IB Biology Notes - 4.

2 Meiosis

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1 Statisical Analysis
Working with data Meiosis
2 Cells
4.2.1 State that meiosis is a reduction division of a diploid nucleus to form haploid nuclei.
Cell theory
Prokaryotic cells
Meiosis is a reduction division of a diploid nucleus to form haploid nuclei. 
Eukaryotic cells
Membranes
Cell division 4.2.2 Defne homologous chromosomes.
3 Chemical elements and water Homologous chromosomes: chromosomes with the same genes as each other, in the same sequence but do not
Chemical elements & water
necessarily have the same allele of those genes.
Carbohydrates, lipids & proteins
Dna structure
Dna replication 4.2.3 Outline the process of meiosis, including pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing
Transcription & translation over, followed by two divisions, which results in four haploid cells.
Enzymes
Cell respiration Meiosis involves two divisions. Meiotic cells have an interphase stage before the start of meiosis I which is similar to
Photosynthesis mitosis. It includes G1, S and G2 phases. (See notes on mitosis) After meiosis I there is another brief interphase stage
which is followed by meiosis II. 
4 Genetics
Chromosomes, genes, alleles & mutations Meiosis I
Meiosis The first stage of meiosis I is prophase I. In prophase I the chromosomes pair up so that the chromosomes in each pair
Theoretical genetics are homologous. Once the homologous chromosomes are paired up, crossing over occurs. Crossing over is the exchange
Genetic engineering & biotechnology of genetic material between non-sister chromatids. The nuclear membrane also starts to break down and the spindle
microtubules stretch out from each pole to the equator. 
5 Ecology and evolution
Communities & ecosystems The second stage is metaphase I. Here the paired up homologous chromosomes line up at the equator and the spindle
The greenhouse effect fibbers attach to the chromosomes in a way that ensures that for each homologous pair, one chromosome moved to one
Populations pole and the other moves to the opposite pole. 
Evolution
The third stage is anaphase I. This is the stage where the homologous chromosomes are separated and pulled to opposite
Classification
poles. This halves the chromosome number however each chromosome is still composed of two sister chromatids. The cell
6 Human health and physiology membrane starts to prepare for its separation at the equator to form two cells.
Digestion The fourth stage is telophase I. Here each chromosome from the homologous pair are found at opposite poles and the
The transport system nuclear membrane reforms around each daughter nucleus. The membrane then divides through citokinesis. 
Defence against infectious disease
Gas exchange There is a brief interphase stage before the start of meiosis II. This stage does not include the S phase.
Nerves, hormones & homeostasis  
Reproduction
Meiosis II
7 Nucleic acids and proteins The first stage of meiosis II is prophase II. Here the cell has divided into two daughter haploid cells however the process
Dna structure does not end here as these two cells immediately start to divide again. The spindle microtubules stretch out from each
Dna replication pole again and the nuclear membrane breaks down as in prophase I. 

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IB Biology Notes - 4.2 Meiosis

Transcription
Translation The second stage is metaphase II. Here the chromosomes in each cell line up at the equator and the spindle microtubules
Proteins attach to the centromere of each chromosome. 
Enzymes The third stage is anaphase II. Here the centromere devised as a result of the spindle microtubules pulling each sister
8 Cell respiration and chromatid to opposite poles in both cells. Each sister chromatid then becomes a chromosome. 
photosynthesis The fourth stage is telophase II. Here the nuclear membrane reforms around the four sets of daughter chromosomes.
Cell respiration
Cytokinesis then follows to divide the cytoplasm of the two cells and so the result is four daughter cells each with a
Photosynthesis
haploid set of chromosomes. 
9 Plant science
Plant structure & growth
Transport in angiospermophytes
Reproduction in angiospermophytes

10 Genetics
Meiosis
Dihybrid crosses & gene linkage
Polygenic inheritance

http://ibguides.com/biology/notes/meiosis[10/8/2018 12:11:02 PM]

IB Biology Notes - 4.2 Meiosis

http://ibguides.com/biology/notes/meiosis[10/8/2018 12:11:02 PM]

IB Biology Notes - 4.2 Meiosis

4.2.4 Explain that non-disjunction can lead to changes in chromosome number, illusrated by
reference to Down syndrome (trisomy 21).

A number of problems can arise during meiosis. A common problem is non-disjunction. This is when the chromosomes do
not separate properly during meiosis, either in meiosis I  (in anaphase I) or meiosis II (in anaphase II). This leads the
production of gametes that either have a chromosome too many or too few. Gametes with a missing chromosome usually
die quite fast however gametes with an extra chromosome can survive. When a zygote is formed from the fertilization of
these gametes with an extra chromosome, three chromosomes of one type are present instead of two. An example of this
is Down syndrome. Down syndrome is a disease in which the chromosomes failed to separate properly during meiosis
leading to three chromosomes of type 21 instead of two. A person with the condition therefore has a total of 47
chromosomes instead of 46. The non-disjunction can take place either in the formation of the egg or the sperm. Down
syndrome leads to many complications and also the risk of having a child with the condition increases with age. 

Below is a diagram illustrating a non-disjunction:

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IB Biology Notes - 4.2 Meiosis

4.2.5 State that, in karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their size and
sructure.

In karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their size and structure.

4.2.6 State that karyotyping is performed using cells collected by chorionic villus sampling or
amniocentesis, for pre-natal diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities.

Karyotyping is performed using cells collected by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis, for pre-natal diagnosis of
chromosome abnormalities. 

4.2.7 Analyse a human karyotype to determine gender and whether non- disjunction has occurred.
Karyotyping can be used to determine gender of a fetus and look for chromosome abnormalities such as non-disjunction.
The gender can be deduced by looking at the sex chromosomes. Females will have two X chromosomes while males have
one X and one Y. We can distinguish this on with karyotyping as the Y chromosome is smaller than the X. As for non-
disjunctions we can see if a chromosome is missing or if their is an extra one by looking at the number of chromosomes.
If There should only be two of each chromosome. Each 23 chromosomes should have a pair resulting in 46 chromosomes
in total. For example, if we notice that there are three chromosomes 21 then we can conclude that a non-disjunction
occurred. In this case, the non-disjunction results in Down’s syndrome. (trisomy 21) 

Below are two images of a karyotype. The first one is of a normal healthy male patient as on the karyotype there are two
chromosomes for each chromosome number and a Y chromosome is present. The second image shows the karyotype a
person with Down’s syndrome would get. 

Karyotype 1:

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IB Biology Notes - 4.2 Meiosis

Karyotype 2:

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IB Biology Notes - 4.2 Meiosis

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