Campbell Essential Biology, 5e (Simon/Yeh)

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CHAPTER
How Genes Are Controlled
11
Why This Chapter Matters
1. Gene regulation explains how cells become specialized and how cellular activity can
change over time. This information is essential to understanding the development of
cancer and many other forms of disease.
2. DNA microarray analysis is an exciting molecular tool enabling the broad detection of
gene activity in healthy and diseased tissues. Its use and significance continue to expand.
3. The manipulation of stem cells has the potential to treat many forms of disease.
4. Cancer is now one of the leading causes of death in the United States. Identifying known
cancer risks and understanding the mechanisms of this disease can greatly improve
human health.
Chapter Objectives
Biology and Society: Tobacco’s Smoking Gun
1. Describe the evidence that suggests that cigarette smoking causes lung cancer.
How and Why Genes Are Regulated
2. Explain how the many types of adult human cells are formed.
3. Explain how the lac operon works.
4. Explain how DNA packing influences gene expression.
5. Explain how transcription is regulated in eukaryotes. Compare transcriptional regulation
in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
6. Explain how RNA is processed in eukaryotes before it leaves the nucleus. Explain how
this processing can result in different proteins from the same gene.
7. Describe the mechanisms used to regulate gene expression after eukaryotic mRNA is
transported to the cytoplasm.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 11 How Genes Are Controlled 137
 8. Describe the significance of cell signaling in multicellular organisms.
9. Explain how homeotic genes help us understand animal evolution and development.
10. Explain how DNA microarrays help scientists visualize gene expression.
Cloning Plants and Animals
11. Explain how every cell has the potential to act like every other cell. Illustrate with examples.
12. Explain how plants are cloned, what this reveals about cell differentiation, and why
growers clone plants.
13. Explain how nuclear transplantation can be used to clone animals. Describe advantages
of reproductive cloning of animals.
14. Compare the properties of embryonic and adult stem cells. Explain why embryonic stem
cells may be better to produce replacement tissues in adults.

The Genetic Basis of Cancer

15. Explain how mutations in proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes can lead to cancer.
16. Explain how personal habits and individual choices can affect a person’s risk of
developing cancers.
Evolution Connection: The Evolution of Cancer in the Body
17. Explain how populations of cancer cells evolve.

Lecture Outline
I. Biology and Society: Tobacco’s Smoking Gun
1. During the 1900s, doctors noticed that
a. smoking increased and
b. lung cancer increased.
2. In 1996, researchers studying lung cancer found that, in human lung cells growing in
the lab, a component of tobacco smoke, BPDE, binds to DNA within a gene called
p53, which codes for a protein that normally helps suppress the formation of tumors.
3. This work directly linked a chemical in tobacco smoke with the formation of human
lung tumors.
A. How and Why Genes Are Regulated
1. Every somatic cell in an organism contains identical genetic instructions.
a. they all share the same genome.
b. so what makes cells different from one another?
2. In cellular differentiation, cells become specialized in
a. structure and
b. function.
3. Certain genes are turned on and off in the process of gene regulation.
B. Patterns of Gene Expression in Differentiated Cells
1. In gene expression,
a. a gene is turned on and transcribed into RNA and
b. information flows from
c. genes to proteins and
138 CHAPTER 11 How Genes Are Controlled Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 d. genotype to phenotype.
2. Information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins.
3. The great differences among cells in an organism must result from the selective
expression of genes.
C. Gene Regulation in Bacteria
1. Natural selection has favored bacteria that express
a. only certain genes
b. only at specific times when the products are needed by the cell.
2. So how do bacteria selectively turn their genes on and off?
3. An operon includes
a. a cluster of genes with related functions and
b. the control sequences that turn the genes on or off.
4. The bacterium E. coli uses the lac operon to coordinate the expression of genes that
produce enzymes used to break down lactose in the bacterium’s environment.
5. The lac operon uses
a. a promoter, a control sequence where the transcription enzyme attaches and
initiates transcription,
b. an operator, a DNA segment that acts as a switch that is turned on or off, and
c. a repressor, which binds to the operator and physically blocks the attachment of
RNA polymerase and transcription.
D. Gene Regulation in Eukaryotic Cells
1. Eukaryotic cells have more complex gene regulating mechanisms with many points
where the process can be turned on or off.
2. The multiple mechanisms that control gene expression are like the many control
valves along a water supply.
E. The Regulation of DNA Packing
1. Cells may use DNA packing for long-term inactivation of genes.
2. X chromosome inactivation
a. takes place early in embryonic development,
b. occurs in female mammals, and
c. is when one of the two X chromosomes in each cell is inactivated at random.
3. All of the descendants of each cell will have the same X chromosome turned off.
4. If a female is heterozygous for a gene on the X chromosome,
a. about half her cells will express one allele and
b. the others will express the alternate allele.
F. The Initiation of Transcription
1. The initiation of transcription is the most important stage for regulating gene expression.
2. In prokaryotes and eukaryotes, regulatory proteins
a. bind to DNA and
b. turn the transcription of genes on and off.
3. Transcription in eukaryotes, unlike in prokaryotes, is complex, involving many
proteins, called transcription factors, that bind to DNA sequences called enhancers.
4. Repressor proteins called silencers
a. bind to DNA and
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 11 How Genes Are Controlled 139
 b. inhibit the start of transcription.
5. Activators
a. are more typically used by EUKARYOTES than silencers and
b. turn genes on by binding to DNA.
G. RNA Processing and Breakdown
1. The eukaryotic cell
a. localizes transcription in the nucleus and
b. processes RNA in the nucleus.
2. RNA processing includes the
a. addition of a cap and tail to the RNA,
b. removal of any introns, and
c. splicing together of the remaining exons.
3. In alternative RNA splicing, exons may be spliced together in different
combinations, producing more than one type of polypeptide from a single gene.
4. A typical human gene contains about ten exons, with
a. nearly all human genes spliced in at least two different ways and
b. some spliced hundreds of different ways!
5. Eukaryotic mRNAs
a. can last for hours to weeks to months and
b. are all eventually broken down and their parts recycled.
H. microRNAs
1. Small single-stranded RNA molecules, called microRNAs (miRNAs), bind to
complementary sequences on mRNA molecules in the cytoplasm.
a. Some trigger the breakdown of their target mRNA, and others block translation.
2. It has been estimated that miRNAs may regulate the expression of up to
one-third of all human genes, yet miRNAs were unknown 20 years ago!
I. The Initiation of Translation
1. The process of translation offers additional opportunities for regulation by regulatory
molecules.
J. Protein Activation and Breakdown
1. Post-translational control mechanisms in eukaryotes
a. occur after translation and
b. often involve cutting polypeptides into smaller, active final products.
2. The selective breakdown of proteins is another control mechanism operating after
translation.
K. Cell Signaling
1. In a multicellular organism, gene regulation can cross cell boundaries.
2. A cell can produce and secrete chemicals, such as hormones, that affect gene
regulation in another cell.
L. Homeotic genes
1. Master control genes called homeotic genes regulate groups of other genes that
determine what body parts will develop in which locations.
2. Mutations in homeotic genes can produce bizarre effects.

140 CHAPTER 11 How Genes Are Controlled Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 3. Similar homeotic genes help direct embryonic development in nearly every eukaryotic
organism examined so far.
M. DNA Microarrays: Visualizing Gene Expression
1. A DNA microarray allows visualization of gene expression.
2. The pattern of glowing spots enables the researcher to determine which genes were
being transcribed in the starting cells.
3. Researchers can thus learn which genes are active
a. in different tissues or
b. in tissues from individuals in different states of health.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 11 How Genes Are Controlled 141
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