GENERAL BIOLOGY
(QUARTER 1 NOTES/REVIEWER)
Lesson 1- Cell Theory
 Cells are the basic building blocks of all living
things.
 The human body is composed of trillions of
cells.
3 BASIC COMPONENTS OF CELL THEORY
1) All living things are composed of one or
more cells.
2) The cell is the basic unit of life.
3) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
SCIENTISTS THAT CONTRIBUTED TO THIS FIELD
ROBERT HOOKE
 English Physicist
 He used the first light microscopes to look
at thin slices of plant tissues.
 A slice of cork, especially caught his eye.
Under the microscope, cork seemed to
be made of thousands of tiny chambers.
Hooke called these chambers cells
because they reminded him of a
monastery‘s tiny rooms, which were also
known as cells.
 The discovery happened in 1665.
ANTON VAN LEEUWONHOEK
 He published his observations on tiny
living organisms which he named
animalcules.
 It was believed that he was the first to
observe under his microscope the
structure of a red blood cell of different
animals as well as a sperm cell.
 The discovery happened in 1676.
ROBERT BROWN
 He compared diverse kinds of plant
specimens under the microscope.
 A common thing about them is that they
are all composed of cells, and inside the
cell is a dark dense spot which he called
the nucleus.
 He coined the term “nucleus”.
 The discovery happened in 1831.
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN
 He concluded that all plant parts are
made of cells.
 schleiDEN – garDEN (plants)
 The discovery happened in 1838.
THEODOR SCHWANN
 He is a botanist and a close friend of
Schleiden.
 He stated that all animal tissues are
composed of cells.
 schwANN – ANimals
 The discovery happened in 1839.
RUDOLF VIRCHOW
 He concluded that all cells came from
pre-existing cells.
 The discovery happened in 1858.
THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
 It is the hypothetical process by which
living organisms develop from nonliving
matter. It is a theory from earlier times
that explains the origin of life.
 In the 17th century, an early attempt to
test the theory was done by Francesco
Redi, an Italian scientist, by observing the
meat-maggot phenomenon.
 In the open jar, he noticed that the meat
indeed attracted the maggots that soon
turned to flies before flying away. However,
that is not the case with the tightly closed
jar. No maggots nor flies appeared.
Furthermore, he took a precaution by
keeping meat in a jar covered with
gauze/mesh just in case spontaneous
generation required fresh air to happen,
but no maggots appeared in the jar.
THEORY OF ABIOGENESIS
 By definition, abiogenesis is the idea
that life arose from nonlife more than 3.5
billion years ago on Earth.
 Abiogenesis proposes that the first life
forms generated were very simple and
through a gradual process became
increasingly complex.
 In 1953, American chemists Harold C.
Urey and Stanley Miller tested the
Oparin-Haldane theory and
successfully produced organic
molecules from some of the inorganic
components that are thought to have
been present on prebiotic Earth. This
became the Miller-Urey Experiment.
 The Miller-Urey experiment was the first
attempt to scientifically explore ideas
about the origin of life. They simulated
conditions that are thought to be
common on ancient Earth. The purpose
was to test the idea that the complex
molecules of life (in this case, amino acids)
could have arisen on our young planet
through simple, natural chemical
reactions.
Lesson 2- Cell Structure and Functions PLANT CELL

 Cell structures can only be observed under

a high-magnification electron microscope
and are separated internally into numerous
membranous compartments called
organelles (little organs).

Additional Cell Parts Definition:

Perixosomes – Oxidizes and breaks downs

fatty acids and amino acids and detoxifies
poisons.

Centrioles – have almost the same function

as the centrosome. It is found inside the
centrosome.

Soft endoplasmic reticulum (SER) – synthesizes

lipids and phospholipids as in plasma
membrane

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) – has

ribosomes; makes proteins

Lesson 3- Prokaryotic VS. Eukaryotic Cells

TWO KINDS OF ORGANISMS ACCORDING TO
CELL STRUCTURE

PROKARYOTES (PROKARYOTIC CELL)

 These are single-celled organisms that

lack a membrane-bound nucleus,
mitochondria, and all other organelles.
 Its name comes from the Greek words
ANIMAL CELL pro, which means before, and karyon,
which means nut or kernel.
 Divided into two groups: the archaea
and bacteria
 Examples include blue-green algae,
bacteria, and mycoplasma. Among
prokaryotes, bacteria are the most
common and multiply very fast.
 They divide asexually by binary fission.
The sexual mode of reproduction
involves conjugation.
 Image is shown on the next page:
 Lesson 4- Cell Types and Cell Modifications

 Living things are made up of cells.

 They metabolize, grow and develop, respond
to stimulus, adapt to their environment and
reproduce.
 Life on Earth exhibits organization.

More Specific Version:

Subatomic particles  Atom  Molecules  Organelles 
A prokaryotic cell structure is as follows: Cell  Tissue  Organ  Organ System  Organism

1. Capsule – It is an outer protective covering

found in bacterial cells, in addition to the cell
wall. It helps in moisture retention, protects FOUR MAIN TYPES OF CELL
the cell when engulfed, and helps in the
attachment of cells to nutrients and surfaces. EPITHELIAL TISSUE

2. Cell Wall – It is the outermost layer of the cell  commonly seen outside the body as
that gives shape to the cell. coverings or as linings of organs and
cavities
3. Cytoplasm – The cytoplasm is mainly
 characterized by closely-joined cells with
composed of enzymes, salts, and cell
tight junctions
organelles and is a gel-like component.
 tight junctions serve as barriers to
4. Cell Membrane – This layer surrounds the pathogens, mechanical injuries, and
cytoplasm and regulates the entry and exit fluid loss
of substances in the cells.  Epithelial tissue has distinct
5. Pili – These are hair-like outgrowths that arrangements:
attach to the surface of other bacterial cells.
 Cuboidal — for secretion
6. Flagella – These are long structures in the  Simple columnar—brick-shaped cells;
form of a whip that help in the locomotion of for secretion and active absorption
a cell.  Simple squamous—plate-like cells; for
7. Ribosomes – These are involved in protein exchange of material through
synthesis. diffusion
 Stratified squamous—multilayered
8. Plasmids – Plasmids are non-chromosomal and regenerates quickly; for
DNA structures. These are not involved in protection
reproduction.  Pseudo-stratified columnar—single
layer of cells; may just look stacked
9. Nucleoid Region – It is the region in the
because of varying height; for lining
cytoplasm where the genetic material is
of respiratory tract; usually lined with
present.
cilia (i.e., a type of cell modification
*Though prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles, they contain that sweeps the mucus).
vacuoles.

EUKARYOTES (EUKARYOTIC CELL)

 These are organisms with cells that

contain a membrane-bound nucleus
and other membrane-bound
organelles.
 The nucleus of a eukaryotic cell
contains the genetic material (DNA),
enclosed by a nuclear envelope.
 There are also unicellular eukaryotes
known as protozoa.
 All other eukaryotes are multicellular
organisms such as plants, animals, and
fungi.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE  The movement of muscles is a response to
signals coming from nerve cells.
 It binds structures together, form a  In vertebrates, these muscles can be
framework and support for organs and categorized into the following:
the body as a whole. It also stores fat,
transports substances, protects against  SKELETAL — striated1 ; voluntary
disease, and helps repair tissue damage. movements (hamstring, shoulder,
 This tissue is composed of the following: abdominal muscles)
 CARDIAC — striated with an intercalated
 BLOOD —made up of plasma (i.e., liquid disk2 for synchronized heart contraction;
extracellular matrix); contains water, involuntary (heart)
salts, and dissolved proteins;  SMOOTH — not striated ; involuntary ;
erythrocytes that carry oxygen (RBC), appear spindle-shaped (liver, pancreas,
leukocytes for defense (WBC), and intestines)
platelets for blood clotting.
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER (CTP)—
made up of loose connective tissue that
is found in the skin and fibrous
connective tissue that is made up of
collagenous fibers found in tendons and
ligaments. Adipose tissues are also
examples of loose connective tissues
that store fats which functions to insulate
the body and store energy.
 CARTILAGE — characterized by
collagenous fibers embedded in
chondroitin sulfate. Chondrocytes are
the cells that secrete collagen and
chondroitin sulfate. Cartilage functions
as a cushion between bones.
 BONE —mineralized connective tissue
made by bone-forming cells called
osteoblasts which deposit collagen. The NERVOUS TISSUE
matrix of collagen is combined with
calcium, magnesium, and phosphate  This tissue is composed of nerve cells called
ions to make the bone hard. Blood neurons and glial cells that function as
vessels and nerves are found in a central support cells.
canal surrounded by concentric circles  Neurons sense stimuli and transmit
of osteons. electrical signals throughout the animal
body. They connect to other neurons to
send signals.
 Dendrite is the part of the neuron that
receives impulses from other neurons.
 Axon is where electrical impulses from the
neuron travel away to be received by other
neurons.

MUSCLE TISSUE
 It is composed of long cells called muscle
fibers that allow the body to move voluntarily
or involuntarily.

1 marked with long, thin parallel streaks 2 part of the cardiac muscle sarcolemma, so they also contain gap
junctions for depolarization between muscle fibers and desmosomes that
hold the fibers together during cardiac muscle contraction
Lesson 5- Cell Cycle
 TOPIC: the phases of cell cycle and their
control points, stages of mitosis/meiosis,
comparison and their role in the cell division
cycle
 One of the distinct characteristics of living
things is being able to preserve themselves.
 Cells need to undergo cycles as part of their
growth and to repair or replace damaged
parts.
 Cell cycle enables a living thing to continue
its existence by multiplying itself in controlled
and systematic processes.
Cell Division
 It involves the distribution of identical
genetic material or DNA to two daughter
cells.
 What is most remarkable is the fidelity with
which the DNA is passed along, without
dilution or error, from one generation to the
next.
 Cell Division functions in reproduction,
growth, and repair.
Core Concepts
 All organisms consist of cells and arise from
preexisting cells.
 Mitosis is the process by which new cells are
generated.
 Meiosis is the process by which gametes are
generated for reproduction.
 The Cell Cycle represents all phases in the life
of a cell.
 DNA replication (S phase) must precede
mitosis so that all daughter cells receive the
same complement of chromosomes as the
parent cell.
 The gap phases separate mitosis from S-
phase. This is the time when molecular signals
mediate the switch in cellular activity.
 Mitosis involves the separation of copied
chromosomes into separate cells.
 Unregulated cell division can lead to cancer.
 Cell cycle checkpoints normally ensure that
DNA replication and mitosis occur only when
conditions are favorable and the process is
working correctly.
 Mutations in genes that encode cell cycle
proteins can lead to unregulated growth,
resulting in tumor formation and ultimately
invasion of cancerous cells to other organs.
 The Cell Cycle control system is driven by a
built-in clock that can be adjusted by
external stimuli (i.e., chemical messages).
Checkpoint
 Checkpoint — a critical control point in
the Cell Cycle where “stop” and “go-
ahead” signals can regulate the cell
cycle.
 Animal cells have built-in “stop” signals
that halt the cell cycles and checkpoints
until overridden by “go-ahead” signals.
THREE MAJOR CHECKPOINTS are found in
the G1, G2, and M phases of the Cell Cycle
 The G1 Checkpoint—the Restriction Point
- ensures that the cell is large enough
to divide and that enough nutrients
are available to support the resulting
daughter cells.
- If a cell receives a “go-ahead” signal
at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually
continue with the Cell Cycle.
- If the cell does not receive the “go-
ahead” signal, it will exit the Cell
Cycle and switch to a non-dividing
state called G0.
- Most cells in the human body are in
the G0 phase.
 The G2 Checkpoint
- ensures that DNA replication in the S-
phase has been successfully
completed.
 The Metaphase Checkpoint
- ensures that all of the chromosomes
are attached to the mitotic spindle
by a kinetochore.
Kinase
 a protein which activates or
deactivates another protein by
phosphorylating them.
 Kinases give the “go-ahead” signals at
the G1 and G2 checkpoints. The kinases
that drive these checkpoints must
themselves be activated.
 The activating molecule is a cyclin, a
protein that derives its name from its
cyclically fluctuating concentration in
the cell. Because of this requirement,
these kinases are called cyclin-
dependent kinases or CDKs.
 Cyclins accumulate during the G1, S,
and G2 phases of the Cell Cycle.
 By the G2 checkpoint, enough cyclin is
available to form MPF complexes
(aggregations of CDK and cyclin)
which initiate mitosis.
 MPF (Maturation Promoting Factor)
functions by phosphorylating key
proteins in the mitotic sequence.
  Later in mitosis, MPF switches itself off by chromosomes uncoil and assume their
initiating a process which leads to the extended form during interphase.
destruction of cyclin. - A nuclear membrane then forms around
 CDK, the non-cyclin part of MPF, persists each chromosome group and the
in the cell as an inactive form until it spindle microtubules disappear. Soon,
associates with new cyclin molecules the nucleolus reforms.
synthesized during the interphase of the
Meiosis
next round of the Cell Cycle.
- reduces the amount of genetic
Stages of Mitosis and Meiosis
information. While mitosis in diploid cells
Mitosis (apparent division) produces daughter cells with a full
diploid complement, meiosis produces
- is nuclear division; the process by which the
haploid gametes or spores with only one
nucleus divides to produce two new nuclei.
set of chromosomes.
- results in two daughter cells that are
- During sexual reproduction, gametes
genetically identical to each other and to
combine in fertilization to reconstitute the
the parental cell from which they came.
diploid complement found in parental
cells. The process involves two successive
 Cytokinesis
divisions of a diploid nucleus.
- is the division of the cytoplasm. Both
mitosis and cytokinesis last for around
one to two hours.
(CONTINUED ON THE NEXT PAGES)
 Prophase
- is the preparatory stage, during
prophase, centrioles move toward
opposite sides of the nucleus.
- The initially indistinct chromosomes begin
to condense into visible threads.
- Chromosomes first become visible during
early prophase as long, thin, and
intertwined filaments but by late
prophase, chromosomes are more
compacted and can be clearly
discerned as much shorter and rod-like
structures.
- As the chromosomes become more
distinct, the nucleoli also become more
distinct. By the end of prophase, the
nucleoli become less distinct, often
disappearing altogether.
 Metaphase
- is when chromosomes become
arranged so that their centromeres
become aligned in one place, halfway
between the two spindle poles. The long
axes of the chromosomes are 90 degrees
to the spindle axis. The plane of
alignment is called the metaphase plate.
 Anaphase
- is initiated by the separation of sister
chromatids at their junction point at the
centromere. The daughter chromosomes
then move toward the poles.
 Telophase
- is when daughter chromosomes
complete their migration to the poles.
The two sets of progeny chromosomes
are assembled into two-groups at
opposite ends of the cell. The