In Chapters 2 and 3, policies and practices on how to make schools inclusive to

all learners have been presented. Such school-wide changes in policy and culture
are essential to provide the support and resources needed by teachers and staff.
In this chapter, the aim is to describe the components and processes involved in
identifying children through assessment and providing varied means of support.
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

Objectives:
• Enumerate the processes involved in Child Find through the pre-referral
process
• Identify the assessment tools, methods, and principles in working with
children with additional needs
• Identify the different placement within a continuum
• Compare accommodations and curriculum modifications
• Identify ways how to involve parents as part of the home-school
collaboration

A ctivity 4.1: **
A n ticip ation G uide

Before we continue, let us find out how much you know about the
different components in inclusive and special education. After reading each
statement, write True or False in the column Before Reading. We will go back
to this after you complete reading this chapter.

B efore A fte r
Statem en ts Read in g Read in g

1. A child suspected to have a disability should

immediately be referred for special education
testing.

2. Norm-referenced tests provide better information

for instructional planning than criterion-referenced
tests.

54 Foundations of Special and Inclusive Educatioi

 3. The least restrictive setting should be considered as
placement for children with disabilities.

4. When providing accommodations, teachers change •

the curriculum standards and content to provide a
level playing field for children with disabilities.

5. Programs for children with disabilities become

more effective and successful when children and
families are involved.

I. CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS

Referral for evaluation and special education services begins by
identifying students who have additional needs and who may be at risk for
developmental disabilities. School guidance counselors, early childhood
teachers, prim ary school teachers, and community-based daycare workers
are often the first to notice such developmental delays in children. In other
instances, the parents themselves notice the delays and seek consultation
with pediatricians and other specialists.

A. Pre-referral Process
A child noted to have significant difficulties in relation to expected
competencies and developmental milestones may be referred by parents and
teachers for observation and assessment. A team of professionals, known as
a pre-referral team, is comprised o f special education teachers, counselors,
administrators, and psychologists who collaborate to determine reasons for
the observed challenges (Hallahan et al. 2014). They collaborate to find ways
to meet the needs of children with developmental delays.
Taylor (2009) provided an assessment model that begins with a pre-
referral process. Children with noted developmental delays and difficulties
are identified through observations and use of norm- and criterion-
referenced tests. They are not immediately referred for special education
testing but are first provided with the necessary academic and behavioral
support needed to address noted challenges. In his assessment model, Taylor
(2009) explained that the initial step is to determine teaching areas where a
learner will benefit from additional support through a variety of means.
Very young students who are at-risk or suspected to have additional
needs may also be identified through community-based screening. Child
development and social workers use developmental screening tools such
as the Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) Checklist that covers
items expected for a child’s typical development as presented in Chapter 5.
CHAPTER A Components of Special and InclusiveEduratina 55
 Once a program of pre-referral intervention has been designed,
implementation and evaluation follow to determine how effective it is in
addressing the needs of the child. Figure 4.1 shows the pre-referral process
and strategies.

B. p re-referral Strategies
Essential in a pre-referral intervention is the use of pre-referral
strategies that are designed to provide immediate instructional and/or
behavior management support to a child. Using such strategies lessens the
number of cases referred for special education and makes efficient use of
time and financial resources that could have been spent for special education
assessment (Heward 2013). This w ill also lessen the tendency of over-referrals
to special education and wasting time as children wait to be tested rather
than receive the instructional and behavioral support they need.
Examples of pre-referral strategies are: observation of the child's
behavior, including interactions with parents, teachers, and peers; interview
of parents and teachers to gather more information about the child; review
of school records; and analysis of the child’s academic output through error
analysis, portfolio assessment, and criterion-referenced and curriculum -
based assessment (Taylor 2009). Depending on the inform ation gathered,
corresponding changes can be made to manage the Child’s needs, such as
modification of the classroom environment (e.g., seating arrangem ent, group
change, and teacher’s proximity in class), instructional support, and relevant
classroom and behavior management (Mcloughlin & Lewis 2009).

Initial ■ '■
identification/ •/•' '■ Parenror Teacher: observation *
• {Reviewofschoolrecords^cliissroom observe

/ --------- N,
Determination o f • Small-group instruction
teaching areas and /
* Direct instruction
strategies
t _____________ J

Implementation o f Additional in-class or after-school support

teaching programs Modification o f classroom environment and behavior
Modification o f instruction to address potential needs,

Evaluation of teaching Determine effectiveness o f programs on learning

program and behavior

Figure 4-1. Pre-referral process.

 If despile provision of additional support, struggles and difficulties
persist, then the child is referred for assessment either within the school,
if such services are available, or referred to a professional for further
assessment. What is essential at this point is that the teachers have
implemented a variety of approaches and practices to ensure that support is
provided before formal assessment.

I Carl’s Pre-Referral Process

Ms. Reyes, a 3rd Grade teacher, has always been baffled by one of her
students, Carl. She has observed that Carl is very creative. He loves to draw and
is quite good at it. He is fluent and conversant in English and can create such
■imaginative stories. She noted, however, that unlike his peers who can already
read short stories for Grade 3 and write paragraphs well, Carl is still struggling
at the word level. Although he can create his own stories through oral narration,
he can’t seem to write them down without having spelling errors. He gets very
frustrated in such tasks that when he needs to answer essay questions in a test,
he just scribbles a word or two and stops trying altogether.

Ms. Reyes, together with the other subject teachers and the Guidance
Counselor, discussed Carl’s behavior and performance in terms of his strengths,
needs, and strategies that have worked in the past. They have noted that giving
him a list of high-frequency words and sight words has been helpful. They
suggested to pair him up with a classmate, who is an able reader to help him
during writing tasks. They had a meeting with his parents and informed them
that he will be given supplementary reading and writing practice worksheets
to be answered at home to build automaticity in reading. And finally, he was
recommended to join an after-school English remedial class to address his
reading and spelling difficulties.

Ms. Reyes decided to refer Carl to the school’s Guidance Team to

determine reasons to account for his difficulties. The team advised Ms. Reyes on
what she needed to do in the pre-referral process. Ms. Reyes collected his sample
works across subject areas, reviewed his report cards from the previous grade
levels, and had a sit-down meeting with the rest o f his teachers.

II. ASSESSMENT
Assessment is the process o f collecting inform ation about a child’s
strengths and needs. It uses a problem-solving process that involves
a systematic collection as well as interpretation o f data gathered

u ia i-1•(.ft /, Components oJ Special ami Inclusive Education 57

(Salvia et al. 2013). Teachers and administrators make instructional decisions
based on the assessment results.
A. Assessm ent Purposes
Assessment has a variety of purpose in special and inclusive education.
It begins with initial identification that was explained in the previous section
in Child Find and the pre-referral process. The results of an assessment are
used to decide on a child’s educational placement and to plan instructional
programs for a child identified to have additional needs. Progress monitoring
and evaluation of teaching programs and services is another, the purpose
of which is to determine how effective programs are to assist the inclusive
teacher and the special education teacher. (Giuliani & Pierangelo 2012).
There are a variety of assessment methods that regular and special
education teachers can use. This section covers the following: (1) interviews,
(2) observations, (3) checklists or rating scales, and (4) tests.
B. M ethods o f A ssessm ent
Tests. School psychologists, educational diagnosticians, and other
related professionals use a variety of assessment tools to ensure that results
are valid and reliable. Norm-referenced tests are standardized assessments
that compare a child’s performance with a representative sample of students
of the same chronological age. Such tests are rigorously made by a team.
Results are reported as percentile ranks' and age and grade equivalent scores,
which makes it easier for professionals to determine class and individual
performance. While such quantitative reporting makes it easier to compare
the test performance of children in a class, it has its limitations in terms of
use in instructional planning. Intelligence Tests (e.g., Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Students and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale) and Achievement
Tests (Wide Range Achievement Tests and Kaufman Test of Educational
Achievement) are examples of norm-referenced assessments.
On the other hand, criterion-referenced tests compare a child s
performance based on established standards and competencies and can be
used to describe student performance (Jennings et al. 2006 as cited in Spinelli
2012). Scores are typically reported as simple numerical scores, percentage
of correct responses, letter grades, or graphic score reports. Such assessment
data are more useful and relevant as these provide specific skills a child has
mastered and those that need additional instruction (Gargiulo 2012).
Informal Assessment. Professionals also use hforn,-,.
standardized assessments, which are considered more authentic a ^ d T ’
can be used primarily to describe performance and in fo m i„s, ru t on Uch
assessments can be curricuium-based or p erform an ce-^ uc a , e
teacher-made instruments used in ciassrooms and ponfolio'assessmems
For example, the use of reading inventories where a teachrrlistens to a child
read wh.le counting for accuracy and speed is an example of an informal
assessment. "normal
Authentic Assessment. The use of tests, whether fonhal or informal is
only one method of assessment. There are other ways of assessing students
considered at-nsk for developmental delays or have additional needs
One that is highly recommended by professionals is the use of authentic
assessment methods and tools. Authentic assessments provide students
the opportunity to apply knowledge and skills in meaningful, real-wotld
settings (e.g, classroom, playground, etc.) rather than in an artificial and
contrived setting (Dennis et al. 2013). Assessment tasks that are more real-
life are considered more authentic.
An example of authentic assessment is observation ofyoung students as
they interact with family members, peers, and objects in naturally occurring
activities across settings (e.g, home, school, playground, etc.), and roulines
During observations, teachers and specialists can use running records'
which focuses on the occurrence of behaviors as they happen sequentially
Clay (2000 as cited in Dennis et al. 2013) identified essential information to be
included in a running record:
• Date and time of the observation
• Names of children involved
• Location of the incident
• Verbatim recording of what the children said
• Actual events that occurred
Anecdotal records contain shorter descriptions of incidents or anecdotes
that teachers and specialists can use to analyze a student’s behavior and
plan strategies for a specific child or group of children. Other examples of
authentic assessment for young children are play-based assessment and
portfolio assessment.
The different assessment methods and tools used to assess Carl after the
pre-referral process are discussed in the following.
 Carl's Assessment

Despite the instructional support and after-school remedial class,

Carl continued to display difficulties in reading, spelling, oral reading fluency,
and written expression. Because such difficulties persisted, Ms. Reyes and
the team decided to refer him to a developmental pediatrician and a school
psychologist to conduct a psycho educational evaluation to determine the
underlying reasons for Carl’s literacy difficulties.

The school psychologist used a battery of tests: intelligence and

achievement tests in reading, spelling, written expression, and math. He also
interviewed Carl, his parents, and his teachers to know about his interests,
strengths, and views about himself, and gathered some of Carl’s school work.
The school psychologist then analyzed the results and eventually diagnosed
him with a specific learning disability or dyslexia (see Chapter 6).

Carl’s current grade level: Grade 3

IQ Average to High Average Level

Reading level Beginning Grade 1

Spelling Beginning Grade 1

Written expression Below Average

Reading Comprehension Beginning Grade 1

Listening Comprehension Grade 4

Math Average

Based on this clinical diagnosis, instructional decisions were made to deter­

mine the appropriate placement for Carl.

C. Assessment Principles
Assessment practices should be anchored on principles as provided
by the Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Student
(DEC) (2014). Child- and family-centered practices, a team-based approach,
application of individualized and appropriate process, and use of genuine
and meaningful communication that adhere to ethical and legal practices
are the recommendations provided by the DEC.
 Thus, a variety of assessment methods and fools, use of authentic
measures, as well as involvement of the fam ily are accessary to make
decisions for placement and instructional planning (DF.C20M).

HI. PLACEMENT
Assessment results are used to decide a child’s appropriate education
placement within a continuum from the least to the most restrictive settings.
During the evaluation, student perform ance is assessed and the team
determines if there would be any changes in the educational placement
within the continuum. Teams w ill base this on their observations, assessment
results, and other factors, with the goal to move toward the least restrictive
learning environment. Sound decisions are made to allow for fluidity in the
child’s placement based on the child’s strengths, abilities,and needs.

A c tiv ity 4.2:

W h a t Is th e B est P la ce m e n t fo r C a r l?

Before we continue, let us pause and think about our sample case, Carl.
Refer back to Carl’s Assessment to review his background and the assessment
results. What do you think is the best placement for him? If he stays in his
current school, what support does he need to meet academic expectations?
Should he be pulled out of the school and study in a special school? Turn to a
partner and discuss your insights. Be ready to share with the class.

A general education classroom is the least restrictive environment

for a child with additional needs. Access to the same learning experiences
and opportunities is provided as to typically developing students. Thus it
is considered as the “most normalized or typical setting” (Gargiulo, 2012).
Additional support in the form of accommodations or changesin expectations
through curriculum modifications may be provided but still within the same
classroom as peers within the year level.

Another option for placement is to be in a general education class but

the child receives supplementary instruction and services such as speech,
physical, and occupational therapy or counseling services during the school
day. Options may be provided when such sessions are conducted, either
during school or as an after-school service.

Students who may be part of a general education class are pulled-out

of their class to receive instruction from a specialist teacher in a resource
room. In such a placement, it is assumed that the child w ill benefit more from

n/4 ;t k '« Components nl Special and Inclusive Education 61

either a small-group or individualized instruction with a specialist teacher
who w ill he able to more intensively target his learning needs.
Other students need more intensive support that is not provided in a
general education class. Teams may decide to recommend placement for a
child in a more restrictive setting such as a self-contained special education
class but still located in a general education school. In this learning
environment, all students receive individualized and group instruction with
peers w ith disabilities and additional needs from a special education teacher.
Depending on the program goals, students m ay be given the opportunity to
interact w ith typically developing peers through school com m unity-building ;
activities.
M oving up in the placement continuum , some students who need more
intensive instruction and supports are educated in a special education class j
in a special education school. Teams of professionals, along w ith the special
education teacher, work with students w ith disabilities and additional needs
in a high ly specialized setting. j
On the other end of the continuum is the most restrictive or isolated
setting, such as a residential facility where students live and receive their
educational support twenty-four hours a day. Fin ally, children w ith m ultiple
disabilities, often of the severe kind, are provided w ith home- or hospital-
based program s to m anage their m edical condition and learn as m uch as
they could.

Inclusive education espouses that all students, to the m axim um extent

possible, is provided access to general education classroom w ith the provision
of support to remove barriers to enable success. Figure 4.2 presents this
continuum o f educational placement options (Spinelli 2012).
 Home/Hospital program

Residential facility

Special education class in a special

education
Self-contained special education class in a
general education
General education class with resource center .
instruction
General education class (inclusion or co-taught with a
special education teacher)

General education class with related services

General education class with modifications

Figure 4.2. Educational placement options.

IV. ACCOMMODATIONS AND CURRICULAR MODIFICATIONS

Students with disabilities and additional needs who are studying in
an inclusive general education classroom may need accommodations in the
form of instructional support and other supplementary services. Others who
need more intensive support are provided with curricular modifications.

A. Accommodations
Based on the definition, accommodations are supports provided to
students to help gain full access to class content and instruction, without
altering the curriculum standards and competencies expected and to
demonstrate accurately what they know. When accommodations are provided
in a general education classroom for children with disabilities, barriers are
removed from accessing education. As a result, children can work around
the effect of their disabilities. Examples of accommodations are altering
instruments, toys or materials, changing the room during specific activities,
providing time extensions or allowances for tests and tasks, and changing
response formats in worksheets.
Accommodations may be provided both during assessment and
instruction, depending on the learning profile and needs of a child and may
vary in terms of presentation, response, set ting, and scheduling (Beech 2010).
 1. Presentation Accommodations
Children with disabilities may need specialized presentation
formats especially those with sensory impairments so they can
learn the same content alongside typically developing peers. Table
4.1 presents examples of accommodations in presentation.

Table 4.1. Accommodations in presentation

Lea rn in g Needs Examples of Accommodations

Visual support Minimize visual distraction
Visual cues (e.g., use color-coded text, highlighting)
Use of larger print materials (font size, illustrations)
Use of sign language
Videos with closed captioning
Auditory and Read aloud by a peer
comprehension Audio books
support
Digital text that reads aloud or gives definition of words
Text-to-speech software
Advance organizer or story guide
Highlighting or color coding

Listening and focusing Advance organizer

Explicit verbal or visual cues; physical prompts
Repeat/Clarify directions and important information
Note-taking support
Copy of directions

2. Response Accommodations
Response accommodations allow students with disabilities
and additional needs a variety of ways to complete assignments,
written tests, performance tasks, and other activities. Providing
such instructional and assessment supports allows them to access
the same learning experiences as other students in a general
education classroom. Table 4.2 summarizes examples of response
accommodations for students with disabilities and additional
needs.
64 Foundations cf Special and Inclusive Education
 Table 4.2. Response accommodations

Learning Needs Examples of Accommodations

Different size/diameter of pencil, marker, or crayon

Writing difficulty (e.g.,
errors in spacing, visual-
perceptual or spatial-
orientation, illegible
handwriting)
Pencil or pen grip (triangular, pear-shaped)
Scribe to record dictated responses
Finger spacer
Handwriting template/guide on the student’s desk
Visual cues on paper
Different types and sizes of paper

Electronic dictionary with spell check

Online dictionary
Written expression Word processor with spelling and grammar check
difficulty Writing cue cards
List of sight words
Writing templates, outlines, and graphic organizers

Calculator
Concrete models and manipulatives
Visual representation
Math difficulty Problem-solving guides
Graphic organizers
Special paper - graphing paper for computation

3. Setting Accommodations
Changes in the location or conditions of the educational
setting or environment may be necessary for students who need
support in terms of behavior, attention, and organization of
space and materials. Accommodation in a setting may allow a
child who gets easily distracted to work in a quiet comer of the
classroom in his own study carrel so that he will not be sidetracked
by environmental stimuli. Or a child who is still unable to read
fluently may be allowed to take a silent reading comprehension test
in another room with a supervising adult just so she could hear
herself read aloud which helps her better understand the story.

4. Scheduling Accommodations
Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and assessments,
and management of time are some types of scheduling

CHAP1EP4 Components ol Special and Inclusive Education 65

 accommodations. Students with slower ability in processing
information and directions well as with focusing issues may need
these types of accommodation. Some examples of accommodation
that can modify scheduling are: (1) extending time for assignments
andassessments;(2)providingbreaksinbetweentasks;(3)providing
a visual schedule or a checklist of individual responsibilities; (4)
providing predictable routines and procedures; and (5) providing
an electronic device with alarms and cues.

B. M od ificatio n s

Curriculum modifications are provided for students with significant

or severe disabilities where content expectations are altered, and the
performance outcomes are changed in relation to what are expected of
typically developing students of the same age (DEC 2007). When instruction
and assessment are modified, a student with disability is still given the right
to access the same learning opportunities as other students in the general
education class, but the tasks are more respectful and appropriate to the
student’s abilities and needs.

Curricular modifications include changes in instructional level, content

and performance criteria, as well as the breadth and depth of content being
learned by students. Students with disabilities or additional needs may be
given more, less, or different content and resource materials altogether. They
may also be assessed using different standards that are more appropriate
to the student’s needs and abilities, such as being provided with fewer
objectives, shorter lessons, or a smaller number of vocabulary words to learn.
Educational teams responsible for instructional planning may indicate
curricular modifications in the student’s Individual Educational Plan (IEP).
Such modifications are needed so that students also have access to the general
education curriculum.
Let us have a look at Carl’s learning profile. Does he need accommodations
or curricular modifications? The text below presents the learning supports
Carl receives in the context of his reading and spelling difficulties.

C arl’s Learn in g Supports

Centered Given the significant delays in Carl’s reading and spelling

performance, the team decided to provide him with different types
of accommodation that adjusted the presentation of what is learned,
hn'k' he responds, as well as the timing when tests are given. Ms. Santos
 prepared his reading materials and worksheets using a higher font size
and more space in between lines to allow him to poinr f« words as he
reads, and to use a ruler so he would not lose his place white reading. In
tests that require extensive w riting, he is still made to write as much as
he could and after which he is asked to either give a verb*! explanation
to support what he has written or he dictates his oral responses to a
scribe. The teacher now considers the oral exam as a respectful
accommodation as Carl is still able to access the same learnmgstandards
and opportunities despite his difficulties.

V. PARENT INVOLVEMENT
Another component of an inclusive and special education is parent
involvement. It haslongbeen established that parent involvement in education,
planning, and management of children with disabilities andaddirional needs
is essential as they are the prim ary caregivers and have direct influence
on their children. This is anchored on Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecological
Theory, which states that there are five environmental systems that comprise
a child’s social context. For the purposes of this book, focus is given on the
microsystem, where the child and his/her family belong, along with peers,
school, and the immediate community (i.e., neighborhood). Within these
microsystems, a child has direct interactions with parents, teachers, peers, and
others; while the mesosystem refers to the linkages or relationships between
microsystems such as the connections between family experiences and schcoi
experiences and between family and peers (Santrock 2011).
 The Division of F.arly Childhood of the Council of Exceptional Children
(PEC) espoused the use of family-centered practices in the assessment and
instruction of young children. Turnbull and Turnbull (2002 cited in Kirk
rt al. 2013) provided the principles of a family-centered model: (1) honors
(hP family choice by changing the power relationship between professional
and families, (2) abandons a pathology orientation and adopts a strengths
orientation, and (3) where the entire family becomes the unit of support
and not just the child with a disability and the child’s mother (p. 19). In this
way. the whole fam ily is provided support, capitalizing on the child and
family members’ strengths and resources, not on their deficits and needs.
Teachers and administrators may also be guided by these principles when
communicating and collaborating with parents and families of students
with disabilities.

Parent involvement has been found to be directly related to academic

achievement and improvements in the school performance of children.
Educational support and collaboration with teachers have been found to
promote child success in school (Reschly & Christenson 2009). Moreover,
programs for children with disabilities become more effective and successful
when children and fam ilies are involved (Newman 2004 cited in Heward
2013).

A. H om e-School C o m m u n icatio n
Having established the critical role of parents in a student’s
developmental and academic progress and achievement, it is
essential that there is a close home and school collaboration and
communication. To establish partnerships, problem-solving, two-
way communication, and shared decision making are some of the
practices needed. Communicating with parents may be done in
several ways.

1. P a ren t-T ea ch er C on feren ces

Parent-teacher conferences are face-to-face meetings held
between parents and teachers. Conducting such meetings is
necessary so parents of students with disabilities and additional
needs will be able to share about their child's background,
strengths and abilities, history of difficulties, and practices they
have been implementing at home as well as interventions done
with other specialists. Together with teachers, they can coordinate
their efforts and services to support their child both in school and
at home.
 Schools differ when if comes to fhe frequency of parent
feacher conferences. One hest practice is to hold a meeting with
parents at the beginning of a school year as part §f goal setting
for the student with a disability. In this way, both parents and
teachers can set expectations for fhe year and agree on goals and
objectives for the child. This is also a good opportunity for teachers
to establish rapport with parents. Conferences are also held after
every grading period (e g., every quarter, trimester, and semester)
so that progress, changes, and results can he communicated and
discussed with parents and agree on necessary action plans.

2. W ritte n C o m m u n icatio n
Home-school communication may also be conducted through
written messages, such as the use of a home-school communication
notebook, where teachersandparents write homeworkassignments,
the student’s behavior in the classroom, as well as progress on
program goals. A written communication m aybe time consuming,
but some parents prefer this form of collaboration as the messages
are documented and they can provide a copy to a developmental
specialist when needed.

3. D igital co m m u n icatio n
With the influx of mobile devices, many parents and families
are more able to communicate through electronic and digital
means such as email, text messages, and social network messaging
systems. A study found that parents and teachers perceive
technology as an effective tool to promote parent involvement and
thus value its use for communication (Olmstead 2013). Because it
is instant and real-time, parents and teachers are immediately
able to receive messages and updates about the student However,
drawbacks can also occur such as when both parties are not
mindful of parameters in communication; hence, it is necessary
that parties agree on certain boundaries in order to be respectful
of everyone's time and personal space.

4. H o m e-School C on tracts
A home-school contract contains an agreement between
teachers and parents regarding behavioral and/or academic goals
for a student with disability, just like any formal contract, this
is a written agreement between teachers, parents, and students

111•i' 11 i• l oiujjiim iiuui Special ami Inclusive education 69

 (when appropriate) on specific objectives and corresponding
reinforcements or rewards when they are met.

One example of a home-school contract is a Daily Report Card,

an individualized intervention used in schools that is anchored
on the behavioral principles of operant conditioning. The card
Indicates specific behaviors targeted for a child with disability that
are Trained as positive statements and targets for improvements.
The use of a daily report card has been found to be beneficial in
helping a child with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in
school and in promoting daily collaboration between teachers and
parents (Moore et al. 2016; Mautone et al. 2012). This will be further
discussed in Chapter 6.

B. O ther W ays to In volve Parents

Parents also have strengths, abilities, intuitive knowledge, and
the commitment to help their own child. They become advocates
of their own children. To maximize their involvement, schools
provide other opportunities such as parent education training,
workshops, and parent support groups.
a. Parent education may take the form of providing seminars and
workshops to parents to equip them with a better understanding
of their child’s disability and.accompanying strengths, uniqueness,
as well as specific techniques and strategies that they can practice
at home. Such training sessions can be for a few hours done on
a quarterly basis or for a regular period, such as every Saturday,
depending on the needs of the parents and the training capacity
of the school. In this way, parents become educated in evidence-
based approaches so that there will be continuity in the practices
implemented between the home and school.

b. Parent support groups are also helpful as parents are able

to ask other parents about tips and techniques to work with
their children. Parents should be empowered so that they can
participate in planning and organizing parent support groups.
Through such groups, parents can draw support from one another
during meetings as they share techniques and strategies, even
frustrations and successes about their children.

.In summary, this chapter has presented the different

components of inclusive and special education, which include the
following: pre-referral, assessment, placement, accommodations

"7b foundations ot Snerial and Inclusive [-ducation

 curricular modifications, and parent involvement Across these
components, a team approach is highly recommended where each
m em ber-the child, parents, general education teacher, special
education teacher, therapists, and other specialists—coordinate
and collaborate in planning and making decisions for the child
with disabilities.

A ctivity 4.3:

A n ticip ation Guide

After reading the chapter, reread the following statements

and indicate your answers (either True or False) under the After
Reading column. Were your answers right the first time?

Statements Before After

Reading Reading

1. A child suspected to have a disability should

immediately be referred for special education
testing.
2. Norm-referenced tests provide better information
for instructional planning than criterion-
referenced tests.

3. The least restrictive setting should be considered

as placement for children with disabilities.

4. When providing accommodations, teachers

change the curriculum standards and content to
provide a leveled playing field for children with
disabilities.
5. Programs for children with disabilities become
more effective and successful when children and
families are involved.

Review

Let us go back to the beginning of the chapter and check if you are
able to meet the objectives. This time, on your own, answer the following
questions by using what you have learned from the chapter. When you are
ready, discuss your answers with a partner.