BIO Ribosome Made of RNA, in

the cyto or er
Protein
maker
ALL
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:

Zacharias Janssen – first created the compound microscope Mitochondria Bean shaped Powerhouse Animal & Plant

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1600) - made a version of microscope, Vacuole Small in animal Storage Animal, Plant &
discovered bacteria, named organisms animalcules. cells Fungi
Robert Hooke (1665) - named cell from observing a piece of cork
. Chloroplast Contains Photosynthe Plant and
Mattias Jacob Schleiden (1839) - discovered plant cells. chlorophyll sis bacteria
Theodore Schwann (1839) - discovered animal cells.
(both created the 1st and 2nd postulates of cell theory) Golgi Body Small bags with Packages & Animal & Plant
tubes secretes
Rudolph Virchow (1858) - third postulate of cell theory, cells came proteins to
from pre-existing cells. ship

Corti (1772) – saw substance within the cell

Centrioles Microtubules Creates
Fontana (1781) - used the term nucleolus spindle
fibres
Robert Brown (1831) – saw the nucleus
Peroxisome Security and
Dujardin (1835) – used the term sarcode waste
removal
Strasburger- illustrated cell division
Lysosome Recycling
Hugo Von Mohl (1846) – used the term protoplasm and security
Max Schulze - protoplasm as physical basis of life

Thomas Huxley - protoplasm as chemical basis of life Ingestion Digestion

Schimper (1883) - used the term plastid. Plasma Membrane / Vesicles Lysosome
Frederich Mischer (1868) - saw DNA in pus
THE CELL THEORY
Benda Altmann - coined the term mitochondria 1. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
(Schleiden/Schwann, 1838-39)
Camilo Golgi (1898) - Golgi bodies 2. The cell is the basic unit of life. (Schleiden/Schwann,
1838-39)
John Dalton (1900) - Neuron in owl 3. All cells came from pre-existing cells. (Virchow,1858)
Modern Cell Theory
Palade (1900) – ribosome 1. Cells contain hereditary info/DNA, this gets passed during
cell division
CONTROVERSY: 2. Cells are similar in terms of chemical composition and
Robert Remak - allegedly first thought of the idea of Virchow, taken metabolic activities.
without credits. 3. Basic chemical & physiological functions happen in the
cells. (movement, digestion)
PARTS OF THE CELL 4. Cell activity depends on the activity of subcellular
structures within the cell.
Organelle Description Function What type of DISTINCT SPECIFICATION OF CELL ORGANELLES
cell

Cell Wall Made up of Protects the Plant, Golgi bodies

cellulose cell Bacteria, fungi
Plants Hold up to several hundreds,
small version
Cytoplasm Contains Supports ALL
organelles, jelly the Animals Fewer, big version
organelles
in the cell
Ribosomes
Nucleus Contains DNA Brain of the Animal & Plant
cell
Free Ribosomes Proteins synthesize remain in
cytosol > nucleus >
Smooth No ribosomes System of Animal & Plant mitochondria >
Endoplasmic attached tunnels chloroplast/peroxisomes
Reticulum through the
(SER) cell
Membrane-bound ribosomes Proteins synthesized
translocated into the ER while
Rough Has ribosomes Protein Animal & Plant their translation is in progress.
Endoplasmic attached production; Either retain in the ER/make
Reticulum in particular cholesterol in animal cells/
(RER) for export peroxisomes in liver cells (bile
out of the acids)
cell
Lysosome - Degrade biopolymers (proteins, lipids, polysaccharides A virus is made up of a DNA or RNA genome inside a protein shell
and nucleic acids) originate by budding off from the membrane of the called a capsid. Viruses are even smaller than bacteria. They aren't
trans-Golgi network. Phagocytosis help detect dead cells or foreign even a full cell.
invaders (e.g., bacteria) for lysosomal degradation.
CELL MODIFICATION
Peroxisome - oxidation of organic compounds, generation of - Occurs after cell division
metabolic energy. small vesicles, single membrane-bound organelles - Cells are modified to perform different functions
found in the eukaryotic cells. main metabolic functions in mammalian APICAL MODS
cells include β-oxidation of very long chain fatty acids, α-oxidation of - Apical Surface
branched chain fatty acids, synthesis of bile acids and ether-linked - Facilitates movement of substances on the epithelial
phospholipids and removal of reactive oxygen species. surface
- Increase the surface area of the epithelial lining
BIRTH OF NEW PEROXISOME FROM ENDOPLASMIC - Cilia, Flagella, Microvilli, Pseudopods, ECM
RETICULUM (ER) DELIVERS LIPIDS AND MEMBRANE (cell wall, glycoprotein (collagen))
PROTEINS. BASAL MODS
- Basal Surface
- Hemidesmosomes
LATERAL MODS
- Has the presence of connexon that allow direct exchange
of chemicals between the cytoplasm of two cells.
- Tight Junction - Acts as barriers that regulates
movement of water and solutes
- Adherens Junction - Actin bundle in one cell to a similar
bundle in a neighboring cell
- Desmosome - Joins intermediate filaments in one cell to
those in a neighbor
- Gap Junction - anchors intermediate filaments in a cell to
the basal lamina
SPECIALIZED CELLS
- Carries particular role in the body
RELATIONSHIP OF MITOCHONDRIA AND PEROXISOME - RBC - carries oxygen
- Nerve cells - brain cell
-Mitochondria and peroxisome work together to maintain lipid balance - Sperm cells - carries half the genetic info
-uses fatty acid B-oxidation - Muscle cell- can change their length to help us move
-maintains balance in ROS through scavenging
-resists foriegn invaders through antiviral reactions
CELL CYCLE
RELATIONSHIP OF MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLAST EUKARYOTIC CELLS
- evolved from engulfed prokaryotes that once lived as independent MITOSIS
organisms. Interphase
- a eukaryotic cell engulfed an aerobic prokaryote, which then formed - Longest phase where the cell grows and prepares for
an endosymbiotic relationship with the host eukaryote, gradually division
developing into a mitochondrion. G1 Phase
- The cell grows larger by copying organelles
Endomembrane system - (endo- = “within”) group of membranes S Phase
and organelles in eukaryotic cells, works together to modify, package, - Cell duplicates DNA
and transport lipids and proteins. G2 Phase
- Prepares for mitosis, makes more proteins and organelles
PARTS OF ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
- Nuclear envelope Mitosis (M PHASE)
- Endoplasmic reticulum - DNA condenses into chromosomes and is pull apart by
- Golgi Apparatus mitotic spindle
- Vesicles - Stages
- Lysosomes Prophase
- Vacuoles Metaphase
Anaphase
Centriole - organize the microtubules to form spindle fibers, modified Telophase
to form the basal body of cilia and flagella. The microtubule unit which Cytokinesis
makes the centrosome. - The cell splits in two
Animal Cells
Mother centriole forms flagella and cilia in non-dividing cells. - Contractile cytokinesis - contractile ring
contracts inward and pinches the cell in two
Centrosome contains two centrioles arranged in orthogonal Plant Cells
manner, forming a spindle apparatus during the cell division. - Cell plate - a new structure down the middle
since PC are much more stiffer
Cell Wall - wall of a cell in plants, bacteria, fungi, algae, and some CANCER CELLS
archaea. - Unchecked cell growth due to mutation in genes
- More cancer cells can lead to tumors
Nucleus - nucleus will break down during cell division. Unlike animal
cells, plant cells must build new cell walls between dividing cells. MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS
Mitosis
DNA is found mostly in the cell nucleus, but another type of nucleic - Single cell divides into 2 daughter cells
acid, RNA, is common in the cytoplasm. - One stage
- Diploid Cells - 46 chromosomes
Animals and plants contain both DNA and RNA and they have to be Meiosis
present in all because every organism's structure and function directly - Single cell divides twice to produce 4 genetically different
depends upon them. daughter cells containing half the original amount of
genetic information
- Two stages
- Haploid cells - 23 chromosomes
Synapsis
- Connecting of homologous chromosomes to form a tetrad
Crossing over
- Sharing of genetic material between two non-sister
chromatids in a homologous pair
- Non sister chromatids interchange genes
- Forming of tetrad allows crossing over to take place
ERRORS IN CELL DIVISION
- Produces aneuploid or polyploid progeny cells
- Errors happen in mitotic when there is a failure to
correctly attach the spindle to kinetochores
- Nondisjunction happens when the homologous
chromosomes fail to segregate at anaphase (mostly in
meiosis)
- Errors happen in meiosis can alter no. of chromosomes
leading to genetic disorders
THE CELL/PLASMA MEMBRANE
Phospholipids
- Separates fluid within the cell from outside the cell
- Ampiphathic (both hydrophilic and hydrophobic portion)
Cholesterol
- Interacts with fatty acid tails of phospholipids to moderate
the properties of the membrane, immobilize the outer
surface, reduce fluidity
- Makes the membrane less permeable
Proteins
- Helps communication, maintains shape, carry out
changes, and transport materials
Carbohydrates
- At the exterior of the cell, bound to proteins or lipids
- Participates in cell recognition and adhesion, cell-cell
signaling or cell-pathogen interations
- Glycolipids & Glycoproteins
Fluid Mosaic Model
- Describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a
mosaic of components that gives the membrane a fluid
character. Therefore making it selectively permeable
TYPES OF TRANSPORT METHOD
ENZYMES
- Proteins that speeds up metabolism
- Builds and breaks substances
- Our body produces enzymes naturally
- Detoxification, muscle building, and breaking down food
particles
Substrates and active sites
- Substrate is a chemical compound that can undergo a
chemical reaction while active site is a specific region on
an enzyme
Cofactor: Coenzymes
- Organic compounds that is required by many enzymes for
catalytic activity
- Vitamins or derivatives of vitamins
- Can function as an intermediate carriers of electron
during chem reactions or to be transferred between
enzymes as functional groups
- AAAAAAAAAH ano sya murag mag fill-in ug space sa
enzyme aron ma activate tung pangpadikit sa substrate
Cofactor: Prosthetic Groups
- Metal ions
- Binds more tightly using covalent bonds to their
apoenzymes
Holoenzyme
- Active form of enzyme
These are important because coenzymes are largely responsible for
the transfer of functional groups, electrons, hydrogens, and energy,
enhance the stability or reactivity of an enzyme’s product
Enzyme activity
- Can be affected by a variety of factors (temp, pH,
concentration)
- Temperature: raising can speed up reaction, lowering
can slow it down, too much temp can make the enzyme
lose its shape
- pH: The enzyme has an optimum pH level, changing the
pH can slow enzyme activity and extreme pH values can
cause it to denature
- Concentration: Can speed up reaction if the substrate is
available to bind to
Enzyme structure
- Proteins, some are RNA molecules
Enzyme lower the activation energy of a reaction
- That is the required amount of energy needed for a
reaction to occur
- Binds to a substrate and holding it in a way that allows the
reaction to happen more efficiently
Enzymes are specific, meaning they can react to one or couple of
substrates, some more specific than others will accept one particular
substrate
Other enzymes can act on a range of molecules, as long as they
contain the type of bond or chemical group the enzyme targets
Enzymes are reusable, it is not used up since it is not a reactant.
Once the enzyme is released, after participating in the chemical
reaction, it can be used for another reaction
REDUCTION OXIDATION REDOX
- Oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or ion changes by
GAINING or LOSING an electron
- Common and vital to the basic functions of life
(photosynthesis, respiration, combustion, corrosion,
rusting)
EX. IRON METAL IS OXIDIZED AND FORMS AN IRON OXIDE
WHICH IS KNOWN AS RUST, IT REDUCES THE OXYGEN IONS
TYPES OF REACTIONS
Synthesis
- Elements or compounds combine to form a more complex
substance
Decomposition
- The compounds break down into simpler substances
Single Replacement
- One element replaces another in a compound
Double replacement
- When different atoms in two different compounds trade
places