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Chapter 2 Differentiation
Chapter Comments
The material presented in Chapter 2 forms the basis for the remainder of calculus. Much of it
needs to be memorized, beginning with the definition of a derivative of a function found on
page 103. Students need to have a thorough understanding of the tangent line problem and they
need to be able to find an equation of a tangent line. Frequently, students will use the function f
′(x) as the slope of the tangent line. They need to understand that f ′(x) is the formula for the
slope and the actual value of the slope can be found by substituting into f ′(x) the appropriate
value for x On pages 105–106 of Section 2.1, you will find a discussion of situations where the
derivative fails to exist. These examples (or similar ones) should be discussed in class.

As you teach this chapter, vary your notations for the derivative. One time write y′; another time
write dy dx or f′(x). Terminology is also important. Instead of saying “find the derivative,”
sometimes say, “differentiate.” This would be an appropriate time, also, to talk a little about
Leibnitz and Newton and the discovery of calculus.

Sections 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4 present a number of rules for differentiation. Have your students
memorize the Product Rule and the Quotient Rule (Theorems 2.7 and 2.8) in words rather than
symbols. Students tend to be lazy when it comes to trigonometry and therefore, you need to
impress upon them that the formulas for the derivatives of the six trigonometric functions need to
be memorized also. You will probably not have enough time in class to prove every one of these
differentiation rules, so choose several to do in class and perhaps assign a few of the other proofs
as homework.

The Chain Rule, in Section 2.4, will require two days of your class time. Students need a lot of
practice with this and the algebra involved in these problems. Many students can find the
derivative of f(x) = x2 1 − x2 without much trouble, but simplifying the answer is often difficult for
them. Insist that they learn to factor and write the answer without negative exponents. Strive to get
the answer in the form given in the back of the book. This will help them later on when the
derivative is set equal to zero.

Implicit differentiation is often difficult for students. Have students think of as a function of x
and therefore y3 is [ f(x)]3. This way they can relate implicit differentiation to the Chain Rule
studied in the previous section.

Try to get your students to see that related rates, discussed in Section 2.6, are another use of the
Chain Rule.

Section 2.1 The Derivative and the Tangent Line Problem

Section Comments
2.1 The Derivative and the Tangent Line Problem—Find the slope of the tangent line to a
curve at a point. Use the limit definition to find the derivative of a function. Understand
the relationship between differentiability and continuity.

Teaching Tips
Ask students what they think “the line tangent to a curve” means. Draw a curve with tangent lines
to show a visual picture of tangent lines. For example:

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 y y

y = f(x) y = f(x)

x
x

When talking about the tangent line problem, use the suggested example of finding the equation
of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2 at the point (1, 1).
Compute an approximation of the slope m by choosing a nearby point Q(x, x2) on the parabola
and computing the slope mPQ of the secant line PQ.
After going over Examples 1–3, return to Example 2 where f(x) = x2 + 1 and note that
f′(x) = 2x. How can we find the equation of the line tangent to f and parallel to 4x − y = 0?
Because the slope of the line is 4,
2x = 4
x = 2.
So, at the point (2, 5), the tangent line is parallel to 4x − y = 0. The equation of the tangent
line is y − 5 = 4(x − 2) or y = 4x − 3.

Be sure to find the derivatives of various types of functions to show students the different
types of techniques for finding derivatives. Some suggested problems are f(x) = 4x3 − 3x2,
g(x) = 2 (x − 1), and h(x) = 2x + 5.

How Do You See It? Exercise

Page 108, Exercise 64 The figure shows the graph of g′.
y
g′

2
x
−6 −4 4 6
4
6

(a) g′(0) =

(b) g′(3) =
8
(c) What can you conclude about the graph of g knowing that g′(1) = − 3?
7
(d) What can you conclude about the graph of g knowing that g′(−4) = 3?
(e) Is g(6) − g(4) positive or negative? Explain.

(f) Is it possible to find g(2) from the graph? Explain.

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Solution
(a) g′(0) = −3

(b) g′(3) = 0
8
(c) Because g′(1) = − 3, g is decreasing (falling) at x = 1.
7
(d) Because g′(−4) = 3, g is increasing (rising) at x = −4.

(e) Because g′(4) and g′(6) are both positive, g(6) is greater than g(4) and g(6) − g(4) > 0.

(f) No, it is not possible. All you can say is that g is decreasing (falling) at x = 2.

Suggested Homework Assignment

Pages 107–109: 1, 3, 7, 11, 21–27 odd, 37, 43–47 odd, 53, 57, 61, 77, 87, 93, and 95.

Section 2.2 Basic Differentiation Rules and Rates of Change

Section Comments
2.2 Basic Differentiation Rules and Rates of Change—Find the derivative of a function
using the Constant Rule. Find the derivative of a function using the Power Rule. Find
the derivative of a function using the Constant Multiple Rule. Find the derivative of a
function using the Sum and Difference Rules. Find the derivatives of the sine function
and of the cosine function. Use derivatives to find rates of change.

Teaching Tips
Start by showing proofs of the Constant Rule and the Power Rule. Students who are mathematics
majors need to start seeing proofs early on in their college careers as they will be taking Functions
of a Real Variable at some point.
5x2 + x
Go over an example in class like f(x) = . Show students that before differentiating
x
they can rewrite the function as f(x) = 5x + 1. Then they can differentiate to obtain f ′(x) = 5.
Use this example to emphasize the prudence of examining the function first before differentiating.
Rewriting the function in a simpler, equivalent form can expedite the differentiating process.

Give mixed examples of finding derivatives. Some suggested examples are:

4 2
f(x) = 3x6 − x2 3 + 3 sin x and g(x) = 3 + 2 − 3 cos x + 7x + π3.
x (3x)
This will test students’ understanding of the various differentiation rules of this section.

How Do You See It? Exercise

Page 119, Exercise 76 Use the graph of f to answer each question. To print an enlarged copy of
the graph, go to MathGraphs.com.

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© 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 4
 y

B C
A
D E
x

(a) Between which two consecutive points is the average rate of change of the function greatest?

(b) Is the average rate of change of the function between A and B greater than or less than the
instantaneous rate of change at B?

(c) Sketch a tangent line to the graph between C and D such that the slope of the tangent line is
the same as the average rate of change of the function between C and D.

Solution

(a) The slope appears to be steepest between A and B.

(b) The average rate of change between A and B is greater than the instantaneous rate of change
at B.

(c)
f

BC
A
D E
x

Suggested Homework Assignment

Pages 118–120: 1, 3, 5, 7–29 odd, 35, 39–53 odd, 55, 59, 65, 75, 85–89 odd, 91, 95, and 97.

Section 2.3 Product and Quotient Rules and Higher-

Order Derivatives
Section Comments
2.3 Product and Quotient Rules and Higher-Order Derivatives—Find the derivative of
a function using the Product Rule. Find the derivative of a function using the Quotient
Rule. Find the derivative of a trigonometric function. Find a higher-order derivative of
a function.

Teaching Tips
Some students have difficulty simplifying polynomial and rational expressions. Students
should review these concepts by studying Appendices A.2–A.4 and A.7 in Precalculus,
10th edition, by Larson.

When teaching the Product and Quotient Rules, give proofs of each rule so that students can see
where the rules come from. This will provide mathematics majors a tool for writing proofs, as each
proof requires subtracting and adding the same quantity to achieve the desired results. For the
Project Rule, emphasize that there are many ways to write the solution. Remind students that there
must be one derivative in each term of the solution. Also, the Product Rule can be extended to
more that just the product of two functions. Simplification is up to the discretion of the instructor.
Examples such as f(x) = (2x2 − 3x)(5x3 + 6) can be done with or without the Product Rule. Show
the class both ways.

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Connective without a distinct appendage. 8
 MUSACEAE.
FLOW. PL. AFR.
Pl. 23.
J. Fleischmann del.
Strelitzia Reginae Banks ex Ait.
A Plant in flower. B Flower cut lengthwise. C Stamens
and inner petals.
 ZINGIBERACEAE.
FLOW. PL. AFR.
Pl. 24.
J. Fleischmann del.
Aframomum Laurentii (De Wild. & Dur.) K. Schum.
A Leaf. B Inflorescence. C Flower cut lengthwise. D
Lower part of the flower cut lengthwise.

6. Connective with a grooved beak. Lip 3-lobed.—Species 2. Cultivated

and sometimes naturalised in the tropics. The root-stock is used as a
condiment, especially for the preparation of liquors, and in medicine.
“Ginger.” Zingiber L.

Connective with an oblong or 3-lobed, not grooved appendage. Lip not

distinctly 3-lobed. 7

7. Connective with an entire, oblong appendage. Filament adnate to the

base of the lip. Inflorescence lax.—Species 2. West Africa (Cameroons)
and Madagascar. Aulotandra Gagnepain

Connective with a 3-lobed appendage. Filament free from the lip.

Inflorescence dense.—Species 50. Tropics. The fruits (grains of
paradise) of several species (especially A. melegueta Roscoe) are used as
a condiment and for the preparation of perfumes and medicaments;
others serve as ornamental plants. (Under Amomum L.) (Plate 24.)
Aframomum K. Schum.

8. Filament long. Lip not distinctly clawed. Inflorescence terminating the

leafy stem.—Species 3. Naturalised in the tropical regions. Ornamental
plants. Alpinia L.
Filament short. Lip clawed. 9

9. Lip entire, rhomboidical, adnate to the filament at the base. Epigynous

glands lobed. Flowering stem separated from the leafy stem.
Inflorescence very dense, almost head-like, surrounded by a coloured
involucre.—Species 1. Madagascar and neighbouring islands. Used as an
ornamental plant, the fruit as a condiment. (Nicolaia Horan., under
Amomum L.) Phaeomeria Lindl.

Lip more or less distinctly 3-lobed, free from the filament. 10

10. Fruit indehiscent. Seeds without an aril. Corolla-tube slightly

exceeding the calyx. Stigma small. Inflorescence springing from the base
of the leafy stem, lax, paniculate.—Species 1 (E. Cardamomum White et
Maton). Cultivated in the tropics and naturalised in the Mascarene
Islands. The fruits (cardamoms) are used as a condiment and for the
preparation of perfumes and medicaments. Elettaria Maton

Fruit dehiscent. Seeds with an aril. Calyx closed in bud. Inflorescence

usually terminal.—Species 15. Central Africa. (Ethanium Salisb.)
Renealmia L. f.

FAMILY 41. CANNACEAE

Herbs. Leaves large, penninerved. Inflorescence spicate or formed of
cymes. Flowers irregular and asymmetrical, hermaphrodite. Sepals free.
Petals united below. Fertile stamen single, 1-celled, the barren half leaf-
like. Staminodes leaf-like. Ovary inferior, 3-celled, with numerous
inverted ovules. Style and stigma simple. Fruit capsular. Seeds
albuminous; embryo straight. (Under SCITAMINEAE.)
Genus 1, species 5. Cultivated and sometimes naturalised in various
regions.
They yield starch, vegetables, medicaments, and dyeing materials, and
are also used as ornamental plants. “Indian shot.” Canna L.

FAMILY 42. MARANTACEAE

Herbs or undershrubs. Leaves stalked, with a swelling in the upper
part of the stalk, penninerved. Inflorescence spicate, capitate, or
paniculate. Flowers irregular and asymmetrical, hermaphrodite. Sepals
free. Petals united below. Fertile stamen single, 1-celled. Staminodes 2-4,
petal-like. Ovary inferior, 1-or 3-celled. Ovules solitary in each cell,
inverted. Style simple; stigma entire or lobed. Seeds with a mealy
albumen and a curved embryo.—Genera 12, species 60. Tropics. (Under
SCITAMINEAE.) (Plate 25.)
1. Ovary 1-celled. [Tribe MARANTEAE.] 2

Ovary 3-celled, but the ovules of 2 cells sometimes abortive. [Tribe

PHRYNIEAE.] 3

2. Corolla-tube very short. Staminodes 3, one of them with two filiform

appendages. Fruit indehiscent. Bracts enclosing one pair of flowers each.
—Species 7. Central Africa. Used as ornamental plants. Thalia L.

Corolla-tube long. Staminodes 4. Fruit dehiscent. Bracts enclosing

3 pairs of flowers each.—Species 1 (M. arundinacea L.) Cultivated and
sometimes naturalised in the tropics. The root-stock contains starch
(arrow-root). Maranta L.

3. Staminodes 2. Fruit winged. Inflorescence spike-like, springing from

the root-stock. Bracts enclosing one pair of flowers each.—Species
1. West Africa. The fruits are edible and contain sugar.
Thaumatococcus Benth.

Staminodes 4, rarely 3. 4

4. Bracts approximated in one row, enclosing two pairs of flowers each.

Ovary with 1 fertile and 2 sterile cells.—Species 1. Madagascar. (Under
Myrosma Benth. or Phrynium Willd.) Ctenophrynium K. Schum.

Bracts in two opposite rows. 5

5. Flower-pairs with small, thickened, almost gland-like scales inserted

above the bracts and the 2-keeled bracteoles which usually accompany
the bracts. 6

Flower-pairs without gland-like scales above the bracts and

bracteoles. 8

6. Ovary and fruit smooth, the latter fleshy. Leaves having the larger half
all on the same side. Herbs with a simple stem. Inflorescence panicle-,
very rarely spike-like.—Species 13. West Africa. Some have edible
fruits. (Under Phrynium Willd. or Phyllodes Lour.)
Sarcophrynium K. Schum.

Ovary and fruit covered with pointed protuberances, the latter dry.
Leaves having the larger half some on the right, some on the left side.
Undershrubs or climbing herbs with a branched stem. Inflorescence
spike-like. 7

7. Fruit dehiscent, covered with small protuberances. Seeds with an aril.

Flower-pairs without a bracteole.—Species 1. West Africa. (Under
Trachyphrynium Benth.) Hybophrynium K. Schum.
 MARANTACEAE.
FLOW. PL. AFR.
Pl. 25.
J. Fleischmann del.
Clinogyne arillata K. Schum.
A Flowering branch. B Flower.
 ORCHIDACEAE.
FLOW. PL. AFR.
Pl. 26.
J. Fleischmann del.
Listrostachys vesicata Reichb. fil.
A Plant in flower. B Flower. C Flower in longitudinal
section (the spur cut off near the base).

Fruit indehiscent, covered with large protuberances. Seeds without an

aril. Flower-pairs with a bracteole.—Species 6. West Africa.
Trachyphrynium Benth.

8. Inflorescence springing from the root-stock and separated from the 1-

leafed stem, spike-like. Inner staminodes, at least one of them, equalling
the outer.—Species 1. Equatorial West Africa. (Under Calathea
Mey.) Afrocalathea K. Schum.

Inflorescence terminating the leafy, sometimes very short stem or its

branches. 9
9. Inner staminodes larger than the outer, the hooded one without a strap-
shaped appendage. Bracts enclosing 2-4 sessile pairs of flowers each.
Inflorescence head-like. Stem branched.—Species 1. Equatorial West
Africa (Gaboon). Ataenidia Gagnepain

Inner staminodes smaller than the outer. 10

10. Sepals very unequal. Fruit dry, indehiscent, with adnate seeds.
Inflorescence consisting of 2-3 spikes. Bracts enclosing one pair of
flowers each, persistent.—Species 1. Equatorial Africa. Used in the
preparation of salt. (Under Clinogyne Benth. or Donax Lour.)
Halopegia K. Schum.

Sepals subequal. Bracts usually enclosing 2-4 pairs of flowers each.

11

11. Inflorescence head-like. Bracts persistent.—Species 2. West Africa.

(Under Calathea Mey.) Phrynium Willd.

Inflorescence raceme- or panicle-like. Bracts deciduous.—Species 25.

West Africa, Upper Nile, and Island of Réunion. Some species yield
starch or fibre. (Donax Lour., including Marantochloa Griseb.) (Plate
25.) Clinogyne Salisb.

ORDER MICROSPERMAE

SUBORDER BURMANNIINEAE

FAMILY 43. BURMANNIACEAE

Herbs. Leaves narrow or scale-like. Flowers solitary or in cymose,
usually spike-like inflorescences, regular or nearly so, hermaphrodite or
polygamous. Perianth-segments 3 or 6, petaloid, united below. Stamens
3, opposite the inner perianth-segments, or 6. Ovary inferior, 1-or 3-
celled. Ovules numerous, inverted. Style 3-or 6-cleft. Fruit dry, dehiscing
by slits or irregularly. Seeds albuminous; testa loose.—Genera 4, species
15. Tropical and South Africa.
1. Anthers erect, opening transversely, 3. Style long, with 3 stigmas.
[Tribe
BURMANNIEAE.] 2
Anthers recurved, opening lengthwise. Style short. [Tribe
THISMIEAE.] 3

2. Ovary 1-celled.—Species 3. Central Africa. Gymnosiphon

Blume

Ovary 3-celled.—Species 10. Tropical and South Africa. Burmannia L.

3. Corolla regular. Stamens 3; connective without an appendage. Stigma

3-parted.—Species 1. West Africa (Cameroons). Oxygyne
Schlecht.

Corolla irregular. Stamens 6; connective with an appendage. Stigma

6-toothed.—Species 2. West Africa (Cameroons). (Under Thismia
Griff.) Afrothismia (Engl.) Schlecht.

SUBORDER GYNANDRAE

FAMILY 44. ORCHIDACEAE

Leaves with longitudinal nerves. Inflorescence of the racemose type.
Flowers irregular. Perianth more or less corolla-like or distinguished into
calyx and corolla, one of the petals or segments (the lip) distinctly
differing from the others. Receptacle usually continued beyond the ovary
and forming the column upon which the stigma and the anther are
inserted. Fertile stamen 1, belonging to the outer whorl. Staminodes
sometimes present. Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with numerous parietal
ovules. Stigmas or stigma-lobes 3, one of them rudimentary or
transformed into the rostellum, to which the pollen-masses adhere. Seeds
very small, exalbuminous; embryo imperfectly developed.—Genera 96,
species 1600. (Plate 26.)
1. Pollen-masses with basal, stalk-like appendages, which adhere to
the sticky, gland-like appendages of the rostellum. Root thickened into
tubers. [Tribe OPHRYDEAE.] 2

Pollen-masses with apical appendages or without appendages. 37

2. Anther reflected, forming an angle with the column. Lip with 2 spurs
or without a spur, but sometimes saccate or bearing appendages on the
back. 3
Anther erect, having the same direction as the column, rarely slightly
reflected, but then lip with one spur. 14

3. Lip partly adnate to the column, usually bearing on its upper face a
large appendage. Petals broad, converging and usually cohering with the
middle sepal into a hood. [Subtribe CORYCIINAE.] 4

Lip free from the column, inserted at its base, rarely shortly adnate to it,
but then petals not distinctly converging into a hood. [Subtribe
SATYRIINAE.] 7

4. Lateral sepals united nearly to the apex.—Species 10. South

Africa. Corycium Swartz

Lateral sepals free. 5

5. Lateral sepals spurred or saccate.—Species 30. Southern and tropical

Africa. Disperis Swartz

Lateral sepals flat. 6

6. Column short. Lip broad at the base. Connective dilated.—Species

15. South Africa. (Including Ommatodium Lindl.) Pterygodium
Swartz

Column long. Lip clawed. Connective not dilated.—Species 8. South

Africa (Cape Colony). Ceratandra Eckl.

7. Lip posticous (uppermost), produced behind into a pair of descending

spurs or sacs.—Species 90. Tropical and South Africa. Some are used in
medicine. (Including Aviceps Lindl. and Satyridium Lindl.)
Satyrium Swartz

Lip usually anticous, not spurred, but sometimes with a sac-like

cavity. 8

8. Odd sepal spurred or gibbous. 9

Odd sepal neither spurred nor gibbous. 13

9. Lip more or less saccate at the base. 10

Lip flat. 11

10. Lip very small, adnate to the column. Stem rather rigid. Leaves in the
middle of the stem.—Species 9. South Africa and mountains of the
tropics. Brownleea Harv.

Lip rather large, free from the column. Stem very flexible. Leaves at the
base of the stem.—Species 6. South Africa (Cape Colony).
(Under Disa Berg). Schizodium Lindl.

11. Rostellum with 2 distinct glands, to which the pollen-masses are

attached; side-lobes exceeding the middle-lobe.—Species 110. Southern
and tropical Africa. Some are used as ornamental plants. (Including
Penthea Lindl.) Disa Berg

Rostellum with one gland; sides-lobes, if present, not exceeding the

middle-lobe. 12

12. Stigma 2-parted. Rostellum with 3 narrow, subequal lobes.—Species

10. South Africa to Nyasaland. (Under Disa Berg). Herschelia
Lindl.

Stigma entire. Rostellum more or less hood-shaped, large.—Species

15. South Africa. (Under Disa Berg). Monadenia Lindl.

13. Petals much narrower than the odd sepal, kneed. Lip kidney-shaped.
Stigma not extended in two branches.—Species 1. South Africa (Cape
Colony). (Under Disa Berg). Forficaria Lindl.

Petals and sepals subequal. Stigma with 2 erect, linear branches.—

Species
2. South Africa (Cape Colony). Pachites Lindl.

14. (2.) Stigma extended into two, usually elongated processes. [Subtribe
HABENARIINAE.] 15

Stigma not extended into processes, rather flat. Column very short.
21
15. Stigmatic processes short, adnate to the lip. Rostellum small, not
prolonged into anther-channels. Column very short.—Species 10.
Tropics.
(Under Habenaria L. or Platanthera Rich.) Peristylus Blume

Stigmatic processes free 16

16. Column long, curved. Rostellum not prolonged into anther-channels.

Perianth subglobose.— Species 1. Mascarene Islands. Acrostylia
Frapp.

Column short 17

17. Rostellum or stigmatic processes 2-cleft. Base of the anther not

enclosed by a channel, but prolonged into solid processes.—Species 7.
Central
Africa. (Under Habenaria Willd.) Roeperocharis Reichb.

Rostellum and stigmatic processes entire, the former prolonged at the

base into two lateral anther-channels. 18

18. Anther reflected. Stigma broad. 19

Anther erect. Stigma more or less slender. 20

19. Middle-lobe of the rostellum exceeding the side-lobes. Lip linear,

entire, with a long spur. Petals broad.—Species 1. Southern West Africa.
(Under Habenaria Willd.) Barlaea Reichb. fil.

Middle-lobe of the rostellum equalling the side-lobes. Lip oblong or

broader, usually lobed.—Species 40. Tropical and South-east Africa.
(Cynosorchis Thouars, including Amphorchis Thouars, Hemiperis
Frapp., and Camilleugenia Frapp.) Cynorchis Thouars

20. Stigmatic processes diverging at a right angle. Spur short.—Species

1.
North-west Africa. (Tinea Biv.) Neotinea Reichb. fil.

Stigmatic processes nearly parallel.—Species 210. (Including Bonatea

Willd., Platycoryne Reichb., and Podandria Rolfe). Habenaria
Willd.

21. (14.) Glands of the rostellum enclosed in 1-2 pouches proceeding

from the rostellum and persisting when the glands are removed.
[Subtribe
SERAPIADINAE.] 22

Glands of the rostellum enclosed by the processes of the anther or naked,

rarely covered by a thin pellicle proceeding from the rostellum and
carried away with the glands upon removal. [Subtribe
GYMNADENIINAE.] 27

22. Glands enclosed in 2 separate pouches. Lip not spurred, usually

convex, gibbous and hairy.—Species 10. North Africa. The tubers yield
medicaments (salep) and mucilage. Ophrys L.

Glands enclosed in a common pouch. 23

23. Glands 2, free. Lip spurred.—Species 20. North Africa. The tubers
yield medicaments (salep) and mucilage. Orchis L.

Glands united into one. 24

24. Connective distinctly elongated. Rostellum laterally compressed. Lip

not spurred; middle-lobe entire.—Species 4. North-west Africa.
They yield medicaments and mucilage. Serapias L.

Connective not or scarcely elongated. Rostellum conical at the apex.

Lip spurred, rarely without a spur, but then with a 2-cleft middle-
lobe. 25

25. Lip with a long spur and two protuberances at the base, equally 3-
lobed, flat in the bud.—Species 1. North-west Africa (Algeria). It yields
medicaments and mucilage. (Under Orchis L.) Anacamptis Rich.

Lip with a short spur or without a spur, with unequal lobes, bent inwards
or rolled up in the bud. 26

26. Middle-lobe of the lip very long, strap-shaped, spirally coiled in the
bud.—Species
1. North-west Africa (Algeria). (Under Aceras R. Br. or
Orchis L.) Himantoglossum Spreng.

Middle-lobe of the lip moderately long, 2-cleft, bent over the anther in
the
bud.—Species 2. North Africa. (Including Barlia Parl.) Aceras R.
Br.

27. (21.) Glands of the rostellum transversely connate. Rostellum

narrow.
Stigmatic surface small. Basal appendages of the pollen-masses short.
Column short. Lip with a short spur.—Species 40. Tropical and South
Africa. (Including Bucculina Lindl., Deroemeria Reichb. fil., Monotris
Lindl., Saccidium Lindl., Scopularia Lindl., and Tryphia Lindl.)
Holothrix L. C. Rich.

Glands of the rostellum free. 28

28. Glands large, surrounded by a thin membrane, which proceeds from

the rostellum and is removed together with the glands. Lip with a very
short spur. Flowers very small.—Species 1. Island of Réunion.
Herminium L.

Glands naked, rarely enclosed by processes of the anther, but then

small. 29

29. Petals clawed; blade deeply concave, fringed. Lip fringed, not
spurred.—Species
4. South Africa. (Including Hallackia Harv.) Huttonaea Harv.

Petals not clawed, flat or slightly concave. 30

30. Rostellum forming a narrow fold between the anther-cells. 31

Rostellum broad, triangular, placed below the anther-cells. 33

31. Column short. Stigmatic surfaces convex. Lip shortly or not spurred.
Flowers yellow or white.—Species 5. South Africa and southern East
Africa. (Schizochilus Sond.) Gymnadenia R. Br.
Column long. Stigmatic surfaces concave. 32

32. Petals partly adnate to the column. Lip not spurred. Sepals and petals
subequal.—Species 1. South Africa. (Under Brachycorythis Lindl.)
Neobolusia Schlecht.

Petals inserted below the column.—Species 25. Tropical and South

Africa.
(Including Schwartzkopffia Kraenzl., under Platanthera Rich.)
Brachycorythis Lindl.

33. Lip with a spur. 34

Lip without a spur. 36

34. Lip 3-lobed, the side-lobes inflexed, covering the mouth of the spur.
—Species
3. Madagascar. Bicornella Lindl.

Lip 3-lobed, with erect or spreading side-lobes, or undivided. 35

35. Lip fringed. Anther-cells approximate and parallel.—Species 2.

South
Africa. Bartholina R. Br.

Lip entire or crenate. Anther-cells divergent.—Species 20. The tubers

yield medicaments (salep) and mucilage. (Including Gennaria Parl.,
under Habenaria Willd.) Platanthera L. C. Rich.

36. Lip 3-lobed. Column with 2 basal staminodes. Basal appendages of

the pollen-masses very short.—Species 3. South Africa and southern
East
Africa. Stenoglottis Lindl.

Lip undivided. Column without distinct staminodes.—Species 2.

Madagascar and Mascarenes. Arnottia A. Rich.

37. (1.) Pollen-masses soft, granular. Anthers usually persistent and

withering.
Inflorescence terminal. Leaves rolled up in the bud, with overlapping
edges. Usually terrestrial herbs. [Tribe NEOTTIEAE.] 38
Pollen-masses firm, waxy. Anthers usually deciduous. Inflorescence
lateral, more rarely terminal, but then leaves folded lengthwise in the
bud. 55

38. Anther erect and greatly exceeding the rostellum, or inclined and
incumbent upon the rostellum. Pollen-masses granular or powdery.
Rostellum not distinctly notched after the removal of the pollen-masses,
or not distinctly cohering with them. 39

Anther about equalling the rostellum, erect, rarely incumbent, but then
pollen-masses divided into a number of large angular sections. Rostellum
usually distinctly notched after the removal of the pollen-masses.
47

39. Lip distinctly articulated into 2-3 portions placed one behind the
other.
Anther erect. [Subtribe CEPHALANTHERINAE.] 40

Lip not distinctly articulated, embracing the column. Anther more or less
incumbent. 42

40. Lip produced into a spur. Leaves replaced by scales. Plants of a violet
colour.—Species 2. North-west Africa (Algeria). Limodorum L.
C. Rich.

Lip not distinctly spurred. Leaves perfectly developed. 41

41. Lip saccate at the base; the terminal portion oblong and enclosed by
the connivent sepals.—Species 1. North-west Africa (Algeria).
Cephalanthera L. C. Rich.

Lip concave, but not saccate at the base; the terminal portion broad and
projecting between the spreading sepals.—Species 4. North-west
Africa and northern East Africa. (Helleborine Hill). Epipactis L.
C. Rich.

42. Sepals and petals united below. Leafless herbs. [Subtribe

GASTRODIINAE.] 43
Sepals and petals free. 44

43. Sepals and petals united high up, very unequal. Lip ovate, with 2
gibbosities at the base. Column short. Anther incumbent. Root-stock
branched. Flowers large, in few-flowered spikes.—Species 1. West
Africa (Cameroons). Gastrodia R. Br.

Sepals and petals united at the base only, subequal. Lip spatulate, not
gibbous. Column long. Anther suberect. Rootstock tuberous, spindle-
shaped. Flowers very small, in many-flowered racemes.—Species
1. West Africa (Cameroons). Auxopus Schlecht.

44. Stem climbing. Seed-coat crusty or winged. [Subtribe

VANILLINAE.] 45

Stem erect. Seed-coat membranous, not winged. [Subtribe

POGONIINAE.] 46

45. Lip adnate to the column. Fruit fleshy. Seeds not winged. Usually
leafy plants.—Species 15. Tropics. Two of the species (especially
V. planifolia Andr.) are cultivated for their fruits, which are used as
condiments and for the preparation of perfumes. Some species are used
as ornamental plants. Vanilla Swartz

Lip not adnate to the column. Fruit dry. Seeds winged. Leafless
plants.—Species 1. Comoro Islands. Galeola Lour.

46. Lip spurred or saccate. Column short. Leaves wanting.—Species 1.

West Africa (Cameroons). (Under Epipogon Gmel.) Galera Blume

Lip neither spurred nor saccate. Column long. Leaves stalked, usually
separated from the flowering stem.—Species 10. Tropics to Transvaal.
(Including Apostellis Thouars, under Pogonia Juss.) Nervilia
Gaud.

47. (38.) Pollen-masses divided into a moderate number of rather large,

angular segments. Leaves not folded lengthwise. [Subtribe
PHYSURINAE.] 48
Pollen-masses not divided into several large segments. 53

48. Pollen-masses connected with the glands of the rostellum by a strap-

shaped stalk detached from the tissue of the rostellum. 49

Pollen-masses or their appendages adhering directly to the glands of the

rostellum. 50

49. Column with 2 narrow, erect arms. Sepals usually united to the
middle.
Lip with two protuberances at the base and with a two-lobed blade.—
Species
4. West Africa, Madagascar, Comoro Islands. Cheirostylis Blume

Column without erect arms, but sometimes auricled. Sepals free.—

Species
9. Tropical and South-east Africa. (Including Monochilus
Blume). Zeuxine Lindl.

50. Lip similar to the other petals, oblong, slightly concave. Stigmas free,
erect, one on each side of the rather long rostellum.—Species 2.
Madagascar and Mascarene Islands. Gymnochilus Blume

Lip distinctly differing from the other petals. 51

51. Column long. Sepals connivent into a tube at the base. Lip with an
oblong blade.—Species 6. Comoro Islands, Seychelles, Natal, West
Africa. Platylepis A. Rich.

Column short. 52

52. Stigma with a papillose protuberance on each side. Lip tubercled at

the base, with a distinctly limited broad blade.—Species 3. Mascarenes,
Seychelles, Comoro Islands, and Cameroons. Hetaeria Blume

Stigma simple. Lip not tubercled, but sometimes hairy at the base; blade
not distinctly separated, undivided, bent back at the tip.—Species 3.
Mascarene Islands and Madeira. Used as ornamental plants.
Goodyera R. Br.
53. (47.) Leaves firm, folded lengthwise. Flowers in panicles. Lip narrow
below, broadened above. Pollen-masses affixed to a slender stalk arising
from the rostellum; gland peltate.—Species 2. Tropics. (Corymbis
Lindl.) [Subtribe TROPIDIINAE.] Corymborchis Thouars

Leaves soft, not folded, sometimes scale-like. Flowers in spikes. 54

54. Sepals and petals united into a long tube. Lip uppermost, with 2
lateral appendages. Column elongated, two-winged.—Species 1. West
Africa.
[Subtribe CRANICHIDINAE.] Manniella Reichb. fil.

Sepals and petals free or almost so, suberect. Lip below. Inflorescence
one-sided.—Species 2. North-west Africa (Algeria). [Subtribe
SPIRANTHINAE.] Spiranthes L. C. Rich.

55. (37.) Inflorescence terminal. Leaves folded lengthwise before

expansion. 56

Inflorescence lateral. 65

56. Pollen-masses 8, without an appendage. Lip saccate at the base.

Leaves jointed at the upper end of the sheath. Inflorescence head-like.—
Species
1. Madagascar and Seychelles. [Tribe GLOMEREAE.]
Agrostophyllum Blume

Pollen-masses 2-4. 57

57. Column extended below into a foot forming with the base of the
perianth
a chin or spur. Pollen-masses attached to a short, sometimes scarcely
perceptible stalk arising from the rostellum. Mostly epiphytic plants.
[Tribe POLYSTACHYEAE.] 58

Column not extended into a foot. Pollen-masses without appendages.

Sepals and petals usually bent backwards. [Tribe LIPARIDEAE.]
61

58. Lip spurred, 3-lobed. Pollen-masses 2, grooved. Leaves not jointed,

linear. Joints of the stem swollen.—Species 6. South Africa. (Under
Eulophia R. Br.) Acrolophia Pfitz.

Lip not spurred. Leaves usually jointed. 59

59. Lip undivided. Chin weakly developed. Column short and thick.
Stem slender.—Species 1. German East Africa. Neobenthamia
Rolfe

Lip 3-lobed. 60

60. Lateral sepals forming with the column a weakly developed chin.
Side-lobes of the lip embracing the column. Column slender. Stem
slightly thickened.—Species 6. Tropical and South-east Africa. Some are
used as ornamental plants. Ansellia Lindl.

Lateral sepals forming with the column a strongly developed chin. Side-
lobes of the lip small. Column short and broad. Stem usually thickened
into pseudo bulbs.—Species 120. Tropical and South Africa. Some are
used as ornamental plants. (Including Epiphora Lindl.)
Polystachya Lindl.

61. Anther erect. Leaves not jointed. 62

Anther inclined to horizontal. 63

62. Anther adnate to the rostellum; cells widely diverging, opening

laterally.
Column long.—Species 1. West Africa. Orestia Ridl.

Anther deciduous, opening inwards. Column short. Lip uppermost.—

Species
4. West Africa and Comoro Islands. Microstylis Nutt.

63. Leaves not jointed. Lip more or less distinctly clawed. Column
slender.—Species
30. Tropical and South Africa. Liparis L. C. Rich.

Leaves jointed between sheath and blade. Lip not distinctly clawed.
64
64. Stem with pseudobulbs. Leaf-blade horizontally flattened.—Species
1.
Mascarene Islands. (Cestichis Thouars, under Liparis Rich.)
Stichorchis Thouars

Stem without pseudobulbs. Leaf-blade placed vertically, fleshy. Lip

uppermost, concave at the base.—Species 1. Tropics. Oberonia
Lindl.

65. (55.) Leaves with convolute praefoliation (i.e. rolled lengthwise in

the bud, one edge overlapping the other). Stem not swollen, or several
joints
of the stem equally thickened. Mostly terrestrial herbs. 66
Leaves with conduplicate praefoliation (i.e. folded together along the
midrib in the bud, their edges being applied to each other without
overlapping).
Mostly epiphytic herbs. 73

66. Pollen-masses 2-4, without appendages, attached to the glands of the

rostellum by a stalk produced from the latter. Leaves usually jointed.
[Tribe CYRTOPODIEAE.] 67

Pollen-masses 8, appendaged, without a stalk produced from the

rostellum.
Leaves usually continuous. [Tribe PHAIEAE.] 71

67. Lip produced into a spur or pouch at the base. 68

Lip without a spur or pouch. 69

68. Sepals narrower and less coloured than the petals, usually reflected.
Petals erect or spreading.—Species 90. Tropical and South Africa. Some
are used as ornamental plants. Lissochilus R. Br.

Sepals and petals equal or nearly so, spreading.—Species 130. Tropical

and South Africa. Some species yield medicaments (salep) and mucilage
or serve as ornamental plants. (Including Cyrtopera Lindl. and
Orthochilus
Hochst.) Eulophia R. Br.
69. Column with 2 basal lobes projecting upon the base of the lip.—
Species 4.
East Africa. Pteroglossaspis Reichb. fil.

Column without appendages. 70

70. Lip and lateral sepals inserted on the foot of the column, the former
with
a narrow, the latter with a broad base.—Species 1. Madagascar.
Eulophiella Rolfe

Lip inserted on the foot of the column, the lateral sepals on the margin of
the ovary, both with a narrow base.—Species 1. Madagascar and
Mascarene Islands. The pseudobulbs yield mucilage.
Cyrtopodium R. Br.

71. Leaves jointed at the upper end of the sheath. Inflorescence 2-3-
flowered.
Lip slightly saccate. Column rather long, with short, roundish wings.
Pollen-masses affixed to a single appendage.—Species 2. West Africa.
Used as ornamental plants. (Under Pachystoma Reichb. fil.)
Ancistrochilus Rolfe

Leaves not jointed. Inflorescence usually many-flowered. Lip clasping

the column or adnate to it, usually spurred. 72

72. Lip adnate to the column; blade spreading, 3-4-lobed. Column short.
—Species
9. Tropical and South Africa. Some are used as ornamental plants.
Calanthe R. Br.

Lip free, clasping the column or broadly concave at the base. Column
slender.—Species 7. Madagascar and neighbouring islands, West
Africa. Some are used as ornamental plants or yield dye-stuffs.
Phaius Lour.

73. (65.) Leafy stems with indeterminate apical growth; side-shoots

weakly developed or wanting. Inflorescences or solitary flowers axillary.
Epiphytes without pseudobulbs. Lip continuous with the base of the
column. [Tribe SARCANTHEAE, subtribe AERIDINAE.] 74
Leafy stems with determinate apical growth; annual shoots arising
laterally at their base and forming a sympodium. Mostly epiphytes with
pseudobulbs. Lip more or less distinctly articulated with the foot of the
column. 86

74. Lip not spurred. Sepals and petals long and narrow, spreading.
Pollen-masses without an appendage. Leaves broad.—Species 2. Island
of
Réunion. Bonniera Cord.

Lip spurred. 75

75. Lateral sepals inserted on the foot of the column, forming a chin. Lip
entire, smooth, shortly spurred.—Species 10. Madagascar and
neighbouring islands, Cameroons. Some are used as ornamental
plants. Aeranthus Lindl.

Lateral sepals inserted on the apex of the ovary. Column not prolonged
into a foot. 76

76. Pollen-masses upon a single, sometimes 2-cleft or almost

imperceptible stalk. 77

Pollen-masses with 2 stalks, which are entirely distinct or united by the

gland only. 81

77. Stalk of the pollen-masses 2-cleft.—Species 10. Madagascar and the

neighbouring islands, West Africa. (Including Ancistrorhynchus Finet,
Dicranotaenia Finet, and Monixus Finet, under Angrecum
Thouars). Aerangis Reichb. fil.

Stalk of the pollen-masses simple. 78

78. Stalk of the pollen-masses broadened above or throughout,

sometimes almost imperceptible. Lip with a long and thin spur.—Species
120.
Tropical and South Africa. Some are used as ornamental or medicinal
plants. (Including Lepervenchea Cord., Radinocion Ridl., and
Rhaphidorhynchus
Finet). Angrecum Thouars

Stalk of the pollen-masses thread-like. 79

79. Lip hood-shaped, entire, covering the column. Sepals and petals
connivent.—Species
1. West Africa (Cameroons). (Under Angrecum Thou. or Saccolabium
Blume). Calyptrochilus Kraenzl.

Lip not covering the column. 80

80. Lip directed upwards. Flowers fleshy, rather small.—Species 4.

Madagascar and neighbouring islands, Equatorial East Africa. Used as
ornamental plants. (Under Saccolabium Blume). Acampe Lindl.

Lip directed downwards.—Species 3. Madagascar and neighbouring

islands, West Africa. Used as ornamental plants. Saccolabium
Blume

81. Pollen-masses affixed to the surface of two oblong scales. Lip entire,
with a long spur.—Species 20. Madagascar and neighbouring islands,
West Africa. Some are used as ornamental plants. (Under Angrecum
Thou.) Macroplectrum Pfitz.

Pollen-masses affixed to thin, not scale-like, but sometimes very short

stalks. 82

82. Gland of the rostellum covered by scales. Petals 2-4-lobed. Lip with
a long spur, a clawed 3-5-lobed middle-lobe, and incurved sickle-shaped
side-lobes.—Species 1. Madagascar and Mascarenes. Cryptopus
Lindl.

Gland of the rostellum without scales. 83

83. Lip with a short, conical spur; side-lobes embracing the column.—
Species
9. Madagascar and neighbouring islands. (Aeonia Lindl.) Oeonia
Lindl.

Lip with a long, thread- or club-shaped spur. 84

84. Sepals unequal, the lateral much longer than the middle one, united
with the petals above. Lip deeply 3-cleft. Stem climbing.—Species
1. German East Africa. Angrecopsis Kraenzl.

Sepals and petals subequal, free. 85

85. Sepals and petals erect. Lip entire. Pollen-masses with very short
stalks.—Species 1. Island of Réunion. (Pectinaria Cord., under
Angrecum Thou., Macroplectrum Pfitz. or Mystacidium Lindl.)
Ctenorchis K. Schum.

Sepals and petals spreading. 86

86. Column bent backwards. Stalks of the pollen-masses attached to a

common gland.—Species 70. Tropical and South Africa. Some are used
as ornamental plants. (Plate 26.) Listrostachys Reichb. fil.

Column straight. Stalks of the pollen-masses usually attached to two

separate glands.—Species 40. Tropical and South Africa. Some are used
as ornamental plants. (Including Gussonia A. Rich.) Mystacidium
Lindl.

87. (73.) Pollen-masses 2, grooved, with a large transverse appendage at

the base, attached to the gland of the rostellum by a broad stalk. Lip
usually large. Pseudobulbs formed by several internodes, rarely by a
single one or wanting. [Tribe CYMBIDIEAE.] 88

Pollen-masses 4, rarely 2, without an appendage and usually without a

stalk. Lip usually small. Pseudobulbs formed by a single internode,
bearing one or two leaves. 92

88. Lip distinctly spurred. 89

Lip not distinctly spurred. 90

89. Pollen-masses grooved. Stem with a pseudobulb.—Species 5.

Madagascar and Mascarenes. (Under Eulophia R. Br.)
Eulophiopsis Pfitz.
Pollen-masses not grooved. Stem without pseudobulbs.—Species 1.
Madagascar. Lemurorchis Kraenzl.

90. Pollen-masses attached to two processes of the stalk. Stem slender,

without pseudobulbs, many-leaved.—Species 1. Madagascar. Used as an
ornamental plant. Grammatophyllum Blume

Pollen-masses attached to a common stalk without processes. Stem with

more or less distinct pseudobulbs. 91

91. Pseudobulbs enveloped by the sheaths of the leaves inserted below

and
upon them.—Species 4. Madagascar. Used as ornamental plants.
Cymbidium Swartz
Pseudobulbs bearing leaves at the top only, hence not enveloped by
sheaths.
Lateral sepals forming with the foot of the column a distinct chin.—
Species
2. Madagascar. Used as ornamental plants. Grammangis Reichb.
fil.

92. Pollen-masses attached to a scale-like stalk. Lip spurred, 3-lobed.—

Species
2. West Africa. Used as ornamental plants. (Under Eulophia
R. Br.) [Tribe MAXILLARIEAE.] Eulophidium Pfitz.

Pollen-masses without a stalk, rarely with a linear stalk. Lip small, not
distinctly spurred, usually entire. [Tribe BOLBOPHYLLEAE.] 93

93. Pollen-masses with a stalk. Lateral sepals somewhat longer than the
dorsal one. Flowers in racemes. Stem creeping.—Species 3. West
Africa. (Under Bolbophyllum Thou. or Polystachya Lindl.)
Genyorchis Schlecht.

Pollen-masses without a stalk. 94

94. Lateral sepals much longer than the dorsal one, free at the base,
united towards the tip. Inflorescence almost umbel-like.—Species 1.
Madagascar,
Mascarenes, East Africa. Used as an ornamental plant. (Under
Bolbophyllum Thou.) Cirrhopetalum Lindl.

Lateral sepals shorter or somewhat longer than the dorsal one or

equalling it, free or almost so. Flowers in spikes or racemes, rarely
solitary. 95

95. Lateral sepals much shorter than the dorsal one. Inflorescence with a
dilated, almost leaf-like rachis.—Species 40. Tropical and South-East
Africa. Some species are used as ornamental plants. Megaclinium
Lindl.

Lateral sepals about as long as or longer than the dorsal one.

Inflorescence with a cylindrical rachis.—Species 90. Tropical and South-
East Africa.
Some are used as ornamental plants. (Bulbophyllum Thou.)
Bolbophyllum Thouars

CLASS V. DICOTYLEDONEAE
SUBCLASS ARCHICHLAMYDEAE
(APETALAE AND CHORIPETALAE)

ORDER VERTICILLATAE

FAMILY 45. CASUARINACEAE

Trees or shrubs. Leaves scale-like, whorled, united into a sheath.
Flowers unisexual, the male in spikes, the female in heads. Perianth of
the male flowers consisting of two scales, in the female absent. Stamen
1. Anther opening by two longitudinal slits. Ovary 1-celled. Ovules 2,
ascending, straight. Style very short, with 2 thread-shaped stigmas. Fruit
dry, indehiscent, enclosed by woody bracteoles. Seed 1, without
albumen. Embryo straight; radicle superior.
 PIPERACEAE.
FLOW. PL. AFR.
Pl. 27.
J. Fleischmann del.
Piper guineense Schum.
A Fruiting branch. B Part of the female spike with two
flowers and their bracts. C Female flower cut
lengthwise.