CHAPTER # 21 CELL CYCLE

SHORT QUESTIONS

Name different stages of interphase.

The period of cell cycle between two consecutive cell divisions is termed as the interphase or
misleadingly called resting phase.

Interphase is the period of great biochemical activity and can further be divided into:

(i): G1-phase (ii): S-phase and (iii): G2-phase.

What happens in G1-phase of interphase?

Write G1 and changes which occur during this phase in the cell?

G1 (GAP-1) PHASE:

It is the period of extensive metabolic activity, in which cell normally grows in size, specific enzymes
are synthesized and DNA base units are accumulated for the DNA synthesis.

Differentiate between interphase and mitotic phase.

INTERPHASE: The period of cell cycle between two consecutive cell divisions is termed as the
interphase or misleadingly called resting phase.

Interphase is the period of great biochemical activity and can further be divided into:
(i): G1-phase (ii): S-phase and (iii): G2-phase.

MITOTIC PHASE:

The period of cell cycle in which parent cell is divided into daughter cells.
It is further divvied into:
(i): Karyokinesis (ii): Cytokinesis

What is chromatin?

The chromosomes are not visible with electron microscope during interphase of the cell cycle. However,
by using histological stains for DNA a network of very fine threads can be visualized. This network is
called a chromatin.

What is mitotic apparatus?

Definition:

The specialized microtubules structures including asters and spindles are called mitotic apparatus.
Importance:

This is larger than the nucleus, and is designed to attach and capture chromosomes, align them and
finally separating them so that equal distribution of chromosomes is ensured.

What events occur in prophase of mitosis?

1. The chromatin material gets condensed by the folding and the chromosomes appear.
2. Nuclear envelop along with nucleoli disappears.
3. Mitotic apparatus is organized.
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4. Cytoplasm becomes more viscous.

Define kinetochore.

The centromere has special area with specific base arrangements and of special proteins called
kinetochore.

The kinetochore fibers of spindle attach to the kinetochore region of chromosome

Why and how do chromosomes get separated during anaphase of mitosis?

The kinetochore fibers of spindle contract towards their respective poles exert force and sister
chromatids are separated from centromere.

As the result, half-sister chromatids travel towards each pole.

Explain cytokinesis in plants.

At cytokinesis, in place of contractile ring a membranous structure phragmoplast is formed from
vesicles which originate from Golgi complex.
These vesicles originate actually during metaphase, line up in the center of the dividing cell, where they
fuse to form phragmoplast at the end of the telophase.

The membrane of vesicles becomes the plasma membrane of daughter cells.

What is importance of mitosis?

1. In mitosis the heredity material is equally distributed in the daughter cell.

2. Some organisms both plants and animals undergo asexual reproduction.
3. Regeneration, healing of wounds and replacement of older cells all are the gifts of mitosis.
4. Tissue culture and cloning seek help through mitosis.

Define cancer.

Definition: Any malignant growth or tumour form by an abnormal and uncontrolled division of body
cells is known as cancer.

Causes: The cancer results from the accumulation of three to many as twenty mutations in somatic
cells.

How benign tumour differ from malignant tumour?

Write a note on malignant cancer (tumour).

BENIGN TUMOUR

Some tumour cells are of small sized and localized called benign tumour

MALIGNANT TUMOUR

The cells composing a malignant tumour divide more rapidly and mostly invade surrounding tissues.

Define metastasis.

What do you know about metastasis?

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The malignant tumour get through the body's circulatory system and set up area of
proliferation, away from their site of original appearance. This spread of tumour cells and
establishment of secondary area of growth is called metastasis.

What are cancer cells?

1. Cancer cells can be distinguished from normal cells because:

2. They are less differentiated from normal cells.
3. Exhibit the characteristics of rapidly growing cells, that is, high nucleus to cytoplasm ratio,
prominent nucleoli and high rate of mitosis.
4. The presence of invading cells in otherwise normal tissue is an indication of malignancy.

How does prophase-I of meiosis differ from prophase of mitosis?

Give two significant happenings of meiosis.

PROPHASE (MITOSIS)

1. Pairing of homologous chromosomes (synapsis) does not occur.

2. No chiasmata formation
1. No crossing over

PROPHASE-I (MEIOSIS)

1. Pairing of homologous chromosomes (synapsis) occur.

2. Chiasmata formation occur
3. Crossing over occur

Define meiosis.

The type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes reduce to half in daughter cells as
compared to parent cell is called meiosis.

It occurs only in diploid cells.

It occurs in plants at the time of spore formation and in animals at the time of gamete formation.

What changes occur in dividing cell during Diplotene?

1. The paired chromosomes repel each other and begin to separate.

2. Separation however, is not complete, because homologous chromosomes remain united by
their point of interchange (chismata).
3. Each bivalent has at least one such point, the chromatids otherwise are separated.

What is the importance of Pachytene?

1. The pairing of homologous chromosomes is completed.

2. Chromosomes become more and more thick.
3. Each bivalent have four chromatids, which rape around each other.
4. Non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange their segments due to chiasmata
formation, during the process called crossing over.
5. In this way reshuffling of genetic material occur which produces recombinations.
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Define bivalent or tetrad.

Tetrad

A pair of synapse chromosomes, each with two chromatids is known as a bivalent. Since it consists of
four chromatids it is also called tetrad.

What is importance of bivalent formation?

1. A pair of synapse chromosomes, each with two chromatids is known as a bivalent.

2. Bivalent is necessary for homologous chromosomes because crossing over can only b occur at
bivalent stage.

Give importance of meiosis.

1. During crossing over parental chromosomes exchange segments with each other which results
in large number of recombinations.
2. During anaphase the separation of chromosomes is random, which gives very wide range of
variety of gametes.

MEIOTIC ERRORS + NECROSIS AND APOPTOSIS

Explain chromosomal non-disjunction.

Define non-disjunction. Give an example.

DEFINITION:
In this process chromosomes fails to segregate during anaphase or telophase and do not finish in equal
distribution of chromosomes among all the daughter nuclei. This results either increase or decrease in
the number of chromosomes, causing serious physical, social and mental disorders. This non-
disjunction may be either in autosomes or sex-chromosomes.

EXAMPLE:

Down's syndrome, Turner's syndrome, Kinefelter's syndrome, etc.

Write a note on Down's syndrome.

What are the apparent symptoms of Down's syndrome?

What is mongolism?

INTRODUCTION:

It is one of the consequences of autosomal non-disjunction in man, during which 21st

chromosome fails to segregate, resulting gamete with 24 chromosome. This gamete fertilizes normal
gamete the new individual will have 47 (2n + 1) chromosomes.
SYMPTOMS:
The effected individuals have flat, broad face with the skin fold in the inner corner and
producing tongue, mental retardations and development of central nervous system.
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What are the symptoms of Turner's syndrome?

INTRODUCTION:

These effected individuals have one missing X chromosome with only 45 chromosomes
(44 autosomes + X).

SYMPTOMS:

Individuals with this condition often do not survive pregnancy and are aborted. Those who
survive have the female appearance with short stature, webbed neck without ovaries and complete
absence of germ cells.

What is Klinefelter’s syndrome?

Introduction:

These individuals have additional sex chromosomes e.g. 47 chromosomes (44 autosomes + XXY).

Males with 48 chromosomes (44 autosomes + XXXY) are also observed.

Symptoms:

They are phenotypically male but have frequently enlarged breasts, tendency to tallness,
obesity small testes with no sperms at ejaculation and under development of t secondary sex characters.

Define necrosis.

What is apoptosis?

Differentiate between necrosis and apoptosis.

APOPTOSIS Internal program of events and sequence of morphological changes by which cell
commits suicide is collectively called as apoptosis.

NECROSIS The cell death due to tissue damage is called necrosis.

EFFECTS:

During the dying cells shrink and condense ultimately splits up, thus release small membrane bounded
apoptotic bodies, which are generally phagocytosed by other cells.In necrosis, the typical cell swells
and bursts, releasing the intracellular contents, which can damage neighboring cells and cause
inflammation.

Give diagrammatic expression of cell cycle.

Sketch and label cell cycle.
Define cell cycle. Draw labelled diagram of eukaryotic cell cycle.