General Biology 1

First Quarter Reviewers

Reese

WHAT IS THE FILIPINO WORD FOR BIOLOGY?

“HAYNAYAN”

Biology CELL THEORY

- Natural science discipline that studies living things
- Greek language “bios” life; “logos” study
- Science of life and living organisms
- Covers diverse fields of study, such as botany,
ecology, marine biology, and microbiology
Biologists
- Studies humas, plants, animals, and their
environments
- They research, identify, classify and study the
different living organisms and their ecosystems
E I GHT CHA RA CT E RI S T I CS OF L I F E
• Adaptation through evolution
• Cellular organization
• Growth and development
• Heredity
• Homeostasis
• Metabolism
• Reproduction
• Response to stimuli
History Cell Theory
1595 - Hans and Zacharias Janssen (father and son lens
grinder and spectacle maker from the Netherlands)
figured out how to align and combine lenses to view things far
away or up close. They were credited by historians to be the
inventors of the first telescope and the microscope
Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
- an English scientist
- 1665 - He discovered the cell after he examined under a
compound microscope very thin slices of cork tissue.
- He noticed that it has a honeycomb-like structure which
he said was made up of “cells” or small walled
compartments.
- His observations on the cell were published in 1665 in his
book entitled Micrographia.
- However, since the cork is just a piece of dead wood,
there was anything left to see but the walls of those empty
cells
• What do you think is the cell organelle that Hooke
observed that make him use term cell?
• What is the name of the book written by Robert Hooke?
Micrographia

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE - a Dutch tradesman and craftsman with no formal
education
1) ARISTOTLE (350 BCE) 1675 – he started making his own microscopes
- Spontaneous generation Theory 1676 - he reported his discovery of forms of life including A.
- Life comes out of nowhere van Leeuwenhoek algae, protozoans, and nematodes, after
2) PASTEUR (1864) he examined lake/pond water samples under his microscope.
- Biogenesis He called the minute, moving organisms as “animalcules
- Life comes from other life He was also the first to observe bacteria which he collected
3) ARRHENIUS PANSPERMIA (1903) from a human mouth.
- Panspermia Theory Leeuwenhoek wrote detailed documentation of his
- life came from out of space in asteroids observations to the royal society. His letters were published in
4) OPARIN PRIMORDIAL SOUP THEORY (1924) the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
- early life came from primitive molecules based on
chemicals Barthélemy Charles Joseph Dumortier (1797 – 1878)
5) MODERN THEORIES (1950-ORESENT) - a French biologist who first described cell division in
- Chemical evolution plants.
- RNA world
Robert Brown (1773 - 1858)
- introduced the term nucleus in 1833 as the opaque spot
near the middle of the cell.
Gabriel Gustav Valentin (1810 – 1883)
CELL - made the first accurate description of “nucleolus” in 1835.
• Basic unit of life
Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804-1881)
• Heredity
proposed that every structural element of plant is composed
• Reproduction of cells
• Transport Theodor Schwann (1810-1882)
• Energy conversion suggests that the parts of animal tissues are made up of cells
• Energy storage (1839)
• Metabolism
• Repair
• Development "For more than 2000 years, a concept based on Aristotle’s
• Growth doctrine of spontaneous generation dominated the mind of
• Homeostasis mankind"
• Responsiveness
• Evolution
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S P ONT A NE OUS GE NE RA T I ON
- is the theory that life comes from inanimate objects or non-
living things.
Life can originate from non-living materials
- the belief that living things can come from non-living things.
- Was once thought to be true but is now known to be false!
How was it disproved? - the following scientists with their
combined experiments proved the theory of spontaneous
generation to be false & helped develop the Cell Theory
LOUIS PASTEUR 1859
- French chemist
- Entered a contest sponsored by French Academy of
Sciences to prove or disprove Spontaneous generation
- Used swan-necked flask allowed in air, but trapped dust
and microbes
- Showed that NO GROWTH OCCURRED, even after
many days
LAZZARO SPALLANZANI
- Italian scholar
- Improved upon Needham’s experiment
- Boiled flasks of gravy to kill life, sealed one jar, left the
other jar open
- Open jar had living microorganisms, sealed jar did not
- Concluded that gravy did not produce life, organisms
entered through the air
RUDOLF VIRCHOW
- In 1855, he published his famous aphorism
“omnis cellula e cellula”
(all cells arise from pre-existing cells)
THE CLASSICAL TENETS OF THE CELL THEORY
(MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN, THEODOR SCHWANN,
RUDOLPH VIRCHOW)
Ø All living things are made up of cells
Ø The cell is the structural and functional unit of all
living things
Ø All cells come from pre-existing cells
THE MODERN CELL THEORY
GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL (1822-1884)
- He conducted experiments with different varieties of pea
plants
- Father of Modern Genetics
JAMES WATSON AND FRANCIS CRICK
- Discovered the structure of DNA
Ø All living things are made up of cells
Ø The cell is the structural and functional unit of all
living things
Ø All cells come from pre-existing cells
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Ø All cells contain hereditary information which is
passed from cell to cell during cell division
Ø All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition and metabolic activities
Ø All basic chemical and physiological functions are
carried out inside the cells
Ø Cell activity depends on the activities of subcellular
structures within the cells
STEM CELL RESEARCH
The research started simple question “How can the various
parts of the human body began forming and how may it be
possible to replicate the processes.
SUMMARY:
It took over 173 years for the cell theory to be formulated
THREE MAJOR PARTS OF CELL THEORY
Ø All organisms are made of cells
Ø All existing cells are produced by other living cells
Ø The cell is the most basic unit of life
(These three parts were discovered between 1665-1838)
FIVE CONTRIBUTORS TO THE CELL THEORY
1) Robert Hooke
Came up with the name of cells
2) Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
Referred to living cells called animalcules (plant & animal)
after observing a drop of pond water
3) Matthias Schleiden
Projected plant cells are made of cells
4) Theodor Schwann
Determined all animals are made of cells (1st statement of the
cell theory)
5) Rudolf Virchow
stated all cells come from preexisting cells (2nd statement of
the cell theory)
MODERN CELL THEORY
- The cell contains hereditary information(DNA) which
is passed on from cell to cell during cell division.
- All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition and metabolic activities.
- All basic chemical & physiological functions are
carried out inside the cells. (movement, digestion
- Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular
structures within the cell (organelles, nucleus,
plasma membrane)
Cell Parts and Functions PPT
“ C E L L I S A S Y S T E M A N D A S U B S Y S T E M”
How big are cells?
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Reese

Microscopic (mostly) - Sperm Cell

Measured in microns µm (micrometers).
A µm is one millionth of a meter = 10-9 m = one thousandth What is the largest cell with a metabolism?
of 1 mm. Chaos chaos
Cell size Size=1-5 mm in length.
common name = Giant Amoeba

Chaos diffluens, is an amoeba closely related to the giant

amoebae

What is the biggest cell in nature?

- yolk of an ostrich egg
Although ALL living things are made of cells, organisms may
be:
Unicellular – composed of one cell
Multicellular- composed of many cells that may organize into
tissues, etc.
Typical cells range from 5 – 50 micrometers (microns) in
diameter

How Big is a Micron ( µ ) ?

1 cm = 10,000 microns 1” = 25,000 microns

Cells Have Large Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio

F OR M F I T S F U N C T I ON
1. Mitochondria: These are the membrane-bound cellular
organelles that are responsible for the generation of energy
required by the cell. To perform the typical function of
mitochondria, which is to form adenosine triphosphate (ATP;
energy currency of the cell), the organelle has certain unique
membrane-bound proteins. These proteins are responsible for
Bacteria e.g. Eschericia coli (aka E.coli)
conducting the electron transport chain which is used to
Size=1 µm by 3 µm
convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) into ATP. Cells that
require more energy like muscle cells have a high content of
Human red blood cell = 8 µm in diameter
mitochondria in them. This also indicates how the structure of
Mycoplasma genitalium
the cell is an important predictor of its function.
- Size = 0.2 to 0.3 µm
2. Neurons: These are the specialized cells that compose the
- Smallest free living cell
nervous system of the body. The main function of these cells
- is a type of bacteria that can cause an STD.
is to transfer electrical impulses from one part of the body to
- You get it by having sex with someone who has it.
another. To facilitate this function, neurons have certain
specialized structural features. For instance, these cells have
How many cells make up an average human being?
specialized projections at one end, which are called axons,
- The average human being is composed of around
that allow the transmission of electrical and chemical signals.
100 Trillion individual cells!!!
These cells also have certain root-like extensions (called
dendrites), which help in receiving electrical and chemical
How many cells would it take to cells to cover the area of
signals.
a dot on the letter “i”
3. Muscle cell: Muscle cells or muscle fibers are the individual
- It would take as many as 50 cells to cover the area
components of a muscle. The main function of muscle cells is
of a dot on the letter “i”
to constantly contract and relax to facilitate the movement of
various body parts. Each muscle cell contains thousands of
What cell type that can no longer regenerate once used
contractile filaments (actin and myosin filaments) in it, that are
up?
essential for facilitating the contraction and relaxation of the
muscle cell. Hence, the aforesaid structural feature of muscle
cells suggests and determines how the cell will function.
What type of cell can carry Oxygen and supplies it
through the body?
- Blood

Largest cell in the human body

- Ovum
Size= 1000 µm in diameter (1 mm)

Smallest cell in the human body

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Reese

Three Cell Types

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

Bacterial Cell

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- Found in plants, fungi, & bacteria

- Made of cellulose in plants
- Made of peptidoglycan in bacteria
- Made of chitin in Fungi
- Supports and protects cell
- Found outside of the cell membrane

CYTOPLASM
- Jelly-like substance enclosed by cell membrane
- Provides a medium for chemical reactions to take
Basic Structure of a Cell place
- Contains organelles to carry out specific jobs
- Found in ALL cells

NUCLEUS
- Controls the normal activities
of the cell
- Contains the DNA in chromosomes
- Bounded by a nuclear
envelope (membrane) with pores
- Usually the largest organelle

Each cell has fixed number

of chromosomes that carry genes
Genes control cell characteristics
Species Number of chromosomes
CELL MEMBRANE Human 46
- Composed of double layer of phospholipids and Mouse 40
proteins
Rat 42
- Surrounds outside of ALL cells
Fruit flies 8
- Controls what enters or leaves the cell
- Living layer
- The Cell Membrane is Fluid
Nuclear Envelope
- Molecules in cell membranes are constantly moving
- Double membrane surrounding nucleus
and changing
- Also called nuclear membrane
- Contains nuclear pores for materials to enter & leave
nucleus
Phospholipids
- Connected to the rough ER
- Heads contain glycerol & phosphate and are
hydrophilic (attract water)
- Tails are made of fatty acids and are hydrophobic
DNA
(repel water)
- is the hereditary material of the cell
- Make up a bilayer where tails point inward toward
each other - found inside the nucleus
- Can move laterally to allow small molecules (O2, - DNA is spread out and appears as CHROMATIN in
non-dividing cells
CO2, & H2O to enter)
- DNA is condensed & wrapped around proteins
Cell Membrane Proteins forming as CHROMOSOMES in dividing cells
- Proteins help move large molecules or aid in cell - Genes that make up the DNA molecule code for
recognition different proteins
- Peripheral proteins are attached on the surface
(inner or outer) Inside nucleus
- Integral proteins are embedded completely through - Cell may have 1 to 3 nucleoli
- Disappears when cell divides
the membrane
- Makes ribosomes that make proteins
Glycoproteins
- have carbohydrate tails to act as markers for cell
recognition

Cell Membranes in Plants

- Lies immediately against the cell wall in plant cells
- Pushes out against the cell wall to maintain cell
shape

Translation
CELL WALL
- Nonliving layer
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- Occurs on ribosomes, messenger RNA decoded
or translated to determine the sequence of amino
acid in the protein being synthesized.
RIBOSOMES
- Can be attached to Rough ER
- Be free (unattached) in the cytoplasm
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- Network of hollow membrane tubules
- Connects to nuclear envelope and cell membrane
- Functions in synthesis and transport
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- Has ribosomes on the surface
- Makes membrane proteins and proteins for EXPORT
out of cell
- Proteins are made by ribosomes on ER surface
- They are then threaded into the interior of the Rough
ER to be modified and transported
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- Smooth ER lacks ribosomes on its surface
- Is attached to the ends of rough ER
- Makes cell products that are USED INSIDE the cell
- Makes membrane lipids (steroids)
- Regulates calcium (muscle cells)
- Destroys toxic substances (Liver)
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
- Includes nuclear membrane connected to ER
connected to cell membrane (transport)
Proteins are chain like polymers of a few or many
thousands of amino acids.
GOLGI APPARATUS
1. Molecules come in vesicles
2. Vesicles fuse with Golgi membrane
3. Molecules may be modified by Golgi
4. Molecules pinched-off in separate vesicle
5. Vesicle leaves Golgi apparatus
6. Vesicles may combine with plasma membrane to secrete
contents
- Stacks of flattened sacs
- Have a shipping side (trans face) and receiving side
(cis face)
- Receive proteins made by ER
- Transport vesicles with modified proteins pinch off
the ends
- Look like a stack of pancakes
- Modify, sort, & package molecules from ER for
storage OR transport out of cell
- Materials are transported from Rough ER to Golgi to
the cell membrane by VESICLES
VACUOLES
- Fluid filled sacks for storage
- Small or absent in animal cells
- Plant cells have a large Central Vacuole
- No vacuoles in bacterial cells
- In plants, they store Cell Sap
- Includes storage of sugars, proteins, minerals, lipids,
wastes, salts, water, and enzymes
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Contractile Vacuole
- Found in unicellular protists like paramecia
- Regulate water intake by pumping out excess
(homeostasis)
- Keeps the cell from lysing (bursting)
Peroxisomes contain enzymes that oxidize certain molecules
normally found in the cell, notably fatty acids and amino acids.
Those oxidation reactions produce hydrogen peroxide, which is
the basis of the name peroxisome. However, hydrogen
peroxide is potentially toxic to the cell, because it has the
ability to react with many other molecules. Therefore,
peroxisomes also contain enzymes such as catalase that
convert hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen, thereby
neutralizing the toxicity. In that way peroxisomes provide a
safe location for the oxidative metabolism of certain
molecules.
LYSOSOMES
- Contain digestive enzymes
- Break down food, bacteria, and worn out cell parts
for cells
- Programmed for cell death (AUTOLYSIS)
- Lyse (break open) & release enzymes to break down
& recycle cell parts)
- Cells take in food by phagocytosis
- Lysosomes digest the food & get rid of wastes
MITOCHONDRIA
- “Powerhouse” of the cell
- Generate cellular energy (ATP)
- More active cells like muscle cells have MORE
mitochondria
- Both plants & animal cells have mitochondria
- Site of CELLULAR RESPIRATION (burning glucose)
- Mitochondrion (plural = mitochondria)
- Surrounded by a double membrane
- Has its own DNA
- Folded inner membrane is called CRISTAE
(increases surface area for more chemical reactions)
- Interior called matrix
- Rod shape
- Cell powerhouse
- Burns glucose to release energy ATP
- Stores energy as ATP
Mitochondria Come from cytoplasm in the EGG cell
during fertilization Therefore …
You inherit your mitochondria from your mother!
CENTRIOLES
- Found only in animal cells
- Paired structures near nucleus
- Made of bundle of microtubules
- Appear during cell division forming mitotic spindle
- Help to pull chromosome pairs apart to opposite
ends of the cell
CILIA & FLAGELLA
- Made of protein tubes called microtubules
- Microtubules arranged(9 + 2 arrangement)
- Function in moving cells, in moving fluids, or in small
particles across the cell surface
- Cilia are shorter and more numerous on cells
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- Flagella are longer and fewer (usually 1-3) on
cells
CHLOROPLASTS
- Found only in producers (organisms containing
chlorophyll)
- Use energy from sunlight to make own food
(glucose)
- Energy from sun stored in the Chemical Bonds of
Sugars
- Surrounded by DOUBLE membrane
- Outer membrane smooth
- Inner membrane modified into sacs called
Thylakoids
- Thylakoids in stacks called Grana & interconnected
- Stroma – gel like material surrounding thylakoids
- Contains its own DNA
- Contains enzymes & pigments for Photosynthesis
- Never in animal or bacterial cells
- Photosynthesis – food making process
CHARACTERISTICS OF ALL CELLS
- A surrounding membrane
- Protoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid
- Organelles – structures for cell function
- Control center with DNA
- Small size – allows materials to move via diffusion
Diffusion = process by which molecules move from
levels of high concentration to levels of low
concentration until equilibrium is reached
COMMON FEATURES OF ALL CELLS
1) Cell Membrane – selectively/differentially
permeable (lets some things in and out)
2) Cytoplasm – semi-fluid material in which cell
organelles float
Nucleic acid containing genetic code :
Which nucleic acid? DNA
3) Cytoskeleton – proteins that support the cell
(Microtubules & microfilaments)
4) Ribosomes- make proteins
FACTORS AFFECTING CELL SIZE
Surface area (plasma membrane surface) is determined by
multiplying length times width (L x W)
Volume of a cell is determined by multiplying length times
width times height (L x W x H)
Therefore, Volume increases FASTER than the surface area
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When the surface area is no longer great enough to get rid of
all the wastes and to get in enough food and water, then the
cell must divide
Therefore, the cells of an organism are close in size
C E L L D I V I S I ON
- the process by which a single cell divides into two or more
daughter cells, each with the potential to grow, develop,
and carry out specific functions.
- a fundamental process in biology that is essential for the
growth, repair, and reproduction of living organisms.
- can occur through two main mechanisms: mitosis, which
produces two identical daughter cells, and meiosis, which
produces four genetically diverse daughter cells.
MITOSIS
- a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
- essential for growth and repair in multicellular organisms,
as well as for asexual reproduction in some single-celled
organisms.
Importance
Ø Growth and Development
Ø Repair and Maintenance
Ø Asexual Reproduction
MEIOSIS
- a single cell divides into four daughter cells, each with
half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell
- critical for sexual reproduction, as it allows for the
production of gametes.
Importance
Ø Gamete Formation
Ø Chromosome Stability
Ø Genetic Variation
Cell - basic unit of life and the smallest functional and
structural unit of living organisms.
Split Chromosome - A chromosome that has undergone a
structural change, resulting in the separation of the
chromosome
Chromosome - structure found in the nucleus of cells that
carries genetic information in the form of DNA.
Centrosome - small organelle found in eukaryotic cells, which
functions as a microtubule-organizing center.
Spindle Fibers - microtubules that separates the
chromosomes into two daughter cells.
Centrioles - cylindrical organelles found in eukaryotic cells
that are involved in the organization of cell division.
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contracting and pinching the cell membrane until the cell

is divided into two separate cells.
- In plant cells, a structure called the cell plate forms along
the equator of the cell, eventually dividing the cell into two
separate daughter cells.

S T A GE S OF ME I OS I S
Meiosis I: Reduction Division
1) Meiosis 1: Prophase 1
2) Meiosis 1: Metaphase 1
3) Meiosis 1: Anaphase 1
4) Meiosis 1: Telophase 1
Meiosis II: Just like Mitosis

MEIOSIS 1: PROPHASE 1
- The chromosomes condense and nucleolus breaks
down. As chromosomes move around, crossing over
S T A GE S OF MI T OS I S occurs - this means that genetic material can be
1) Mitosis: Prophase exchanged.
2) Mitosis: Metaphase
3) Mitosis: Anaphase CROSSING OVER
4) Mitosis: Telophase
Cytokinesis - exchange of genetic material between non-sister
chromatids of homologous chromosomes in the site
called chiasmata during meiosis, which results in new
MITOSIS: PROPHASE allelic combinations in the daughter cells.
- During prophase, the chromatin in the nucleus condenses - Chiasmata (chiasma) are where the chromosomes touch
into visible chromosomes, which become visible under a each other to exchange genetic material which starts
microscope. during prophase I and ends during anaphase I.
- The centrosomes, which are responsible for organizing - Causes genetic variation.
the spindle fibers, move to opposite poles of the cell.
- The nuclear envelope breaks down, allowing the spindle
fibers to attach to the chromosomes.

MITOSIS: METAPHASE
- chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell, called
the metaphase plate.
- The spindle fibers, which are attached to the
centromeres of each chromosome, ensure that the
chromosomes are properly aligned and can be
separated correctly.
MEIOSIS 1: ANAPHASE 1
MITOSIS: ANAPHASE - Chromosome pairs separate and move to opposite ends
- the sister chromatids of each replicated chromosome of the cell. This ensures that each cell contains half the
separate and are pulled towards opposite poles of the cell number of chromosomes (haploid).
by the spindle fibers.
- This results in the formation of two identical sets of
MEIOSIS 1: TELOPHASE 1
chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell.
- Two new nuclei form around each set of chromosomes,
the cytoplasm splits and two (haploid) daughter cells are
MITOSIS: TELOPHASE formed.
- chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the cell, and
the nuclear envelope begins to reform around each set of
MEIOSIS II
chromosomes.
- The chromosomes begin to uncoil and return to their 1)The chromosomes condense and the nucleolus
normal, diffuse form. The spindle fibers disassemble, and breaks in both cells created in Phase I.
the cell begins to prepare for cytokinesis. Phase II occurs to allow the creation of 4 haploid sex cells
(sperm and egg cells).
2) The chromosomes align single file in the centre of
MITOSIS: CYTOKINESIS the cell. This occurs to ensure sister chromatids
- Cytokinesis is the process by which the cell divides into separate in the next phase.
two daughter cells. 3) Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite
- In animal cells, cleavage is formed when a contractile ring ends of the cell. This ensures the daughter cells
of actin and myosin filaments forms around the cell,
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remain haploid - that is, possess half the genetic TRISOMY 16

material of the original parent cell. - Most common chromosomal abnormality but fetuses
4) Four new nuclei form around each set of never survive past the first trimester
chromosomes, the cytoplasms split and four
(haploid) daughter cells are formed.
mitosis meiosis PATAU SYNDROME
Number of 1 2 - Trisomy 13
divisions - Only 1 in 15,000 live births (most aborted naturally)
Number of 2 4 - 45% die within the first month
daughter cells
Genetically Yes No MONOSOMY
identical?
Chromosome # Same as parent Half of parent - Having one fewer chromosome in each body cell
Where Somatic cells Germ cells
When Thru out life At sexual
TURNER’S SYNDROME
maturity
role Growth & repair Sexual - Genotype: XO
reproduction - It is not linked to maternal age
- Women w Turner’s syndrome can live normal lives but
they are unable to bear children

GAMETOGENESIS
Ø Occurs in the testes
Ø Two divisions produce 4 spermatids
Ø Spermatids mature into sperm
Ø Men produce about 250,000,000 sperm per day
OOGENESIS
Ø Occurs in the ovaries
Ø Two divisions produce 3 polar bodies that
Ø die and 1 egg
Ø Polar bodies die because of unequal
Ø division of cytoplasm
Ø Immature egg called oocyte
Ø Starting at puberty, one oocyte matures
Ø into an ovum (egg) every 28 days
D I S E A S E S A N D D I S OR D E R S
TRANSLOCATION
- A section of a chromosome is moved from one
chromosome to another
- Material is not lost but inserted in a place where it is non
functional
DELETION
CRI-DU-CHAT
- Deletion about half of the short arm of chromosome 5
- Cri-du-chat babies are severely mentally retarded, round
face, low set of ears, heart disease and have small
cranium
- Occurrence: 1 /1,000,000 live births
- Karyotype: 46XX or 46XY with chromosome #5 upper
arm deletion

SEX LINKED TRISOMIES

NONDISJUNCTION
- involves the presence of an extra chromosomes or the KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME
deletion of chromosomes - Shorthand: 47, XXY
- rate increases with mom’s age - Type of mutation: Nondisjunction
- common causes of mental retardation (IQ between 25-
74)
JACOBS SYNDROME
- Nondisjunction
TRISOMY
- 1/1000 live male births
- any extra chromosome - Men w this karyotype are tall and have low mental ability
- 47 chromosomes instead of 46
Ø Klinefelter’s Syndrome has the genotype XXY
Ø Down’s Syndrome or Trisomy 21
o 47 XY or XX
o XY is male
o XX is female
o Survival rate is high

EDWARD’S SYNDROME
- Trisomy 18
- 47, XY, +18
- Genotype is XY
- Only 1 in 8000 live births

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Nerve cells, brain cells and skeletal muscle cells all stop
divding after birth.
C E L L D I V I S I ON
- All cells are derived from pre-existing cells
- New cells are produced for growth and to replace
damaged or old cells
- Differs in prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes (protists,
fungi, plants, & animals)
AMNIOCENTESIS
- A small sample of the amniotic fluid surrounding the baby
is removed using a syringe.
- The fluid contains skin cells from the baby.
- The skin cells are grown in the lab.
- The chromosomes from the cells are magnified under a
microscope and a picture is taken.
- The chromosomes are cut out and arranged in
homologous pairs in decreasing size order. This is called
a karyotype.
KARYOTYPE
- A picture of the chromosomes from a human cell
arranged in pairs by size
- First 22 pairs are called autosomes
- Last pair are the sex chromosomes
- XX female or XY male
Female
Male
CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITIES
1. Addition example: Trisomy - the presence of an extra
chromosome, a third instead of a pair.
2. Monosomy - the absence of one of the chromosomes.
3. Deletions -These are missing pieces of chromosomes
and/or genetic material. Some may be small and difficult to be
detected.
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4. Translocations -with these, pieces of chromosomes break
off and reattach to another chromosome. If a one-to-one
switch and all of the genetic material is present (but in the
wrong place), it is said to be a balanced translocation. If it is
not, then it is called an unbalanced translocation.
5. Inversion occurs when a segment breaks off and
reattaches within the same chromosome, but in reverse
orientation.
6. Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes
or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division.
There are three forms of nondisjunction: failure of a pair of
homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis I, failure of
sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II, and failure of
sister chromatids to separate during mitosis. The result of this
error is a cell with an imbalance of chromosomes. Such a cell
is said to be “aneuploid”. Aneuploidy, an extra or missing
chromosome is a common cause of genetic disorders (birth
defects).
CELL REPRODUCTION
- Asexual reproduction involves a single cell dividing to
make 2 new, identical daughter cells
Mitosis & binary fission are examples of asexual
reproduction
- Sexual reproduction involves two cells (egg & sperm)
joining to make a new cell (zygote) that is NOT identical
to the original cells
Meiosis is an example
Cell Division in Prokaryotes
- Prokaryotes such as bacteria divide into 2 identical cells
by the process of binary fission
- Single chromosome makes a copy of itself
- Cell wall forms between the chromosomes dividing the
cell
One of the basic characteristic of all living
organisms is the ability to reproduce. It is either
asexually in unicellular organisms or sexually in
multicellular organism. Sexual reproduction requires
fertilization resulting to a fertilized egg cell called zygote.
All the cells in our body came from the division of the pre-
existing one.
In prokaryotes, cell division can be observed through
binary fission. While in the eukaryotes, cell cycle consists of
two distinct phases: Interphase and Mitotic phase. Cell cycle
is a means for the continuity of life. So before the cell divides
it spends most of its life in the period of cell growth called
Interphase with three sub-stages: G1 phase, S phase and
G2 phase followed by M phase or Mitotic phase.
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Reese
CELL CYCLE is the series of events that occur in a cell to
prepare cell division and to produce two new daughter cells.
- Regular pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell
division
PHASES OF CELL CYCLE INCLUDE TWO MAJOR
ACTIVITIES:
1. Interphase - longest phase of the cell cycle process.
It is also the known as the resting phase. Although the
cell is at rest but it is metabolically active. The metabolic
activities of the cell can be observed through cell growth,
production of nutrients and enzymes and replication of DNA.
Interphase has 3 sub-stages:
1. G1 phase (Gap1 phase/Growth 1 phase)
- the cell increases in size; protein synthesis also occurs
enable the cell to increase the amount of cytosol.
- cell growth and normal functions
2. S-phase (Synthesis phase)
- the longest and the most essential stage of interphase. It is
due to the complexity of the replication of genetic material
which results to the duplication of DNA prior to the cell division
process.
3. G2 phase (Gap2 phase/Growth 2 phase)
- final stage where the cell prepares itself for cell division
process, and also ensures that the DNA replication completes.
- additional growth (chromatids become replicated
chromosomes)
2. M-phase (Mitotic phase)
CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINTS - verify whether all the
cellular activities are accurately completed at each stage of
interphase.
In eukaryotic cells, there are THREE major checkpoints that
control the cell cycle process. They are:
1. G1 checkpoint at the G1/S transition
2. G2 checkpoint at the G2/M transition
3. Spindle checkpoint, transition from metaphase and
anaphase
G1 CHECKPOINT checks the following:
a. Cell’s size (Does the cell large increase its size or large
enough for cell division?)
b. Nutrients (Does the cell have enough reserve energy and
nutrients for cell division?)
c. DNA integrity (Is any part of the DNA damaged?)
d. Molecular signals (Does the cell receives growth factors
and other signals from neighboring cell?)
If the cell does not comply with the following factors,
cell cycle will stop and enters the G0 phase called the resting
state. Some cell stays in G0 phase permanently, while others
proceed to divide if the condition of the cellimproves.
G2 CHECKPOINT checks the following:
a. DNA integrity (Is any part of the DNA damaged?)
reviewers ni ches ;3 genbio notes
b. DNA replication (Is the DNA replication completed in the S
phase?)
If there is an error, the cell will pause at the G2 phase
and allow for some repairs. If the damage is within the DNA,
the cell cycle will paused and let the cell complete the DNA
replication or repair it. But if the damage cell is irreparable,
the cell will undergo apoptosis or cell death. It is
the self-destruction mechanism of the cell to ensure that the
damaged DNA is not passed on the daughter cells and also
important in preventing cancer. There are some cells that
never or rarely divide like matured cardiac muscle and nerve
cell that permanently retains in G0.
METAPHASE CHECKPOINT OR SPINDLE CHECKPOINT
occurs at metaphase stage of mitosis. It is regulated by
Anaphase-promoting complex (APC). It checks whether all
chromosomes are properly attached to the spindle fibers and
its alignment at the metaphase plate. If there are mistakes, the
cell delays it anaphase process.
Interphase = G1, S, G2
Interphase is when the cell grows, and the organelles double
prior to the actual splitting of the nucleus.
93% of a cell’s life is spent in interphase. Interphase has three
parts
Growth 1 (G1)
Synthesis (S)
Growth 2 (G2)
By the end of interphase a cell has two full sets of DNA
(chromosomes) and is large enough to begin the division
process.
G1 is when organelles double. Remember each new cell
needs a complete set of organelles.
S when DNA is replicated. Each cell needs a complete and
identical set of DNA
G2 Proteins needed for Mitosis are produced.
Telomeres protect chromosome ends from fusion and from
being recognized as sites of DNA damage
Dysfunctional telomeres, arising by critical shortening of
telomeres in normal somatic cells during progressive cell
divisions, elicit DNA damage responses (DDRs) that trigger
cellular senescence
1. Cyclin and Kinase
- proteins that initiate mitosis
- requires buildup of cyclin to pair with kinase
2. Hormones
- chemical signals from specialized glands that stimulate
mitosis
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First Quarter Reviewers
Reese
3. Growth Factors
- chemical factors produced locally that stimulate mitosis
CANCER
is the result of the unregulated process of the cell cycle due to
the breakdown of the mechanisms that controls the entire
process. It happens during the synthesis phase, wherein the
cell cannot determine the changes in the DNA sequence that
code for the specific regulatory molecules.
ONCOGENES
are the genes that cause the cell to become cancerous.
PROTO-ONCOGENES
are the genes that code for positive regulators during cell
cycle. When these normal genes are altered by mutation it can
be an oncogenes leading to cancer cells formation.
TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES
are healthy normal genes that slow down cell division,
helps to repair DNA mistakes and also cell apoptosis or cell
death. It codes for the negative regulator protein, when
activated can prevent the cell from uncontrolled division. But
when tumor suppressor gene does not work properly, cell
division will be out of control and it can also lead to cancer
SUMMARY
1. Cell cycle is the series of events that occur in a cell to
prepare cell division and to produce two new daughter cells.
2. Cell cycle checkpoints verify whether all the cellular
activities are accurately completed at each stage of
interphase.
3. Interphase is the longest phase of the cell cycle process. It
is also the known as the resting phase.
4. G0 phase called the resting state.
5. G1 phase (Gap1 phase) the cell increases in size,
protein synthesis also occurs enable the cell to increase the
amount of cytosol.
6. Synthesis phase is the longest and the most essential
stage of interphase. It is due to the complexity of the
replication of genetic material which results to the duplication
of DNA prior to the cell division process.
7. G2 phase (Gap2 phase) is the final stage where the cell
prepares itself for cell division process, and also ensures that
the DNA replication completes.
8. G1 checkpoint checks the cell size, nutrients, DNA and
molecular signals.
9. G2 checkpoint checks the DNA and complete DNA
replication in S phase.
10. Metaphase checkpoint or Spindle checkpoint occurs at
metaphase stage of mitosis and regulated by Anaphase-
promoting complex (APC).
Mitosis
- The purpose of mitosis is cell division: making two cells
out of one.
- Each cell has to have its own cytoplasm and DNA.
- The DNA is replicated in interphase when two
chromosome strands became four strands (two strands
per chromatid).
- In mitosis the four strands (two sister chromatid) have to
break apart so that each new cell only has one double-
stranded chromosome.
reviewers ni ches ;3 genbio notes
- Two sister chromatids together make a chromosome
Prophase
- Chromosomes now called chromatids because they
doubled to form short thick rods which pair up and line up
in the center of the nucleus.
- A centromere connects the two halves of the doubled
chromatids. Spindle fibers begin to form.
o Spindle fiber – a fibrous structure from the
cytoplasm which forms to the centriole.
- Centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell. The nuclear
membrane breaks down.
Metaphase
- Centromeres of the chromatid pairs line up in the middle
of the cell.
- Metaphase plate- location where the centromeres line up
in the center of the cell.
- By the end of metaphase each chromatid has attached to
spindle fibers.
Anaphase
- The spindle fibers pull the chromatids apart.
- This separates each one from its duplicate. These move
to opposite sides of the cell.
- Now there are two identical sets of chromosomes.
Telophase
- When the chromosomes reach opposite sides of the cell
the spindle fibers break up.
- The nuclear membrane begins to reform.
- A furrow begins to develop between the two sets of
chromosomes.
Cytokinesis
- The two identical cells completely divide and the cell
membrane is completely formed.
Anastral spindle is found in dividing plant cells and has no
asters. Amphlastral spindle is found in dividing animal cell
and has two asters, one at each pole.
Meiosis - consists of two successive mitotic divisions without
the additional S phase between the two divisions.
- The cells then undergo a reductional division (meiosis I)
and an equatorial division (meiosis II).
- During meiosis I, as the name reductional division
implies, the chromosome number is reduced from diploid
(2n) to haploid (1n), and the amount of DNA is reduced
from the (4d) to (2d).
- No DNA replication precedes meiosis II.
- The division during meiosis II is always equatorial
because the number of chromosomes does not change.
It remains at (1n), although the amount of DNA
represented by the number of chromatids is reduced to
(1d).
Differences in Meiosis between Male & Female
- The nuclear events of meiosis are the same in males and
females, but the cytoplasmic events are markedly
different.
- In males, the two meiotic divisions of a primary
spermatocyte yield four structurally identical,
although genetically unique, haploid spermatids.
Each spermatid has the capacity to differentiate into a
spermatozoon.
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First Quarter Reviewers
Reese

- In contrast, in females, the two meiotic divisions of a - During meiosis II, the cells pass through prophase II,
primary oocyte yield one haploid ovum and three metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.
haploid polar bodies. The ovum receives most of the - These stages are essentially the same as those in mitosis
cytoplasm and becomes the functional gamete. The polar except that they involve a haploid set of chromosomes
bodies receive very little cytoplasm and degenerate. (1n) and produce daughter cells that have only haploid
DNA content (1d).
- Unlike the cells produced by mitosis, which are
PHASES OF MEIOSIS I genetically identical to the parent cell, the cells produced
Prophase I: It is an extended phase that is subdivided into the by meiosis are genetically unique.
following five stages:
1. Leptotene: chromosomes start to condense.
2. Zygotene: homologous chromosomes become
TYPE OF NO. OF CELL NO. OF
closely associated (synapsis) to form pairs of
CELL PRODUCED CHROMOSOMES
chromosomes (bivalents) consisting of four
DIVISION
chromatids (tetrads).
3. Pachytene: crossing over between pairs of
homologous chromosomes to form chiasmata (sing. MITOSIS
chiasma). 2 20
4. Diplotene: homologous chromosomes start to
separate but remain attached by chiasmata.
5. Diakinesis: homologous chromosomes continue to
separate, and chiasmata move to the ends of the MEIOSIS I
chromosomes. 2 20

MEIOSIS II
4 10

End.

Feel q may nakalimutan aq huhu im xori good luck po

pabasbas na lang ><

Metaphase I: is similar to the metaphase of mitosis except

that the paired chromosomes are aligned at the equatorial
plate with one member on either side. The chiasmata are cut,
and the homologous chromosomes separate completely. The
spindle microtubules begin to interact with the chromosomes
through the kinetochore at the centromere. The
chromosomes undergo movement to ultimately align their
centromeres along the equatorial plate with one member of
the homologous chromosomes on either side.
Anaphase I The sister chromatids, held together by protein
complexes and by the centromere, remain together. A
maternal or paternal member of each homologous pair moves
to each pole. Segregation or random assortment occurs
because the maternal and paternal chromosomes of each pair
are randomly aligned on one side or the other of the
metaphase plate, thus contributing to genetic diversity.
Telophase I Homologous chromosomes, each consisting of
two sister chromatids, are at the opposite poles of the cell.
Reappearance of the nucleolus and nuclear envelope. At the
completion of meiosis I, the cytoplasm divides. Each resulting
daughter cell is haploid in chromosome number (1n) and
contains one member of each homologous chromosome pair.
The cell is still diploid in DNA content (2d).
PHASES OF MEIOSIS II: After meiosis I, the cells quickly
enter meiosis II without passing through an S phase.
- Meiosis II is an equatorial division and resembles mitosis.
- During this phase, the sister chromatids will separate at
anaphase II and move to opposite poles of the cell.

reviewers ni ches ;3 genbio notes G12 Q1 1ST SEMESTER 13