MODULE 2: PERSPECTIVES OF HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT (2 Credits)
Unit 4: Methods and Approaches of Studying Human
development
a) Methods:
Observation (Participatory And Non- Participatory)

b) Experimental & Clinical.

c) Approaches:
Cross Sectional, Cross Cultural, Longitudinal.
Mrs.Deepali Gaikwad / Borde
 INTRODUCTION

Meaning of APPROACHES:

► A way of dealing with a situation or problem.

► An approach in studying child development is

important as it helps to understand the way the child
behaves in different age group.
Approaches
CROSS - SECTIONAL APPROACH

CROSS - CULTURAL APPROACH

LONGITUDINAL APPROACH
 Cross sectional approach
Meaning and Definition

► Cross-sectional research studies are based on

observations that take place in different groups at
one time.

► A cross section means “a typical or representative

sample of a large group”.

► Cross-sectional research involves using different

groups of people who differ in the variable of interest
but share other characteristics, such as
socioeconomic status, educational background, and
ethnicity.
► Cross-sectional method examines several
groups of people at one point in time.

► For example, if you investigated changes in

social behaviour in 20-, 30-, and 40-year olds
all measured at one point in time, you would
be conducting a cross-sectional research
study.

► The cross sectional method of investigation

often is used when the research aim is to
compare developmental levels at various
ages or backgrounds.
► Many children at different ages are studied in groups in according
to their age, and the results on the same sets of measures are
compared for the group.

► Example, the approximate age at which an infant can be

expected to roll over, creep, crawl, pull himself up to a standing
position, and walk unaided can be determined by observing the
behavior of groups of children from birth until the age of about 15
months.

► If the investigator, study a group of one month old infants, another

group of two month olds, and a different group of babies at every
month of age thereafter, we will have a cross sectional approach.
Characteristics :
► People are studied at a “point” in time, without follow up.

► Variables are not manipulated by researchers

► Provide information only; do not answer why

► Cross-sectional studies include surveys

► Allows teachers to look at numerous things

at once (age, income, gender)
 Uses
► In psychology, cross-sectional research
studies are often used by researchers
studying developmental psychology.

► They often do this to examine changes in

similar groups at different ages.

► However, a cross-sectional study may also

compare groups from different
backgrounds.

► A cross sectional study may also compare

people from different backgrounds.
Advantages/Merits
► Using a cross-sectional design has one advantage in that a study can
be conducted in a shorter amount of time as opposed to waiting for a
group of 5 year olds to reach the age of 15 and observe the changes
in social behavior over the course of 10 years

► A cross-sectional study may also compare people from different

backgrounds.

► Cross-sectional studies help us to identify the age-demarcated

transitions during which one or more changes take place, and
individual differences in the ages at which an ability is acquired.
► Efficient, large numbers of subjects

► Can measure attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, personal or

family history, genetic factors, existing or past health
conditions, or anything else that does not require
follow-up to assess.

► Easy and quick

► Less expensive

► Can target a larger sample size

Limitations/ Demerits / Disadvantages
► Differences do not necessarily reflect individual’s development

► Differences between age groups reveal just that – differences – and not the
process of developmental change within the child.

► Information on individual change is not available

► Risk of no-response

► Cannot be used to analysed behaviour over a period to time.

► Does not help determine cause and effect.

Cross Cultural Approach
 Meaning:
► The study of the relationship between cultural
context and human behaviour.

► This approach comparing two or more cultures

and understanding their values, beliefs and
norms.

► Dealing with or offering comparison between two

or more different cultures or cultural areas.

► People differ culturally to the extent that their

customs, roles and other learned behaviours that
are passed on from generation to generation are
different.
 Merits or advantages
► The advantage of the cross-cultural approach as compared with the
single cultural research approach is that the possibilities for
misinterpretation are less with the former.

► It permits generalization to other societies or cultures or subcultures of

the same nation

► Confirming and exploring the university of some relationship or attribute

of social man

► It maximize the amount or range of variation.

► Natural experiments, in which regions differ In some
environmental factor which can be studied using an
experimental treatment

► Maximum variability studies.

► It helps in inter-cultural awareness.

Limitations/ Demerits / Disadvantages
► Cultural variations

► Order of needs does not always hold true for other cultures

► Biased response/risk of no-response

► Expensive as compared to cross sectional study

► Interpretation may vary from person to person

► The studies might be unsuccessfully, the
researcher could be stuck.

► Time consuming.

► It is difficult to reach a conclusion.

Longitudinal Approach
 Meaning:
► A longitudinal study is an observational research method in which data is
gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time. Longitudinal
research projects can extend over years or even decades.

► Is a research in which a researcher measures a particular group of people for a

long period of time.

► In this research method, many observation are being conducted over long
periods of time on the same group or number of people.

► Example –
A group of new-born babies who were available for month-by-month
measurements, one can complete the study with repeated observations.
Characteristics :

► Longer duration

► Specific individual development can be

studied

► Include surveys

► expensive
 Merits or advantages
► Specific development pattern of individual can be studies and compared .

► Variation in development among individuals within the sample can be studied – since
it tracks the performance of each person over time, research can identify common
patterns as well as individual differences in development.

► This studies permit investigators to examine relationships between early and later
events and behaviours.

► Effective in doing research on developmental trends.

► They are more powerful than cross sectional studies.

► They are highly flexible.

► They can provide high accuracy when observing changes.

Limitations/ Demerits / Disadvantages
► Long period

► Time consuming

► More expensive

► Difficulty in maintaining data

► Risk of sample size reducing due to change in place etc.

► Cannot be repeated because of practical constraints.