEING
Tyre ageing is not a function of the passage of time alone but rather the cumulative
exposure to adverse environmental and operational factors. Prolonged exposure
to ozone or ultra-violet light can lead to degradation of the natural and synthetic
rubbers used in tyres. Tyre manufacturers incorporate additives to reduce this
phenomenon. The flexing of the tyre in normal use helps the diffusion of these
additives to the surface of the tyre where they act against the adverse effects of
exposure to ozone and ultra-violet light. This diffusion process is greatly reduced in
tyres fitted to vehicles that are used infrequently. Consequently, such tyres are
more susceptible to degradation caused by adverse environmental factors than
tyres on vehicles that are frequently used. Spare wheels are a case in point.
Ageing-type damage causes localised hardening of the rubber leading to surface
crazing. Similar damage can be caused by overheating resulting from under
inflation or overloading. In severe cases, this stiffening can lead to de-lamination of
the inner components of the tyre.
As a precaution, the Department for Transport strongly recommends that tyres
over 10 years old should not be fitted to the front axles of buses and coaches and
that such tyres should only be fitted to the rear axle as part of a twin tyre
combination. DVSA will issue an advisory notice at annual test if this
recommendation is not followed. If a tyre is showing signs of ageing its condition
should be assessed by a competent tyre technician. Some tyre manufacturers
recommend that tyres over 10 years old should be withdrawn from service. The
date of manufacture of a tyre can be determined from the DOT code marked on
the sidewall. The final four digits show the calendar week and the year of
manufacture. The tyre in the photograph was manufactured in week 47 of 2012.

TYRE REPAIRS
It is vital that any repair is undertaken by a trained operative. All tyre repairs
should follow the recommendations contained within BS AU 159g.
Prior to affecting a repair, the following important points should be borne in mind:
 Tyres must be removed from their wheels and thoroughly inspected by a
competent tyre technician to ensure that they are suitable for repair;
  The insertion of a tube to affect a ‘repair’ to a minor penetration is not
recommended;
 External plugging (string repair) or tyre sealants are not considered to be a
permanent repair in accordance with BS AU 159g.
Tyre filler (‘putty’ or ‘dough’) is usually a self-vulcanising polymer compound
that should only be used for localised cosmetic damage i.e. rubber only. Tyres with
damage that extends to the reinforcement cords should be assessed by a qualified
repair technician and, if appropriate, repaired in accordance with BS AU 159g.

MAJOR REPAIRS
Heavy vehicle tyres with major repairs conforming to the British Standard
must be marked by the repair agent, radially in line with each repair at a point just
above the area covered by the rim flange. The marking must be permanently legible
with the number of the British Standard, i.e. BS AU 159g, and with the repairer’s
name or identification mark. The minimum height of the characters must be 4mm.
It is recommended that tyres that have been subject to a major repair as defined in
BS AU 159g should be fitted to a rear axle position only.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
The regrooving operation consists of cutting into the tread of a tyre a tread
pattern deeper than the original, so as to prolong the tyre’s useful life. When
regrooving, it is of fundamental importance to avoid exposing the upper belts of
the tyre, and to ensure that an adequate layer of rubber is left to protect them.
Tyre manufactures supply specific instructions regarding the patterns and
procedures to follow in the regrooving of tyre treads. These include
recommended groove widths and the depth of rubber to remove from the base of
the original grooves.

Regrooving should normally be carried out on the entire tread according to

the recommended pattern and procedure. However, where a tyre has worn
abnormally, it may be possible to regroove just that part of the worn tyre,
provided a sufficient portion of the original groove is visible before regrooving.
Clearly, this precludes further re-grooving later in the tyre’s life.
RETREADING
APPLICABLE REGULATIONS
Retreaded heavy vehicle tyres offered for sale in Europe must comply with
UN ECE Regulation 109. This ensures that retreaded tyres meet the same standard
for structural integrity under endurance testing as new tyres. In addition, the
Regulation defines the sidewall markings required on a retreaded tyre including the
UN ECE Type Approval mark. Retreaded tyres must bear the mark “RETREAD” on at
least one sidewall.

WHAT IS A RETREAD?
Retreading is a generic term for the remanufacturing of a worn tyre casing
to extend its service life. In all cases it involves the replacement of tread rubber and
may include the renovation of the shoulder and sidewall. The safety, performance
and structural integrity of a rethreaded tyre depend largely on the condition of the
original tyre casing. For this reason all tyre casings selected for rereading are
subjected to close examination and extensive non-destructive testing to establish
the casing’s structural integrity and suitability for continued use.

Retreaded tyres are produced using one of two processes:

Pre-moulded or “cold cure” retreading: A pre-cured tread strip is applied to the

prepared casing. The casing and tread are vulcanised together in an autoclave using
a special rubber compound.
Mould-cure or “hot cure” retreading: In this process, uncured rubber compound is
applied to the prepared casing. The new tread pattern and sidewall markings are
formed during vulcanisation in a curing press.

Including retreaded tyres in an integrated tyre management programme offers

improved lifecycle costs and reduced environmental impact.
TYPES OF THREAD PATTERNS
Symmetric non-directional - Tyres with this tread are considered “multi-purpose”,
as they are suitable for driving on any type of road surface. This pattern is used for
both summer and winter tyres. The advantages of this type of tread pattern are
riding in mixed cycles, high acoustic comfort and good handling. Symmetric non-
directional tyres can be installed on both axles, regardless of the direction of car
movement.
Symmetric directional - This is one of the most popular and commercially
successful tread pattern which is also called rain tread, since the layout of the
recesses provides high-quality adhesion to the wet road surface. However, such
tyres guarantee stable directional stability and control of the car when driving both
on rolled snow and on dry asphalt. Shows good results when driving on slush and
mud. Among the disadvantages of such tyres can be increased noise, insufficient
stability of behaviour when moving on low-quality road surface.
Asymmetric non-directional - A tyre with this type of tread shows the maximum
level of performance during high-speed driving, providing high-quality dynamic
manoeuvring. Such tyres are characterized by excellent lateral stability. The
disadvantage of an asymmetric non-directional pattern is limited use of such tyres,
since they show poor performance when driving on off paved roads and poor-
quality surfaces. In addition, a relatively high price can be considered as a
disadvantage.
Asymmetric directional. - These tyres are not very popular due to difficulties with
their installation and car maintenance. So, problems arise when you install a spare
tyre, because specific tyres can only be suitable for certain axles (both external or
internal position and the direction of movement are taken into account). To have
several spare tyres in the car is expensive and inconvenient, therefore tyres with
an asymmetric directional pattern are rarely used.
THE BASIC COMPOUND RECIPE
A typical tire will have the following components baked into it, however, the
actual recipe will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. These ingredients all
help give the tire flexibility, give it grip, give it the strength to hold its shape
despite the weight of the vehicle, and give it the ability to hold air.

TYPES OF DESCRIPTION
COMPOUND
Natural rubber This is the ingredient that helps protect your tire from wear and tear.
It also helps protect it from cracking under the pressures of driving,
the weight of the vehicle, as well as from the imperfections of the
road.

Synthetic rubber This ingredient combines with natural rubber and often contains
butadiene and styrene-butadiene which are rubber polymers. Their
properties help determine how each of the components of a tire
performs and affect the overall performance of the tire as well.

Steel These typically come in the form of steel wire, beads, and belts and
are put in for the structural rigidity of the tire. These steel elements
also affect how a tire handles along with its wear performance.

Antioxidants A needed additive for the tires to keep them from breaking down as
a result of temperature.
Filler Additives that are typically silica and carbon black that help reinforces
the rubber. These help with abrasion, tear, and strength against stress
for the tire.

Antiozonants These are additives that help negate the effects of surface exposure.

Textile These are a variety of fabrics that help reinforce the tire. These
textiles help give the tire extra stability and help it take on the weight
of the vehicle. Aside from this, the baking of the process of a tire can
also affect how it turns out. However, this process varies from brand
to brand but usually has a Zinc Oxide mixture in it to help cure the
rubber

Types of Tyres
A. On the Basis of Tube used
Types of Description
Tyres
Tube Tyre It encloses a rubber tube which is filled with air at high pressure. The outer
part is made of synthetic rubber which is known as tread. Inside tyre beads are
formed with the help of reinforced steel wires. Beads works as strong support
for wheel rim. A number of piles are formed by rayon cords. Cords provide
strength to the tyres.
Tubeless This tyre does not enclose tube. The high pressure air is filled in tyre itself. The
Tyre internal features and construction of this tyre are same as tube tyre. These
tyres are lighter and cooler than tube tyre. The main advantage of this is that
is keeps air for long time even after being punctured and hole in tubeless tyre
can easily be repaired.

B. On the Basis of Construction

Types of Description
Tyres
Cross Ply Tyre This tyre has better a resistance against wear. They have good bonding to
Construction the road. Cross ply tyres consist of carcass layers made from nylon cord
which are placed diagonally along each other in the tread and the sidewalls,
 at an angle of 50 degrees. Multiple rubber plies stacked over each other
which form a thick layer, which makes them less flexible as a result they are
more sensitive to overheating. These tyres give a strong and rigid sidewall.
Radial Ply It consists of a carcass ply which is formed by textile arcs running one bead
Tyre to the other. Each ply embedded at an angle of 90 degree to the rolling
direction. At the top of tyre crown several plies is reinforced with metal wire
Construction
on the top of carcass ply.

Tire Size Chart - Metric - by Rim/Wheel Diameter

Tire size charts
A Tire Size Chart displays the metric tire size designations or the inch tire size
designations with the following tire measures:

 OD - Overall Tire Diameter,

 SW - Section width,
 AR - Aspect Ratio,
 RD - Rim/Wheel Diameter,
 SH - Section/Sidewall height,
 CI - Tire circumference,
 RE - Revolutions per mile/km;

The tire sizes are categorized either by the total tire diameter or the rim
diameter. You can choose a chart by clicking the relevant link for each rim and
overall diameter. Only the tire sizes with the chosen rim/overall diameter and the
associated tire measures are shown on each chart.
Width in millimetres - The width of the tire measured from sidewall to sidewall in
millimetres is indicated by the first tire size number. The tire is known as "P-Metric"
and is produced in the US if the number starts with a "P". If not, the tire is a metric
tire made in Europe. The only tiny distinction between the two relates to how load
ratings are determined for the size.

Aspect Ratio – The aspect ratio expresses the height of the tire as a proportion of
the width, calculated from the top edge of the rim to the top of the tire. This
indicates that the upper sidewall of the rim in the image has a height of 146.25
millimetres, or 65% of the 225 millimetre width. See Plus and Minus size your Tires
for information on how to utilize this ratio to determine the tire's standing height
for size purposes.

Diameter – This value represents the tire's interior diameter, which is equal to the
rim's exterior diameter, in inches. If there is an "R" before this number, the tire is
radial as opposed to bias-ply.

Load Index – This is a given value that relates to the maximum permitted load the
tire can support. With a load index of 96, the tire in the example above can
support 1,565 pounds, for a total of 6260 pounds across all four tires. A tire with a
100 load index is capable of supporting 1,764 pounds. The load index of very few
tires is greater than 100.
 TIRE LOAD INDEX CHART
Load- Carrying Capacity Index Ratings
Load Index Load (lbs) Load Index Load (lbs) Load Index Load (lbs)
0 99 50 419 100 1764
1 102 51 430 101 1819
2 105 52 441 102 1874
3 107 53 454 103 1929
4 110 54 467 104 1984
5 114 55 481 105 2039
6 117 56 494 106 2094
7 120 57 507 107 2149
8 123 58 520 108 2205
9 128 59 536 109 2271
10 132 60 551 110 2337
11 136 61 567 111 2403
12 139 62 584 112 2469
13 143 63 600 113 2535
14 148 64 617 114 2601
15 152 65 639 115 2679
16 157 66 639 116 2756
17 161 67 677 117 2833
18 165 68 694 118 2910
19 171 69 716 119 2998
20 176 70 739 120 3086
21 182 71 761 121 3197
22 187 72 783 122 3307
23 193 73 805 123 3417
24 198 74 827 124 3527
25 204 75 852 125 3638
26 209 76 882 126 3748
27 215 77 908 127 3858
28 220 78 937 128 3968
29 227 79 963 129 4079
30 234 80 992 130 4189
31 240 81 1019 131 4289
32 247 82 1047 132 4409
33 254 83 1074 133 4541
34 260 84 1102 134 4674
35 267 85 1135 135 4806
36 276 86 1168 136 4938
37 282 87 1201 137 5071
38 291 88 1235 138 5203
39 300 89 1279 139 5357
40 309 90 1323 140 5512
41 320 91 1356 141 5677
42 331 92 1389 142 5842
43 342 93 1433 143 6008
44 353 94 1477 144 6173
45 364 95 1521 145 6393
 46 375 96 1565 146 6614
47 386 97 1609 147 6779
48 397 98 1653 148 6844
49 408 99 1709 149 7165
150 7385

Speed Rating – Another number is allocated to indicate the highest speed that
the tire is predicted to be able to maintain for an extended length of time. A V
speed rating means that the vehicle is traveling at 149 mph.
TIRE SPEED CAPABILITIES

SPEED SYMBOLS
Speed
Symbol Speed Speed (km/h)
(mph)
A1 5 3
A2 10 6
A3 15 9
A4 20 12
A5 25 16
A6 30 19
A8 40 25
B 50 31
C 60 37
D 65 40
E 70 43
F 80 50
G 90 56
J 100 62
K 110 68
L 120 75
M 130 81
N 140 87
P 150 94
Q 160 100
R 170 106
S 180 112
T 190 118
U 200 124
H 210 130
V 240 149
W 270 168
Y 300 186

Tire Identification Number – The Department of Transportation (DOT) regulates

all Federal standards, and the letters DOT before the number denote this. The
tire's manufacturing facility is identified by the first two numbers or letters
following the DOT. The next four digits give the date the tire was made; for
example, 1210 means the tire was made in the 12th week of 2010.

Tread wear Indicators – These markings on the tire's outside sidewall indicate
when it is time to replace it lawfully. The primary tire tread grooves are regularly
spaced with tread wear indications, often known as wear bars. The tire has to be
changed if they are flush with the tread level.

Tire Ply Composition – The quantity of fabric and rubber layers in a tire. The load
capacity of a tire increases with the number of plies. Steel, nylon, polyester, and
other materials used in tire construction are also listed.

Tread wear Grade – The longer the tread should last, the higher this value should
be. In actual use, the tire undergoes an 8,000-mile test, after which the
manufacturer extrapolates tire wear in comparison to a standard government test
tire using whichever formula they want.

Tire inflation pressure overview & importance

Technically speaking, tire inflation pressure refers to the volume of air that a
vehicle manufacturer recommends be inflated inside a tire. Using a tire pressure
gauge, the inflation pressure, also known as air pressure, is measured in PSI, or
pounds per square inch.
When it comes to tire performance and tire safety, tire inflation pressure is
crucial. The sensation and responsiveness of the vehicle significantly alter when
the inflation pressure is changed.

TIRE INFLATION EQUATION

Tire Weight / Tire Pressure = Load Capacity Pounds per PSI
Hence;
Tire Weight: Pounds per tire (lb.)
Tire Pressure: PSI