Cyclic Decompositions

Subject: Linear Algebra

Lesson: Cyclic Decompositions
Lesson Developer: Rajesh Singh and Dr. Radha Mohan
College/Department: Department of Mathematics,
University of Delhi and
Department of Mathematics,
St. Stephens College,
University of Delhi

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 2

Table of Contents

Chapter: Cyclic Decompositions

1. Learning Outcomes
2. Prerequisites
3. Preliminaries
4. Introduction
4.1. Cyclic Subspaces and Annihilators
4.2. Cyclic Decompositions
5. Solved Problems
6. Summary
7. Exercises
8. References

"𝑨𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒍𝒔𝒆, 𝒔𝒐 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒚:

𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒖𝒕𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅. "

𝑨𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒖𝒓 𝑪𝒂𝒚𝒍𝒆𝒚, 𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟏– 𝟏𝟖𝟗𝟓

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 3

1.LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter the reader will become well versed with the following topics:
 𝑇-Cyclic subspace generated by a given vector
 Cyclic vector of a given linear operator 𝑇
 𝑇-annihilator of a given vector
 Cyclic decompositions of a given linear operator 𝑇

2. PREREQUISITES
It is expected that the reader knows the definition of all the terms listed below and is
familiar with all basic concepts associated with these terms.

 Vector space, basis of a vector space, Linear Operator

 Characteristic and minimal polynomial of a Linear Operator
 Invariant Subspaces, Annihilators
 Matrix Representations of a Linear Operator
 Diagonalizable operators

3. PRELIMINARIES
To make the text self-contained some of the basic definitions and results needed in this
chapter are listed.

Theorem 3.1(𝑪𝒂𝒚𝒍𝒆𝒚-𝑯𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒐𝒏) Let 𝑇be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector

space 𝑉 over a field 𝐹. If 𝑓is the characteristic polynomial for 𝑇, then 𝑓(𝑇) = 0 i.e., every
linear operator satisfies its characteristic polynomial. In other words, the minimal
polynomial divides the characteristic polynomial for 𝑇.

Theorem3.2Let 𝑇be a linear operator on an 𝑛-dimensional vector space 𝑉. The

characteristic and the minimal polynomials for 𝑇have the same roots, except for
multiplicities.

Definition 3.3(𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆)Let 𝑉 be a vector space and 𝑇a linear operator on 𝑉.

If 𝑊is a subspace of 𝑉, we say that 𝑊is invariant under 𝑻if for each vector 𝛼in 𝑊,the
vector 𝑇𝛼is in 𝑊, i.e., if 𝑇(𝑊)is contained in 𝑊. For convenience 𝑊 is called as𝑇-invariant
subspace of 𝑉.

Definition 3.4(𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆)Let 𝑊 be an invariant subspace for

𝑇and let 𝛼 be a vectorin 𝑉. The 𝑻-conductor of 𝜶into 𝑾is the set𝑆𝑇 𝛼; 𝑊 , which consists
ofall polynomials 𝑔(over the scalar field) such that 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 is in 𝑊. For simplicity this set is
denoted by𝑆 𝛼; 𝑊 , if there is no ambiguity on the linear operator under consideration.

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 4

Note that 𝑆 𝛼; 𝑊 is an ideal in 𝐹 𝑥 . The unique monic generator of the ideal 𝑆 𝛼; 𝑊 is

also called 𝑻-conductor of 𝜶into 𝑾and is denoted by 𝑠 𝛼; 𝑊 . Clearly, 𝑇-conductor of 𝛼
into 𝑊 is the monic polynomial 𝑔 of least degree such that 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 is in 𝑊.

4. INTRODUCTION
Throughout 𝑉will be considered to be a finite-dimensional vector space over the field 𝐹
and 𝑇 is any linear operator on 𝑉. From the invariant direct sum theory it is known that if
𝑇 is diagonalizable operator then 𝑇 can be expressed as a linear sums of projection
operators on 𝑉. Also, from primary decomposition theory it is known that any linear
operator on a vector space over an algebraically closed field is expressible as a sum of a
diagonalizable and nilpotent operator. Since diagonalizable operators are studied
extensively, hence the study reduces only to nilpotent operators. In this chapter we
again try to decompose a linear operator 𝑇 defined on a finite-dimensional vector space
𝑉 in the more general setting than already achieved. In fact, it will be shown that every
linear operator on a finite-dimensional vector space is expressible as the direct sum of
linear operators, each of which has a cyclic vector (to be defined later). Thus in order to
study any general linear operator, it would be enough to study the operators which have
cyclic vectors.

4.1 Cyclic Subspaces and Annihilators

In this section cyclic subspaces and annihilators related to them are discussed. For
defining the concept of cyclic subspaces, following result is needed.

Theorem4.1.1 Let 𝑉 be a finite-dimensional vector space over the field 𝐹 and 𝑇 be a

linear operator on 𝑉. For any vector 𝛼 in 𝑉, the set 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼∶ 𝑔∈𝐹 𝑥 is the smallest 𝑇-
invariant subspace of 𝑉 which contains 𝛼.

Proof: Let 𝑈 = 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 . Then 𝑈 is clearly a 𝑇-invariant subspace of 𝑉 containing

𝛼.Let 𝑊 be any 𝑇-invariant subspace of 𝑉 containing 𝛼. Now consider
𝛼 ∈ 𝑊 ⇒ 𝑇𝛼 ∈ 𝑊
⇒ 𝑇 2 𝛼 = 𝑇 𝑇𝛼 ∈ 𝑊
⇒ 𝑇3𝛼 = 𝑇 𝑇2𝛼 ∈ 𝑊
…………
𝑘 +1
⇒𝑇 𝛼 = 𝑇 𝑇𝑘 𝛼 ∈ 𝑊 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑘 ∈ ℕ.
Thus
𝑇𝑘 𝛼 ∶ 𝑘 ≥ 0 ⊆ 𝑊
⇒ 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑇 𝑘 𝛼 ∶ 𝑘 ≥ 0 ⊆ 𝑊
⇒𝑈= 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼∶ 𝑔∈𝐹 𝑥 ⊆ 𝑊. ∵ 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑇 𝑘 𝛼 ∶ 𝑘 ≥ 0 = 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 5

Since 𝑊 is an arbitrary 𝑇-invariant subspace of 𝑉 containing 𝛼, hence it follows that 𝑈 is

the smallest 𝑇-invariant subspace of 𝑉 containing 𝛼. ∎

Definition 4.1.2 Let 𝑉 be a finite-dimensional vector space over the field 𝐹, 𝑇 be a

linear operator on 𝑉 and 𝛼 be any vector in 𝑉. The 𝑻-cyclic subspace of 𝑽generated
by 𝜶, denoted by 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 , is the set of all vectors of the form 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼, 𝑔 in 𝐹 𝑥 . Thus
𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑇 𝑘 𝛼 ∶ 𝑘 ≥ 0 .
Clearly, from Theorem 4.1.1, 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 is the smallest 𝑇-invariant subspace of 𝑉 containing
𝛼. Also, the𝑇-cyclic subspace generated by zero vector is clearly the zero subspace of the
vector space 𝑉.The vector 𝛼 is said to be a cyclic vector for 𝑻 if 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑉 i.e 𝑉 is itself
the 𝑇-cyclic subspace generated by𝛼.

It is important to note that there are linear operators which have no cyclic vectors. The
identity operator 𝐼 on any vector space 𝑉 of dimension at least 2 has no cyclic vectors,
since for any vector 𝛼 of 𝑉, the subspace 𝑍 𝛼; 𝐼 is one dimensional proper subspace of 𝑉.
The zero operator defined on any non-zero vector space is another trivial example of an
operator not having any cyclic vectors.

Proposition4.1.3The space 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 is one dimensional if and only if 𝛼 is a characteristic

vector for 𝑇.
Proof: Let 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 be a one dimensional subspace of the vector space 𝑉. Then clearly
𝛼 ≠ 0 and hence it follows that 𝑍(𝛼; 𝑇) = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛{𝛼}. Now as 𝑇𝛼 ∈ 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 , therefore 𝑇𝛼 = 𝑐𝛼 for
some 𝑐 in 𝐹. Thus 𝛼 is a characteristic vector for 𝑇.
Conversely, Let 𝛼 be a characteristic vector for 𝑇. Then there exists a scalar 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹 such
that 𝑇𝛼 = 𝑐𝛼. Then it follows that 𝑇 𝑘 𝛼 = 𝑐 𝑘 𝛼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑘 ∈ ℕ. Thus
𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑇 𝑘 𝛼 ∶ 𝑘 ≥ 0 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝛼 .
Hence it follows that 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 is a one dimensional subspace of 𝑉. ∎

Example 4.1.4 Let 𝐹 be any field. Consider the vector space 𝑉 = 𝐹 2 = 𝐹 × 𝐹 over the field
𝐹 and the linear operator 𝑇 on 𝑉 which is represented in the standard ordered basis
𝑒1 = 1, 0 , 𝑒2 = 0, 1 by the matrix
0 0
.
1 0
Then 𝑒1 is a cyclic vector for 𝑇 i.e., 𝑍(𝑒1 ; 𝑇) = 𝑉. Moreover, 𝑍(𝑒2 ; 𝑇) is one dimensional
subspace of 𝑉.
Proof: Consider
0 0 1 0
𝑇𝑒1 = = = 𝑒2 .
1 0 0 1
Hence it follows that 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 ∈ 𝑍(𝑒1 ; 𝑇) and thus 𝑍(𝑒1 ; 𝑇) = 𝑉.
Now
0 0 0 0
𝑇𝑒2 = = = 0𝑒2 .
1 0 1 0

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 6

Thus 𝑍(𝑒2 ; 𝑇) is one dimensional subspace of 𝑉 spanned by 𝑒2 . ∎

For any linear operator 𝑇 on 𝑉 and vector 𝛼 in 𝑉, since 𝑍 𝛼: 𝑇 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑇 𝑘 𝛼 ∶ 𝑘 ≥ 0 ,it

becomes interesting to find linear relations of the form
𝑐𝑘 𝑇 𝑘 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑘−1 𝑇 𝑘−1 𝛼 + ⋯ + 𝑐0 𝛼 = 0
between the vectors 𝑇𝑗 𝛼. That is we need to find polynomials 𝑔 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 such that 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 = 0.

Let 𝑀(𝛼; 𝑇) denote the set consisting of all polynomials 𝑔 over 𝐹 such that 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 = 0 i.e.,

𝑀 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑔 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 ∶ 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 = 0 .

Proposition 4.1.5If 𝛼 is any non-zero vector in 𝑉, then 𝑀 𝛼; 𝑇 is a non-zero principal

ideal of 𝐹 𝑥 generated by a unique monic polynomial.
Proof:Clearly, 𝑀(𝛼; 𝑇) is non-empty as zero polynomial belongs to 𝑀(𝛼; 𝑇). Also, since
𝑝 𝑇 𝛼 = 0 for the minimal polynomial 𝑝 of the linear operator 𝑇, therefore 𝑝 ∈ 𝑀(𝛼; 𝑇).
Hence 𝑀(𝛼; 𝑇) is non-zero. Let 𝑝𝛼 be the monic polynomial of least degree in 𝑀(𝛼; 𝑇) and
𝑕 ∈ 𝑀(𝛼; 𝑇) be any polynomial. Then by division algorithm, there exists 𝑞, 𝑟 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 such
that

𝑕 = 𝑞𝑝𝛼 + 𝑟 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ deg 𝑟 < deg 𝑝𝛼

⇒ 𝑕 𝑇 𝛼 = 𝑞 𝑇 𝑝𝛼 𝑇 𝛼 + 𝑟 𝑇 𝛼
⇒ 𝑟 𝑇 𝛼=0

But since deg 𝑟 < deg 𝑝𝛼 and 𝑟 𝑇 𝛼 = 0, therefore by minimality of 𝑝𝛼 we must have 𝑟 = 0
i.e., 𝑕 = 𝑞𝑝𝛼 . Thus𝑀 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑞𝑝𝛼 ∶ 𝑞 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 . It is easy to check that 𝑀 𝛼; 𝑇 is indeed an
ideal. Hence𝑀 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑝𝛼 is a non-zero principal ideal of 𝐹 𝑥 . Let 𝑔 be any monic
polynomial such that 𝑀 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑔 . Then as 𝑝𝛼 ∈ 𝑀 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑔 , therefore 𝑔 must divide 𝑝𝛼 .
Similarly, as 𝑔 ∈ 𝑀 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑝𝛼 , therefore 𝑝𝛼 also divides 𝑔. Hence 𝑝𝛼 = 𝜆𝑔 for some 𝜆 ∈ 𝐹.
But since 𝑝𝛼 and 𝑔 are monic polynomials, therefore 𝜆 = 1 i.e., 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑔. Hence the
uniqueness. █

Observations

1.𝑝𝛼 divides the minimal polynomial of the operator 𝑇.

2.deg 𝑝𝛼 = 0 if and only if 𝛼 = 0.

3. 𝑝𝛼 is the unique monic polynomial generating 𝑀 𝛼; 𝑇

(𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐).

Definition 4.1.6 If 𝛼 is any vector in 𝑉, the 𝑻-annihilator of 𝜶 is the ideal 𝑀(𝛼; 𝑇) in

𝐹𝑥 consisting of all polynomials 𝑔 over 𝐹 such that 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 = 0. The unique monic
polynomial 𝑝𝛼 which generates this ideal will also be called the 𝑻-annihilator of 𝜶.

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 7

Theorem 4.1.7 Let 𝛼 be any non-zero vector in 𝑉 and let 𝑝𝛼 be the 𝑇-annihilator of 𝛼.
Then
1. The degree of 𝑝𝛼 is equal to the dimension of the cyclic subspace 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 .
2. If the degree of 𝑝𝛼 is 𝑘, then the vectors 𝛼, 𝑇𝛼, 𝑇 2 𝛼, … , 𝑇 𝑘−1 𝛼 form a basis for 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 .
3. If 𝑈 is the linear operator on 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 induced by 𝑇, then the minimal polynomial for
𝑈 is 𝑝𝛼 .
Proof:Let deg 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑘. Then we claim that dim 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑘. For this we will show that
𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝛼, 𝑇𝛼, 𝑇 2 𝛼, … , 𝑇 𝑘−1 𝛼 and the set 𝛼, 𝑇𝛼, 𝑇 2 𝛼, … , 𝑇 𝑘−1 𝛼 is linearly independent.
Let 𝑔 be any polynomial in 𝐹 𝑥 . Then by division algorithm there exist polynomials
𝑕, 𝑟 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 such that
𝑔 = 𝑝𝛼 𝑕 + 𝑟 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ deg(𝑟) < deg 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑘.
Then since 𝑝𝛼 𝑇 𝛼 = 0, it follows that
𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 = 𝑟 𝑇 𝛼.
Now since 0 ≤ deg(𝑟) < deg 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑘, therefore𝑟 𝑇 𝛼 must be a linear combination of the
vectors 𝛼, 𝑇𝛼, 𝑇 2 𝛼, … , 𝑇 𝑘−1 𝛼 and consequently, we have 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 ∈ 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝛼, 𝑇𝛼, 𝑇 2 𝛼, … , 𝑇 𝑘−1 𝛼 .
As 𝑔 is an arbitrary polynomial in 𝐹 𝑥 , hence we have
𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝛼, 𝑇𝛼, 𝑇 2 𝛼, … , 𝑇 𝑘−1 𝛼 .
Now if the set 𝛼, 𝑇𝛼, 𝑇 2 𝛼, … , 𝑇 𝑘−1 𝛼 is linearly dependent, then there exist scalars
𝑐0 , 𝑐1 , … , 𝑐𝑘−1 , not all zero, such that
𝑐𝑘−1 𝑇 𝑘−1 𝛼 + ⋯ + 𝑐0 𝛼 = 0.
Thus we have a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑘−1 𝑥 𝑘−1 + ⋯ + 𝑐0 in 𝐹 𝑥 such that 𝑓 𝑇 𝛼 = 0 and
deg 𝑓 < 𝑘, which contradicts the minimality of deg 𝑝𝛼 . Hence the set 𝛼, 𝑇𝛼, 𝑇 2 𝛼, … , 𝑇 𝑘−1 𝛼
is linearly independent. This proves 1 and 2.
Let 𝑈 be the linear operator on 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 obtained by restricting 𝑇 to the subspace 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 of
𝑉. Consider for any element 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 ∈ 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 , where 𝑔 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥
𝑝𝛼 𝑈 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 = 𝑝𝛼 𝑇 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼
= 𝑔 𝑇 𝑝𝛼 𝑇 𝛼
=𝑔 𝑇 0
= 0.
Thus it follows that 𝑝𝛼 𝑈 is the zero operator on 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 . Now if there exists a polynomial
𝑕 in 𝐹 𝑥 such that 𝑕 𝑈 = 0 on 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 and deg 𝑕 < deg 𝑝𝛼 . Then as 𝛼 ∈ 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 , we must
have 𝑕 𝑇 𝛼 = 𝑕 𝑈 𝛼 = 0, contradicting minimality of 𝑝𝛼 . Thus it shows that 𝑝𝛼 is the
minimal polynomial for 𝑈. Hence 3 holds. ∎

Corollary 4.1.8 Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space 𝑉 over
the field 𝐹. If 𝑇 has a cyclic vector, then the minimal polynomial for 𝑇 is the
characteristic polynomial for 𝑇.

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 8

Proof: Let 𝛼 be a cyclic vector for 𝑇. Then 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑉. From Theorem 4.1.7, it follows
that the degree of 𝑝𝛼 is the dimension of the vector space 𝑉 and 𝑝𝛼 is the minimal
polynomial for 𝑇. Hence by Cayley-Hamilton Theorem,𝑝𝛼 is the characteristic polynomial
for 𝑇. ∎

Is the converse of the above corollary true i.e., if the minimal polynomial of 𝑇 and the
characteristic polynomial of 𝑇 are identical, then does T have a cyclic vector ? We are still
not in the position to answer this question. But it shall be seen later that 𝑇 has a cyclic
vector if and only if the minimal polynomial of 𝑇 and the characteristic polynomial of 𝑇
are identical.

Lemma 4.1.9 Let 𝑈 be a linear operator on a vector space 𝑊 of dimension 𝑘. If 𝑈 has a

cyclic vector 𝛼, then there exists an ordered basis ℬ of 𝑊 in which 𝑈 is represented by
the matrix
0 0 0 … 0 −𝑐0
1 0 0 … 0 −𝑐1
0 1 0 … 0 −𝑐2 , (𝑨)
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮ ⋮
0 0 0 … 1 −𝑐𝑘−1
where 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑘−1 𝑥 𝑘−1 + 𝑥 𝑘 is the 𝑈-annihilator of 𝛼.
Proof: Since 𝛼 is a cyclic vector for 𝑈, therefore from Theorem 4.1.7 it follows that
𝛼, 𝑈𝛼 , … , 𝑈 𝑘−1 𝛼 forms a basis for the space 𝑊 and the 𝑈-annihilating polynomial 𝑝𝛼 of 𝛼 is
the minimal polynomial for 𝑈 and also the characteristic polynomial of 𝑈. Now let
𝛼𝑖 = 𝑈 𝑖−1 𝛼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑘. Then clearly,
𝑈𝛼𝑖 = 𝛼𝑖+1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑘 − 1.
Now if 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑥 𝑘 + 𝑐𝑘 −1 𝑥 𝑘−1 + ⋯ + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐0 , then as 𝑝𝛼 𝑈 𝛼 = 0,
𝑈 𝑘 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑘−1 𝑈 𝑘−1 𝛼 + ⋯ + 𝑐1 𝑈𝛼 + 𝑐0 𝛼 = 0
⇒ 𝑈𝛼𝑘 + 𝑐𝑘 −1 𝛼𝑘 + ⋯ + 𝑐1 𝛼2 + 𝑐0 𝛼1 = 0
⇒ 𝑈𝛼𝑘 = −𝑐𝑘−1 𝛼𝑘 − ⋯ − 𝑐1 𝛼2 − 𝑐0 𝛼1 .
Thus the action of 𝑈 on the basis ℬ = 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑘 is as follows :
𝑈𝛼𝑖 = 𝛼𝑖+1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑘 − 1
𝑈𝛼𝑘 = −𝑐0 𝛼1 − 𝑐1 𝛼2 − ⋯ − 𝑐𝑘 −1 𝛼𝑘 .
Hence the matrix of 𝑈 w.r.t the ordered basis ℬ of 𝑊 is
0 0 0 … 0 −𝑐0
1 0 0 … 0 −𝑐1
0 1 0 … 0 −𝑐2 . ∎
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮ ⋮
0 0 0 … 1 −𝑐𝑘 −1

The matrix in (𝑨)is called the companion matrix of the monic polynomial 𝑝𝛼 .

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 9

Theorem 4.1.10 If 𝑈 is a linear operator on the finite-dimensional space 𝑊, then 𝑈 has

a cyclic vector if and only if there is some ordered basis for 𝑊 in which 𝑈 is represented
by the companion matrix of the minimal polynomial for 𝑈.
Proof:In Lemma 4.1.9it was shown that if 𝑈 has a cyclic vector, then there is such an
ordered basis for 𝑊. Conversely, if there exists an ordered basis ℬ of 𝑊 such that 𝑈 is
represented by the companion matrix of its minimal polynomial 𝑝 w.r.t the basis
ℬ = 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑘 ,then by the definition of companion matrix it follows that
𝑈𝛼𝑖 = 𝛼𝑖+1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑘 − 1 (𝟏)
𝑈𝛼𝑘 = −𝑐0 𝛼1 − 𝑐1 𝛼2 − ⋯ − 𝑐𝑘 −1 𝛼𝑘 , (𝟐)
where 𝑝 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑘−1 𝑥 𝑘−1 + 𝑥 𝑘 is the minimal polynomial for 𝑈.
Now let 𝛼 = 𝛼1 . We claim that 𝛼 is cyclic vector for 𝑈. From Equation 𝟏
𝛼𝑖 = 𝑈 𝑖−1 𝛼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑘 .
Hence it follows that
𝑊 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝛼𝑖 ∶ 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑘
= 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝛼, 𝑈𝛼, … , 𝑈 𝑘−1 𝛼
⊆ 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑈 𝑖−1 𝛼 ∶ 𝑖 ∈ ℕ
= 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑈
⊆ 𝑊.
Thus 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑈 = 𝑊 and hence 𝛼 is a cyclic vector for 𝑈. Finally we will show that 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑝.
From 𝟐 ,
𝑈 𝑘 𝛼 = −𝑐0 𝛼 − 𝑐1 𝑈𝛼 − ⋯ − 𝑐𝑘−1 𝑈 𝑘 −1 𝛼
⇒ 𝑝 𝑈 𝛼 = 0.
Thus 𝑝 ∈ 𝑀 𝛼; 𝑈 and since deg 𝑝 = dim 𝑊 = 𝑘, therefore 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑝. Hence the theorem
follows. ∎

Corollary 4.1.11 If 𝐴 is the companion matrix of a monic polynomial 𝑝, then 𝑝 is both

minimal and the characteristic polynomial of 𝐴.
Proof: Let deg 𝑝 = 𝑘. Now consider the vector space 𝐹 𝑘 over the field 𝐹. Let 𝑈 be the
linear operator on 𝐹 𝑘 which is represented by matrix 𝐴 w.r.t standard ordered basis of
𝐹 𝑘 . Now since 𝐴 is the companion matrix of a monic polynomial 𝑝, therefore by Theorem
4.1.10it follows that 𝑈 has a cyclic vector (say) 𝛼 and 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑝 is the minimal polynomial
for 𝑈, where 𝑝𝛼 is the 𝑈-annihilator of 𝛼. Now by Corollary 4.1.8, 𝑝 is the characteristic
polynomial for 𝑈 and hence for the matrix 𝐴. ∎

NOTE
If 𝑇 is any linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space 𝑉 and 𝛼 is any vector in 𝑉,
then 𝛼 is a cyclic vector for the operator 𝑈which is obtained by restricting 𝑇 on the 𝑇-
invariant cyclic subspace 𝑍 𝛼: 𝑇 of 𝛼. Thus by Theorem 4.1.10 there exists an ordered
basis of 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 in which 𝑈 is represented by the companion matrix of 𝑝𝛼 , the 𝑇-
annihilator of 𝛼.

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 10

4.2 Cyclic Decompositions

In this section we will see that given any linear operator on a finite-dimensional vector
space 𝑉, there exist vectors 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑟 in 𝑉 such that

𝑉 = 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼2 ; 𝑇 ⊕ … ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼𝑟 ; 𝑇 .

Thus 𝑉 can be expressed as direct sum of 𝑇-invariant cyclic subspaces. Further, it shows
that 𝑇is expressible as the direct sum of a finite number of linear operators, where each
linear operator has a cyclic vector. Hence the study of general linear operators reduces
to the operators having cyclic vectors.

The proof of the fact that given any linear operator 𝑇,𝑉 can be expressed as direct sum
of 𝑇-invariant cyclic subspaces is closely related to the following question:
Which 𝑇-invaraiant subspaces 𝑊 have the property that there exists a 𝑇-invariant
subspace 𝑊′ such that 𝑉 = 𝑊 ⊕ 𝑊′? Since it is already known that every subspace of a
finite dimensional vector space has a complementary subspace. Thus we can reframe the
question as : When does a 𝑇-invariant subspace have a complementary subspace which
is also 𝑇-invariant ?

Theorem 4.2.1 Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space 𝑉 and 𝑊
be a 𝑇-invariant subspace of 𝑉 such that 𝑊 has a complementary 𝑇-invariant subspace.
If the vector 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽 is in 𝑊, for any 𝑓 in 𝐹 𝑥 and any vector 𝛽 in 𝑉, then there exists a
vector 𝛾 in 𝑊 such that 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽 = 𝑓 𝑇 𝛾.

Proof: Suppose 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽 ∈ 𝑊, where 𝑓 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 and 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉. Now since 𝑊 has a complementary

𝑇-invariant subspace (say) 𝑊′, then 𝑉 = 𝑊 ⊕ 𝑊′. As 𝛽 is in 𝑉, therefore it can be uniquely
expressed as

𝛽 = 𝛾 + 𝛾′ , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛾 ∈ 𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 ′ ∈ 𝑊 ′ .

Then 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽 = 𝑓 𝑇 𝛾 + 𝑓 𝑇 𝛾′ and hence

𝑓 𝑇 𝛾′ = 𝑓 𝑇 𝛾 − 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽 ∈ 𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽, 𝑓 𝑇 𝛾 ∈ 𝑊 .

Now since 𝑊′ is 𝑇-invariant subspace and 𝛾 ′ ∈ 𝑊′, therefore 𝑓 𝑇 𝛾 ′ ∈ 𝑊′. Consequently,

𝑓 𝑇 𝛾′ ∈ 𝑊′ ∩ 𝑊 = 0 .

Thus it follows that 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽 = 𝑓 𝑇 𝛾, where 𝛾 ∈ 𝑊. ∎

Definition 4.2.2Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space 𝑉 and let
𝑊 be the subspace of 𝑉. Then 𝑊 is said to be 𝑻-admissible
(i). if 𝑊 is a𝑇-invariant subspace of 𝑉;
(ii). if 𝑇 𝛽 ∈ 𝑊(𝑓 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉), then there exists a vector 𝛾 in 𝑊 such that
𝑓 𝑇 𝛽 = 𝑓 𝑇 𝛾.

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 11

As shown in Theorem 4.2.1, if 𝑊 is 𝑇-invaraint subspace of a vector space 𝑉 and has a

complementary 𝑇-invaraint subspace, then 𝑊 is 𝑇-admissible. Also, given any linear
operator 𝑇 on a vector space 𝑉, the subspace 0 of 𝑉 is 𝑇-admissible. In fact if 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽 ∈
0 for any 𝑓 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉, 𝛾 = 0 ∈ 0 satisfies (ii).

The cyclic decomposition theorem that we are going to discuss next gives us that if a
subspace of a vector space is 𝑇-admissible, then it has a complementary 𝑇-invariant
subspace. Thus admissibility characterizes those 𝑇-invariant subspaces which have a
complementary 𝑇-invariant subspaces.

Lemma 4.2.3 Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space 𝑉 and 𝑊 be
a proper 𝑇-admissible subspace of 𝑉. Then there exists a vector 𝛼 in 𝑉 such that

𝑊 ∩ 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 0 .

Proof: Since 𝑊 is a proper subspace of 𝑉, there exists a non-zero vector 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉\𝑊. Let 𝑓
be 𝑇-conductor of 𝛽 into 𝑊 that generates the ideal 𝑆 𝛽; 𝑊 (recall that 𝑆 𝛽; 𝑊 consists of
all polynomials 𝑔 such that 𝑔 𝑇 𝛽 is in 𝑊). Clearly, 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽 is in 𝑊 and since 𝑊 is 𝑇-
admissible, therefore there exists a vector 𝛾 in 𝑊 such that 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽 = 𝑓 𝑇 𝛾. Let 𝛼 = 𝛽 − 𝛾,
then clearly, 𝛼 ≠ 0. We claim that

𝑊 ∩ 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 0 .

Let 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊 ∩ 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 . Since 𝑣 ∈ 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 , there exists a polynomial 𝑔 in 𝐹 𝑥 such that

𝑣 = 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼. Also, since 𝛾 is in 𝑊 and 𝑊 is 𝑇-invariant subspace of 𝑉, therefore 𝑔 𝑇 𝛾 ∈ 𝑊.
Then

𝑔 𝑇 𝛽 =𝑔 𝑇 𝛼+𝑔 𝑇 𝛾 ∈𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼, 𝑔 𝑇 𝛾 ∈ 𝑊 .

Thus it follows that 𝑔 ∈ 𝑆 𝛽; 𝑊 . Hence 𝑔 = 𝑕𝑓 for some 𝑕 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 . Now consider

𝑣=𝑔 𝑇 𝛼=𝑕 𝑇 𝑓 𝑇 𝛼
= 𝑕 𝑇 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽−𝛾 ∵ 𝛼 =𝛽−𝛾
=𝑕 𝑇 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽−𝑓 𝑇 𝛾
= 𝑕 𝑇 0 = 0. ∵ 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽=𝑓 𝑇 𝛾

Thus it follows that 𝑊 ∩ 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 0 . Hence the lemma. ∎

Remark: For the vectors 𝛼 and 𝛽 in above Lemma, it is easy to see that

𝑔 𝑇 𝛼 ∈ 𝑊 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑔 𝑇 𝛽 ∈ 𝑊

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑆 𝛼; 𝑊 = 𝑆 𝛽; 𝑊 .

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 12

Theorem 4.2.4(𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎) Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on a finite

dimensional vector space 𝑉 and 𝑊0 be a proper 𝑇-admissible subspace of 𝑉. There exists
non-zero vectors 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑟 in 𝑉 with respective 𝑇-annihihaltors 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑟 such that

(i). 𝑉 = 𝑊0 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼2 ; 𝑇 ⊕ … ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼𝑟 ; 𝑇 ;
(ii). 𝑝𝑘 divides 𝑝𝑘 −1 , 𝑘 = 2,3, … , 𝑟.

Furthermore, the integer 𝑟 and the annihilators 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑟 are uniquely determined by

(i), (ii), and the fact that no 𝛼𝑘 is 0.

The proof is quite big and complicated so we do not study the proof here and just give
an idea of how the proof is worked out. Interested reader can refer to the book [1] (page
no 233) for the detailed proof of the theorem.

Outline of the Proof:Since 𝑊0 is proper 𝑇-admissible subspace of 𝑉, therefore we can

choose a vector 𝛼1 (through some process which also involves Lemma 4.2.3) such that

𝑊0 ∩ 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 = 0 ,

and the subspace 𝑊1 = 𝑊0 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 is 𝑇-admissible. If 𝑊1 = 𝑉, then we will be done.

Otherwise, we can find a vector 𝛼2 (as we did for 𝛼1 ) such that

𝑊1 ∩ 𝑍 𝛼2 ; 𝑇 = 0 ,

and the subspace 𝑊2 = 𝑊0 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼2 ; 𝑇 is 𝑇-admissible. Again if 𝑊2 = 𝑉, then the

proof goes through. Otherwise proceeding inductively, after finite number of steps (since
dimension of 𝑉 is finite and at each step we are getting a subspace which is at least one
dimension closer to the previous subspace), we will get vectors 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑟 such that

𝑉 = 𝑊0 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼2 ; 𝑇 ⊕ … ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼𝑟 ; 𝑇 . ∎

Corollary 4.2.5 Let 𝑇 is a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space 𝑉. Then a
𝑇-invariant subspace 𝑊 of 𝑉 is 𝑇-admissible if and only if 𝑊 has a complementary 𝑇-
invariant subspace.
Proof: Let 𝑊 be a 𝑇-admissible subspace of 𝑉. If 𝑊 = 𝑉, then 𝑊 ′ = 0 is a
complementary subspace of 𝑉 and is also invariant under 𝑇, hence we are through in this
case. Thus let 𝑊be a proper subspace of 𝑉. Then by Theorem 4.2.4, there exists non-
zero vectors 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑟 such that
𝑉 = 𝑊 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼2 ; 𝑇 ⊕ … ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼𝑟 ; 𝑇 .
′
Let 𝑊 = 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼2 ; 𝑇 ⊕ … ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼𝑟 ; 𝑇 , then clearly 𝑊′ is 𝑇-invraiant subspace of 𝑉 and
𝑉 = 𝑊 ⊕ 𝑊′. Thus 𝑊 has a complementary 𝑇-invariant subspace. Converse holds due to
the Theorem 4.2.1. ∎

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 13

Corollary 4.2.6 Let 𝑇be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space 𝑉. There
exists a vector 𝛼 in 𝑉 such that the 𝑇-annihilator of 𝛼 is the minimal polynomial for 𝑇.
Proof: If 𝑉 = 0 , then result is trivially true. Thus let 𝑉 ≠ 0 . Since 𝑊0 = 0 is a proper
𝑇-admissible subspace of 𝑉, therefore by Theorem 4.2.4 there exists non-zero vectors
𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑟 with respective 𝑇-annihihaltors 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑟 such that

𝑉 = 𝑊0 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼2 ; 𝑇 ⊕ … ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼𝑟 ; 𝑇

= 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼2 ; 𝑇 ⊕ … ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼𝑟 ; 𝑇

and 𝑝𝑘 +1 divides 𝑝𝑘 , 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑟 − 1. Now we claim that 𝑝1 is the minimal polynomial for 𝑇.

Since 𝑝𝑘 +1 divides 𝑝𝑘 , 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑟 − 1, it follows that 𝑝𝑘 divides 𝑝1 for each 𝑘. Hence

𝑝1 = 𝑕𝑘 𝑝𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑕 𝑘 2 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑟 .

Consider any vector 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉, then 𝛽 can be uniquely expressed as

𝛽 = 𝑓1 𝑇 𝛼1 + 𝑓2 𝑇 𝛼2 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑟 𝑇 𝛼𝑟 .
Then
𝑝1 𝑇 𝛽 = 𝑝1 𝑇 𝑓1 𝑇 𝛼1 + 𝑝1 𝑇 𝑓2 𝑇 𝛼2 + ⋯ + 𝑝1 𝑇 𝑓𝑟 𝑇 𝛼𝑟

= 𝑝1 𝑇 𝑓1 𝑇 𝛼1 + 𝑕2 𝑇 𝑝2 𝑇 𝑓2 𝑇 𝛼2 + ⋯ + 𝑕𝑟 𝑇 𝑝𝑟 𝑇 𝑓𝑟 𝑇 𝛼𝑟

=0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑕 𝑖 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑟 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑖 𝑇 𝛼𝑖 = 0 .

Since 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉 is an arbitrary vector, therefore it follows that 𝑝1 𝑇 = 0 on 𝑉. Now consider

any polynomial 𝑔 in 𝐹 𝑥 such that 𝑔 𝑇 = 0 on 𝑉. Then clearly, 𝑔 𝑇 𝛼1 = 0 and since 𝑝1 is
the 𝑇-annihilator of 𝛼1 , therefore it follows that 𝑝1 divides 𝑔. Thus it follows that 𝑝1 is the
minimal polynomial for 𝑇. Hence we have shown the existence of a vector 𝛼(= 𝛼1 ) such
that the 𝑇-annihilator of 𝛼 is the minimal polynomial for 𝑇. ∎

Corollary 4.2.7 Let 𝑇be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space 𝑉. Then 𝑇
has a cyclic vector if and only if the characteristic polynomial and the minimal polynomial
for 𝑇 are identical.

Proof: If 𝑇 has a cyclic vector, then from Corollary 4.1.8 it follows that the characteristic
polynomial and the minimal polynomial for 𝑇 are identical. Conversely, Suppose the
characteristic polynomial and the minimal polynomial for 𝑇 are identical. From Corollary
4.2.6, there exists a vector 𝛼 in 𝑉 such that the 𝑇-annihilator 𝑝𝛼 of 𝛼 is the minimal
polynomial for 𝑇. Therefore by the hypothesis, 𝑝𝛼 is the characteristic polynomial for 𝑇
and hence deg(𝑝𝛼 ) = dim 𝑉. Then from Theorem 4.1.7 it follows that
dim 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = deg 𝑝𝛼 = dim 𝑉.
Hence 𝑉 = 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 and 𝛼 is the cyclic vector for 𝑇. ∎

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 14

Theorem 4.2.8 (𝑮𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅 𝑪𝒂𝒚𝒍𝒆𝒚 − 𝑯𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎) Let 𝑇be a linear operator on a
finite-dimensional vector space 𝑉. Let 𝑝 be the minimal polynomial for 𝑇 and 𝑓 be the
characteristic polynomial for 𝑇.

(i). 𝑝 divides 𝑓;
(ii). 𝑝 and 𝑓 have the same prime factors, except for multiplicities;
𝑟 𝑟 𝑑 𝑑𝑘
(iii). If 𝑝 = 𝑓1 1 … 𝑓𝑘 𝑘 is the prime factorization for 𝑝, then 𝑓 = 𝑓1 1 … 𝑓𝑘 where 𝑑𝑖 is the
𝑟𝑖
nullity of 𝑓𝑖 𝑇 divided by the degree of 𝑓𝑖 .

Proof:If 𝑉 = 0 , the result hold trivially. Thus let 𝑉 ≠ 0 . Since 𝑊0 = 0 be a proper 𝑇-

admissible subspace of 𝑉, therefore by Theorem 4.2.4 there exists non-zero vectors
𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑟 with respective 𝑇-annihihaltors 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑟 such that

𝑉 = 𝑊0 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼2 ; 𝑇 ⊕ … ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼𝑟 ; 𝑇

= 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼2 ; 𝑇 ⊕ … ⊕ 𝑍 𝛼𝑟 ; 𝑇

and 𝑝𝑘 +1 divides 𝑝𝑘 , 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑟 − 1. Also, from proof of the Corollary 4.2.6, we have that 𝑝1
is the minimal polynomial for 𝑇 i.e., 𝑝1 = 𝑝. Let 𝑈𝑖 be the linear operator on 𝑍 𝛼𝑖 ; 𝑇
obtained by restricting 𝑇 to 𝑍 𝛼𝑖 ; 𝑇 . Then clearly, by Theorem 4.1.7𝑝𝑖 is both the
minimal polynomial and the characteristic polynomial for 𝑈𝑖 . Hence the characteristic
polynomial 𝑓 for 𝑇 is the product 𝑓 = 𝑝1 𝑝2 … 𝑝𝑟 . This is evident from the block matrix form
of 𝑇 w.r.t a suitable basis 𝛽, where each block on the diagonal is the matrix of 𝑈𝑖
corresponding to subspaces 𝑍 𝛼𝑖 ; 𝑇 . Clearly, 𝑝 (= 𝑝1 ) divides 𝑓. Thus (i) holds. Also, it is
obvious that any prime factor of 𝑝 is also a prime factor of 𝑓. Now any prime divisor of 𝑓
is a prime divisor for some 𝑝𝑖 and hence in turn a prime divisor of 𝑝 (as each 𝑝𝑘 divides
𝑝1 ). Thus it follows that 𝑝 and 𝑓 have the same prime factors, except for multiplicities
and (ii) holds.

𝑟 𝑟
Let 𝑝 = 𝑓1 1 … 𝑓𝑘 𝑘 be the prime factorization for 𝑝, Using thePrimary Decomposition
𝑟𝑖
Theorem, if 𝑉𝑖 is the null space of 𝑓𝑖 𝑇 , then
𝑉 = 𝑉1 ⊕ 𝑉2 ⊕ … ⊕ 𝑉𝑘
𝑟𝑖
and 𝑓𝑖 is the minimal polynomial for 𝑇𝑖 , where 𝑇𝑖 is the operator obtained by restricting 𝑇
to the 𝑇-invariant subspace𝑉𝑖 . From part (ii) of this theorem, the characteristic
polynomial of 𝑇𝑖 and the minimal polynomial for 𝑇𝑖 have the same prime factors. Since 𝑓𝑖
is the only prime divisor of the minimal polynomial for 𝑇𝑖 , therefore the characteristic
𝑑
polynomial for 𝑇𝑖 is of the form 𝑓𝑖 𝑖 , where 𝑑𝑖 ≥ 𝑟𝑖 . As degree of characteristic polynomial
for 𝑇𝑖 is equal to dimension of 𝑉𝑖 , therefore
𝑟𝑖
dim 𝑉𝑖 𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖 𝑇
𝑑𝑖 = = .
deg 𝑓𝑖 deg 𝑓𝑖

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 15

Now since 𝑇 is the direct sum of the operators 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , … , 𝑇𝑘 , the characteristic polynomial 𝑓
𝑑 𝑑
of 𝑇 is the product 𝑓 = 𝑓1 1 … 𝑓𝑘 𝑘 . ∎

Corollary 4.2.9 If 𝑇be a nilpotent operator on a vector space 𝑉 of dimension 𝑛, then the
characteristic polynomial for 𝑇 is 𝑥 𝑛 .
Proof:Since𝑇 is nilpotent operator, so 𝑇 𝑘 = 0 for some 𝑘 ∈ ℕ. Let 𝑝 be the minimal
polynomial for 𝑇 and 𝑓 be the characteristic polynomial for 𝑇. Then obviously, 𝑝 divides
𝑥 𝑘 and hence 𝑝 = 𝑥 𝑖 for some 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛. By Theorem 4.2.8, 𝑝 and 𝑓 have the same prime
factors, except for multiplicities. Thus 𝑓 = 𝑥 𝑛 . ∎

5. SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 5.1.Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on 𝐹 2 . Prove that any non-zero vector which is
not a characteristic vector for 𝑇 is a cyclic vector for 𝑇. Hence, prove that either 𝑇 has a
cyclic vector or 𝑇 is a scalar multiple of the identity operator.
Proof:Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹 2 be a non-zero vector which is not a characteristic vector for 𝑇 i.e.,

𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦 ≠ 𝑎 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹.

Then the set 𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑥, 𝑦 is a linearly independent subset of 𝐹 2 and therefore forms a

basis for 𝐹 2 . Hence

𝐹 2 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑥, 𝑦

⊆ 𝑍 𝑥, 𝑦 ; 𝑇 ⊆ 𝐹 2 .

Thus it follows that 𝑍 𝑥, 𝑦 ; 𝑇 = 𝐹 2 and 𝑥, 𝑦 is a cyclic vector for 𝑇.

Now if 𝑇 has a cyclic vector then we are done. Therefore let 𝑇not have a cyclic vector.
Then obviously, for every vector𝛼 in 𝐹 2 , 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 is a one-dimensional space, therefore by
Proposition 4.1.3𝛼 is a characteristic vector for 𝑇. Suppose 𝑇 is not a scalar multiple of
the identity operator. Then for the vectors (1, 0) and (0, 1) in 𝐹 2 there exist distinct scalars
𝑎 and 𝑏 such that
𝑇 1, 0 = 𝑎 1, 0
𝑇 0, 1 = 𝑏 0, 1 .
Also, let 𝑇 1, 1 = 𝑐 1, 1 . Now consider
𝑐 1, 1 = 𝑇 1, 1 = 𝑇 1, 0 + 0, 1
= 𝑇 1, 0 + 𝑇 0, 1
= 𝑎 1, 0 + 𝑏 0, 1 = 𝑎, 𝑏 .

Therefore it follows that 𝑎 = 𝑐 = 𝑏, contradiction to the fact that 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏. Hence 𝑇 is a scalar

multiple of the identity operator. ∎

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 16

Problem 5.2.Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on ℝ3 which is represented in the standard

ordered basis by the matrix
2 0 0
𝐴= 0 2 0 .
0 0 −1

Prove that 𝑇 has no cyclic vector. What is the 𝑇-cyclic subspace generated by the vector
1, −1, 3 ?
Proof:The characteristic polynomial 𝑓 of 𝑇 is
𝑓 = det 𝑥𝐼 − 𝐴

𝑥−2 0 0
= 0 𝑥−2 0
0 0 𝑥+1

= 𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥+1 .

Also, since 𝑇 − 2𝐼 𝑇 + 𝐼 = 0, therefore the minimal polynomial 𝑝 of 𝑇 is

𝑝= 𝑥−2 𝑥+1 .

Now since the characteristic polynomial and the minimal polynomial are not identical,
therefore from Corollary 4.1.8 it follows that 𝑇 has no cyclic vector.
Now clearly, for 𝛼 = 1, −1,3 , we have

2 0 0 1 2
𝑇𝛼 = 0 2 0 −1 = −2 .
0 0 −1 3 −3

It is easy to see that 𝛼 and 𝑇𝛼 are linearly independent and hence dim 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 ≥ 2. Also,
since 𝑇 has no cyclic vector, therefore𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 ≠ ℝ3 and hence dim 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 2. Thus it
follows that

𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑎 1, −1, 3 + 𝑏 2, −2, −3 ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ

= 𝑎 + 2𝑏, − 𝑎 + 2𝑏 , 3 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ . ∎

Problem 5.3.Prove that if 𝑇 2 has a cyclic vector, then 𝑇 has a cyclic vector. Is the
converse true?

Proof:From the definition of 𝑇-cyclic subspaces it follows that

𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 2 ⊆ 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 .

Now if 𝑇 2 has a cyclic vector (say), then 𝑉 = 𝑍 𝛽; 𝑇 2 ⊆ 𝑍 𝛽; 𝑇 . Hence 𝑉 = 𝑍 𝛽; 𝑇 and 𝛽 is a

cyclic vector for 𝑇.

Converse is not true. For example consider the linear operator 𝑇: ℝ2 → ℝ2 defined as

𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑦, 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ2 .

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 17

Let 𝛼 = 1, 0 . Then 𝑇𝛼 = 𝑇 1, 0 = 0, 1 , thus 1, 0 , 0, 1 ∈ 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 . Therefore it follows that

𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = ℝ2 and hence 𝛼 = 1, 0 is a cyclic vector for 𝑇. Thus 𝑇 has a cyclic vector. Now it
is easy to see that 𝑇 2 = 𝐼, the identity operator and hence for every 𝛽 ∈ ℝ2 , the subspace
𝑍 𝛽: 𝑇 is one dimensional and hence is not equal to ℝ2 . Thus it follows that 𝑇 2 has no
cyclic vector. ∎

Problem 5.4.Let 𝑉 be an 𝑛-dimensional vector space over the field 𝐹, and let 𝑁 be a
nilpotent linear operator on 𝑉. Suppose 𝑁 𝑛−1 ≠ 0, and let 𝛼 be any vector in 𝑉 such that
𝑁 𝑛−1 𝛼 ≠ 0. Prove that 𝛼 is a cyclic vector for 𝑁. What exactly is the matrix of 𝑁 in the
ordered basis 𝛼, 𝑁𝛼, 𝑁 2 𝛼, … , 𝑁 𝑛−1 𝛼 .

Proof:Since 𝑁 is a nilpotent operator and dim 𝑉 = 𝑛, therefore 𝑁 𝑛 = 0. Also, since

𝑁 𝑛−1 𝛼 ≠ 0, it follows that

𝑁 𝑘 𝛼 ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑘 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛 − 1 . 𝑨

Let 𝑝𝛼 be the 𝑁-annihilator of 𝛼. Now since for 𝑓 = 𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 we have 𝑓 𝑁 = 𝑁 𝑛 = 0 and

consequently, 𝑓 𝑁 𝛼 = 0. Therefore it follows that 𝑝𝛼 divides 𝑓 i.e., 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑥 𝑖 for some
𝑖 (𝑖 ≤ 𝑛). Since 𝑁 𝑖 𝛼 = 𝑝𝛼 𝑁 𝛼 = 0, therefore from 𝑨 we have 𝑖 = 𝑛. Thus deg 𝑝𝛼 = 𝑛 and
hence from Theorem 4.1.7, dim 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑛 (= dim 𝑉) and the set 𝛼, 𝑁𝛼, 𝑁 2 𝛼, … , 𝑁 𝑛 −1 𝛼 forms
a basis for 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 . It follows that 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 = 𝑉 and 𝛼 is a cyclic vector for 𝑁.

Now since 𝑁 𝑛 = 0, therefore the matrix of 𝑁 in the ordered basis 𝛼, 𝑁𝛼, 𝑁 2 𝛼, … , 𝑁 𝑛−1 𝛼 is
given as

0 0 0 … 0 0
1 0 0 … 0 0
0 1 0 … 0 0 . 𝑐0 = 𝑐1 = ⋯ = 𝑐𝑛 −1 = 0 . ∎
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮ ⋮
0 0 0 … 1 0

6. SUMMARY

In this chapter we learnt how to decompose a given linear operator defined on a finite-
dimensional vector space using the 𝑇-invariant cyclic subspaces generated by a given
vector. What are cyclic vectors of a given linear operator and when a linear operator has
a cyclic vector are thoroughly discussed. The cyclic decomposition theorem, which is one
of the deepest results in linear algebra, is discussed along with many interesting
corollaries. In fact with the help of the cyclic decomposition theorem, it was seen that
admissibility characterizes those invariant subspaces which have complementary
invariant subspaces. Also, complete characterization for a linear operator possessing a
cyclic vector is obtained in this chapter. Finally, the generalization of the Cayley-
Hamilton Theorem using cyclic decompositions was discussed.

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 18

7. EXERCISES

1. Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on ℂ3 which is represented in the standard ordered basis by

the matrix

1 𝑖 0
−1 2 −𝑖 .
0 1 1

Find the 𝑇-annihilator of the vector 1, 0, 0 . Find the 𝑇-annihilator of 1, 0, 𝑖 .

2. Give a direct proof that if 𝐴 is the companion matrix of the monic polynomial 𝑝, then 𝑝
is the characteristic polynomial for 𝐴.

3. Let 𝑉 be an 𝑛-dimensional vector space, and let 𝑇 be a linear operator on 𝑉. Suppose

𝑇 is diagonalizable.

(a) If 𝑇 has a cyclic vector, show that 𝑇 has 𝑛 distinct characteristic values.
(b)If 𝑇 has 𝑛 distinct characteristic values, and if 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑛 is a basis of
characteristic vectors for 𝑇, show that 𝛼 = 𝛼1 + 𝛼2 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛 is a cyclic vector for 𝑇.

4.Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on the finite-dimensional vector space 𝑉. Suppose 𝑇 has a

cyclic vector. Prove that if 𝑈 is any linear operator which commutes with 𝑇, then 𝑈 is a
polynomial in𝑇.

5.Let 𝑇 be the linear operator on 𝐹 2 which is represented in the standard ordered basis
by the matrix

0 0
.
1 0

Let 𝛼1 = 0, 1 . Show that 𝐹 2 ≠ 𝑍 𝛼; 𝑇 and that there is no non-zero vector 𝛼2 in 𝐹 2 with

𝑍 𝛼2 ; 𝑇 disjoint from 𝑍 𝛼1 ; 𝑇 .

6. Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on the finite-dimensional vector space 𝑉, and let 𝑅 be the
range of 𝑇.
(a). Prove that 𝑅 has a complementary 𝑇-invariant subspace if and only if 𝑅 is
independent of the null space 𝑁 of 𝑇.
(b). If 𝑅 and 𝑁 are independent, prove that 𝑁 is the unique 𝑇-invariant subspace
complementary to 𝑅.`

7. Let 𝑇 be the linear operator on 𝑅3 which is represented in the standard ordered basis
by the matrix
2 0 0
1 2 0 .
0 0 3

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi

 CYCLIC DECOMPOSITIONS 19

Let 𝑊 be the null space of 𝑇 − 2𝐼. Prove that 𝑊 has no complementary 𝑇-invariant
subspace.

8. Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on the vector space 𝑉 over the field 𝐹. If 𝑓 is a polynomial
over 𝐹 and 𝛼 is in 𝑉. If 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , … , 𝑉𝑘 are 𝑇-invariant subspaces and 𝑉 = 𝑉1 ⊕ 𝑉2 ⊕ … ⊕ 𝑉𝑘 ,
show that

𝑓 𝑇 𝑉 = 𝑓 𝑇 𝑉1 ⊕ 𝑓 𝑇 𝑉2 ⊕ … ⊕ 𝑓 𝑇 𝑉𝑘 .

9. Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on the vector space 𝑉 over the field 𝐹. Suppose 𝛼 and 𝛽 are
vectors in 𝑉 which have the same 𝑇-annihilator. Prove that, for any polynomial 𝑓, the
vectors 𝑓 𝑇 𝛼 and 𝑓 𝑇 𝛽 have the same 𝑇-annihilator.

10. If 𝑇 is a diagonalizable linear operator on a finite-dimensional vector space 𝑉, then

every 𝑇-invariant subspace has a complementary 𝑇-invariant subspace.

11.Let 𝑇 be a linear operator on the finite-dimensional vector space 𝑉 over the field 𝐹.
Prove that every non-zero vector of 𝑉 is a cyclic vector for 𝑇 if and only if the
characteristic polynomial for 𝑇 is irreducible over 𝐹.

8. REFERENCES

[1] Kenneth Hoffman and Ray Kunze, Linear Algebra (Second Edition), Pearson
Education Inc., India 2005.
[2] Roger A. Horn and Charles R. Johnson, Matrix Analysis (Second Edition),

Cambridge UniversityPress, 2013.

[3] Lawrence E. Spence, Arnold J. Insel, Stephen H. Friedberg, Elementary Linear
Algebra, Pearson Education Inc., India 2008.

Institute of Life Long Learning, University of Delhi