Chapter No. 2 First Year Notes

Lecture Notes on Physics by Usman Danish Class: First Year Chapter No.
   “Chapter 2”
Vectors and Equilibrium
(A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Physical quantity
All measurable quantities are called physical quantity like space, time, temperature, etc.
Types on the basis of direction

There are two types of physical quantities on the basis of direction.
❖ Scalar quantities
❖ Vector quantities
Scalars:-
The physical quantities which can be completely described by telling their magnitude and unit only are called
scalars.
Or
The directionless quantities are called scalars.
Examples:
Distance, Area, volume, speed, density, work, power, etc.
Vectors:-
The physical quantities which can be completely described by telling their magnitude, unit as well as direction
are called vector.
Examples:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, torque, momentum, etc.
REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR
A vector can be represented in there ways.
Symbolic representation
Components Form
Graphical representation
i) Symbolic representation:-
Symbolically a vector can be represented
⃗ ,F
By putting arrow head over vector symbol i.e. A ⃗ , etc.
A F
By putting arrow head under vector symbol i.e. →,→, etc.
By using bold force letter i.e. 𝐀, 𝐅, etc.
ii) Components form:-

A vector can be represented as a sum of its components (rectangular components, etc.)
For example: vector ⃗A can be represented as;
⃗A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
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Lecture Notes on Physics by Usman Danish Class: First Year Chapter No. 2
iii) Graphical Representation:-
Graphically a vector can be represented by a line and arrow head drawn in a

(rectangular) coordinate system. ⃗A
➢ Length of the line, on a suitable scale, represents magnitude of vector. θ

➢ Arrow head (and angle with any axis like x-axis, etc.) of the vector gives its direction.
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RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM
➢ Axis:-
Any number of lines those intersect each other at a single point are called axis.
X-Axis:-
The line along horizontal direction is called x-axis.
Y-axis:-
The line along vertical direction is called y-axis
Z-axis:-
The line which is perpendicular to both x and y-axis is called Z-axis.
Origin:-
The point of intersection of axis lines is called origin.
Plane:-
The region between two axis lines is called plane.
OR
Two dimensional (2-D) region between axis lines is called plane.
➢ Space:-
Three dimensional (3-D) region between three axis lines is called space.
➢ Coordinate:-
The distances travelled along axis lines are called coordinate.
➢ Coordinate System:-
A system containing axis lines and (A product of PAK ACADEMY) coordinates is called coordinate system.
➢ Rectangular Coordinate System:-
A system containing rectangular axis (perpendicular) and coordinates is called rectangular coordinate
system.
➢ Types of RCS:-
i. 2-D RCS
ii. 3-D RCS
2–D RCS 3–D RCS A vector in 3-D space
➢ Key points:-
Number of angles required by a vector for its graphically representation in a coordinate system are
equal to the number of dimensions or axis of space.
In 2-D (plane), the direction of a vector is denoted by the angle which the representative line of the
vector makes with positive x-axis in the anti-clockwise direction.
In 3-D (space) we required 3-angles to specify the direction of a vector.
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ADDITION OF VECTORS OR VECTOR ADDITION
Graphically vectors can be added by head to tail rule.

Head to tail rule:-
Draw the representative lines of given vectors in such a way that tail of every second vector coincides
with the head of every last vector. Draw a final vector from the tail of first vector to the head of last vector
which is known as resultant vector and this represents addition of vectors (magnitude as well as direction
of given vector).
Example:-
Let ⃗
A ⃗
B
⃗A ⃗A
⃗R = ⃗A + ⃗B ⃗B ⃗B ⃗R = ⃗A + ⃗B ⃗B ⃗R ⃗B
⃗A ⃗A
Important features:-
Vector addition is commutative i.e. order of the vector for the case of addition do not matter.
⃗A + ⃗B = ⃗B + ⃗A
We can add infinite number of vectors by using head to tail rule.

---------------------------------
Resultant Vector:-
The resultant of a number of similar vectors – force vectors for example, is that single vector which
would have the same effect (magnitude or direction) as all the original vectors taken together.
---------------------------------
Negative Vector:-
A vector whose magnitude is equal to the original or given vector but its direction is reversed or opposite
to the original or given vector is called negative vector.
If ⃗
A
Then ⃗
−A ⃗
B ⃗
−B
⃗ and −B
Here −A ⃗ are negative vectors of ⃗A and ⃗B.
---------------------------------
Subtraction of a vector:-
The subtraction of a vector is equivalent to the addition of the same vector with its direction reversed.
Or
Subtraction of a vector is equivalent to the addition of the negative of given vector into other positive vector.
Example:-
Let, ⃗A and ⃗B ⃗
−B
⃗
A
⃗R = ⃗A − ⃗B ⇒ ⃗A + (−B
⃗) ⃗R ⃗
−B
Important feature:-
Vector subtraction is non-commutative i.e. in subtraction order of vectors does matter.

⃗A − ⃗B ≠ ⃗B − ⃗A
Proof:- ⃗
A
Let, ⃗
A and ⃗
B ⃗
−B Then, R ⃗ −B
⃗ =A ⃗ + (−B
⃗ ⇒A ⃗) ⃗
R ⃗
−B
⃗
−A ⃗
−A
And, ⃗′=B
R ⃗ −A ⃗ ⇒B ⃗)
⃗ + (−A ⃗′
R ⃗
B
⃗ ⃗ ′ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
As, R ≠ R . Hence, A − B ≠ B − A and vector subtraction is non-commutative.
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VECTOR MULTIPLICATION
Vector Multiplication
By Scalar By Vector
Scalar Product Vector Product

Multiplication by a Multiplication by a
positive scalar negative scalar
(number, N) i.e. (number, N) i.e.
N>0 N<0
❖ Magnitude of vector changes ❖ Magnitude of vector changes

❖ Direction remains same. ❖ Direction is reversed
Example: Example:
⃗A Let ⃗
A
Let
⃗ = (−2x1)A
Then, −2xA ⃗ ⇒ −2A
⃗
⃗ = (2x1)A
Then, 2xA ⃗ ⇒ 2A
⃗
⃗)
2(−A
⃗
2A
UNIT VECTOR
A Vector whose magnitude is one and it has specific/particular direction is called unit vector.
Or
A unit in a given direction is a vector with magnitude one in that direction
Formula:-
Unit vector of ⃗A or in the direction of ⃗A is given as:
⃗ =AA
A ̂
⃗A
̂=
A
A
Examples:
➢ Unit vector î indicates /represents direction along x-axis.

➢ Unit vector ĵ indicates direction along y-axis.
➢ Unit vector k̂ indicates direction along z-axis.
➢ Unit vector n̂ indicates direction normal to the surface area
➢ Unit vector r̂ indicates direction along r (displacement vector), etc.
Application:-
Unit vector is used to indicate / represent direction of a vector.
---------------------------------
NULL VECTOR
A vector whose magnitude is zero and has an arbitrary direction is known as null vector.
Formula:-
By adding a vector into its negative or by adding two vectors having equal magnitudes with reverse directions,
we get null vector.
⃗A + (−A
⃗ ) = ⃗0
---------------------------------
PARALLEL VECTORS
The vectors which have same directions or have 0o angle between them are called parallel vectors or like parallel
vectors.
e.g. ⃗A
⃗B
Here, ⃗A and ⃗B are parallel vectors.
---------------------------------
ANTI-PARALLEL VECTORS
The vectors which have opposite directions or have 180o angle between them are called anti-parallel vectors
or unlike parallel vectors. e.g.
⃗A
⃗
B
⃗
Here, A and ⃗B are anti-parallel vectors.
PERPENDICULAR VECTORS
o
The vectors which have 90 angle between them are called perpendicular vectors.
e.g. ⃗
A
⃗
B
Here, ⃗A and ⃗B are perpendicular vectors.
---------------------------------
EQUAL VECTORS
The vectors which have equal magnitudes as well as same direction (i.e. 0o angle between them) are called equal
vectors.
e.g. ⃗
A
⃗
B ⃗ =B
A ⃗
⃗ ⃗ are equal vectors.
Here, A and B
---------------------------------
COMPONENT OF A VECTOR
Definition:-
The effective value of a vector in particular direction is called component of a vector.
Rectangular components of a Vector:-
The components of vector which are mutually perpendicular are called rectangular components.
Resolution of a Vector:-
The process of conversion/splitting of a vector into its components is called resolution of a vector.
Resolution of a Vector into its rectangular components:-
⃗ is represented by line OP in xy-plane making angle ‘θ’ with x-axis as shown in figure.
Consider a vector A
y-axis
⃗
A Ay ĵ
θ
O Ax î M x-axis
We draw perpendicular PM of vector A⃗ on x-axis. As a result, we get two (projections) components Ax and Ay of
⃗A, represented by lines OM and MP, which are mutually perpendicular hence called as rectangular components of
vector ⃗A.
X-component of the vector:-
From ∆OPM,
Base
cos θ =
Hyp
OM
cos θ =
OP
Ax
cos θ =
A
Ax = A cos θ
Y-Component of the vector:-
From ∆OPM,
Perp
sin θ =
Hyp
MP
sin θ =
OP
Ay
sin θ =
A
Ay = A sin θ
Resultant Vector:-
⃗ as the sum of its rectangular components as following:
According to head to tail rule, we may write A
⃗A = Ax î + Ay ĵ
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Objectives:-
(i) In 2-D plane, a vector can be resolved into two rectangular components i.e. x & y components.
(ii) In 3-D space, a vector can be resolved into three rectangular components i.e. x, y & z components.
(iii) Maximum rectangle components of a vector can be ‘3’.
(iv) Maximum components of a vector can be ‘infinite’.
(v) Resolution of a vector is the reverse process of vector addition.
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DETERMINATION OF A VECTOR FROM ITS RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS
Description:-
We can determine a vector from its rectangular Components.
Explanation:-
Consider two rectangular components Ax & Ay of vector ⃗Arepresented by lines OM and MP respectively in xy-
plane, as shown in figure.
y-axis
P
⃗A Ay ĵ
θ
O Ax î M x-axis
According to head to tail rule, we may write A ⃗ as the sum of its rectangular components as following:
⃗ = Ax î + Ay ĵ
A
Magnitude of resultant vector:-
In ∆OPM, by using Pythagoras theorem;

(Hyp)2 = (Base)2 + (Perp)2
(OP)2 = (OM)2+(𝑀𝑃)2
A2 = Ax2 +Ay2
A = √Ax 2 + Ay 2
Direction of resultant vector:-
In ∆OPM
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝
tan θ =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
MP
tan θ =
OM
Ay
tan θ = A
x
A
𝜃= tan−1 (Ay )
x
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POSITION VECTOR
A vector which describes the position of a particle (object) or point in plane (2-D region) or space (3-D) with
respect to origin / reference is called position vector.
Representation:-
Symbolically position vector is represented by r.

Types:
i) 2-D position vector:

In 2-D position vector can be written as:
r = a ̂i + b ̂j y P (a, b)
Its magnitude is given as: b r

r = √a2 + b 2
Its direction is given as; o a x
𝑏
𝜃 = tan−1 (𝑎)
ii) 3-D position vector: z P (a, b, c)

In 3-D position vector can be written as: r
r = aî + bĵ + ck̂
Its magnitude is given as o y
r = √a2 + b 2 + c 2 x
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VECTOR ADDITION BY THEIR RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS
Description:-
In order to get better result we prefer vector addition by their rectangular components method over head to tail rule
method.
Working steps / Procedure:-
i. ⃗ and B
Represent given vectors (say A ⃗ ) by drawings representative lines for them.
ii. Add these vectors by using head to tail rule to get resultant vector (say ⃗R).
iii. Draw perpendicular on each vector to find its rectangular components (Ax , Ay and Bx , By ).
iv. Add x-components of given vectors (Ax and Bx ) to find x-component of resultant vector (R x ).
v. Add y-components of given vectors (Ay and By ) to find y-component of resultant vector (R y ).
vi. Magnitude of resultant vector can be found by using following relationship
R = √(R x )2 + (R y )2
vii. Direction of resultant vector can be found as:
R
θ = tan−1 (Ry )
x
Explanation:-
Let us consider we have two vectors ⃗A and ⃗B, represented by lines OM and ON respectively. We add them by using
⃗ which is represented by line OP. By drawing perpendiculars we get
head to tail rule to obtain resultant vector R
⃗
rectangular components of vectors A, B and ⃗R as shown in fig.
⃗
Figure:-
X-component of resultant vector:-
From fig. it is clear that;

OR = OQ + QR
As, OR = R x , OQ = Ax and QR = Bx
Therefore,
R x = Ax + Bx
In vector form,
⃗⃗⃗⃗x = Ax î + Bx î
R
Or ⃗⃗⃗⃗x = (Ax + Bx )î

R
Y-component of resultant vector:-
Again from fig. it is clear that;

PR = RS + SP
As, PR = R y , RS = Ax and SP = By
Therefore,
R y = Ay + By
In vector form,
⃗⃗⃗⃗y = Ax ĵ + Bx ĵ
R
Or ⃗⃗⃗⃗y = (Ay + By )ĵ

R
Resultant vector:-
Resultant vector can be written as;

⃗ = (R x )î + (R y )ĵ
R
Or R ⃗ =R ⃗⃗⃗⃗x + R
⃗⃗⃗⃗y
⃗R = (Ax + Bx )î + (Ay + By )ĵ
Magnitude of resultant vector:-
Magnitude of resultant vector is given as.
R = √Rx 2 + Ry 2
2
R = √(Ax + Bx )2 + (Ay + By )
Direction of resultant vector is given as;

Ry
θ = tan−1 (Rx)
Ay+By
θ = tan−1 (Ax+Bx)
Generalization:-
In case of more than two given vectors,

➢ x-component of resultant vector is given as
R x = Ax + Bx + Cx + ⋯
In vector form
⃗⃗⃗⃗x = (Ax + Bx + Cx + ⋯ ) î
R
➢ y-component of resultant vector is given as,
R y = Ay + By + Cy + ⋯
In vector form
⃗⃗⃗⃗y = (Ay + By + Cy + ⋯ ) ĵ
R
➢ Magnitude of resultant vector is given as,
R = √Rx 2 + Ry 2
2
R = √(Ax + Bx + Cx + ⋯ )2 + (Ay + By + Cy + ⋯ )
➢ Direction of resultant vector can be given as,
Ry
θ = tan−1 ( )
Rx
−1 Ay +By +Cy +⋯
θ= tan ( )
Ax +Bx +Cx +⋯
Determination of final angle:-
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SCALAR PRODUCT
Definition / Description:-
Scalar product of two vectors is a scalar quantity.

Or
The numerical product of the lengths of two vectors and the cosine of the angle between themis called scalar
product.
Or
The product of two vectors to form a scalar, whose value is the product of the magnitudes of the vectors and the
cosine of the angle between them, is called scalar product.
Or
The quantity obtained by multiplying the corresponding coordinates of each of two vectors and adding the products,
equal to the product of the magnitudes of the vectors and the cosine of the angle between them, is called scalar
product.
Or
When a vector is multiplied with other vector by scalarly method then a scalar quantity is obtained. Such type of
vector multiplication is called scalar product.
Another name:-
Scalar product is also known as inner product of two vectors and rarely it is also known as projection product
Representation:-
Scalar product of two vectors is represented by a dot sign (.) that is why it is also known as dot product of
vectors.
Mathematically representation/formula:-
Mathematically scalar product of two vectors ⃗A & ⃗B is given as
⃗A . ⃗B =  ⃗A ⃗B cos θ
Or ⃗ .B
A ⃗ = AB cos θ
Where;
 ⃗A = A = Magnitude of ⃗A
 ⃗B = B = Magnitude of ⃗B
Figure:-
⃗A . ⃗B = (Magnitude of ⃗A) (Projection of ⃗B along ⃗A)

Here, Projection of B ⃗ = Bx
⃗ along A ⟹ Bx = B cos θ
⃗ .B
A ⃗ = A Bx ⟹ A ⃗ .B⃗ = A B cos θ
Similarly,
B ⃗ = (Magnitude of B
⃗ .A ⃗ along B
⃗ ) (Projection of A ⃗)
Here, Projection of A ⃗ along B ⃗ = Ax ⟹ Ax = A cos θ
⃗B . ⃗A = B Ax ⃗ ⃗
⟹ B . A = B A cos θ
Physical Significance:-
Physically scalar product of two vectors mean that we have to multiply magnitude of 1 st vector with the component
of 2nd vector which is along the 1st vector i.e. projection of 2nd vector on 1st vector.
Examples:-
Few example of scalar product are:

(i) Work, w = F ⃗
⃗ .d
w = f d cos θ
(ii) Power, P = F ⃗ .V⃗
P = F v cos θ
⃗
⃗ .A
(iii) Electric flux, Φe = E
Φe = E A cos θ
(iv) Magnetic flux, ΦB = B ⃗
⃗ .A
ΦB = B A cos θ
1
(v) K. E = m(V ⃗ .V⃗)
2
1
K. E = m v 2 cos θ
2
Here θ = 0o
1
K. E = 2 m v 2 cos 0o (∴ cos 0o = 1)
1
K.E = 2 mv2, etc.
Characteristics of scalar product:-

(i) Scalar product is commutative:-
In scalar product, order of multiplication of vectors does not matter.

Explanation:-
Let us consider two vectors 𝐴 & 𝐵 ⃗
⃗ .B
A ⃗ =A⃗  B
⃗  cos θ
Or ⃗ .B
A ⃗ = A B cos θ − − − − − − − −→ (𝟏)
Also
⃗B. ⃗A =  ⃗B ⃗A cos θ
⃗B. ⃗A = B A cos θ
Or ⃗ .A
B ⃗ = A B cos θ − − − − − − − −−→ (𝟐)
Comparing equation (1) and (2);
⃗A. ⃗B = ⃗B. ⃗A
Hence scalar product of two vectors is commutative.
(ii) Scalar product of parallel vectors:-
Let ⃗A and ⃗B are parallel vectors then θ = 0o between them. Now their scalar product is given as:
⃗A . ⃗B = A B cos θ
By substituting the value of θ = 0o .
⃗A . ⃗B = A B cos 0o
As cos 0o = 1
⃗A . ⃗B = A B (1)
⃗A. ⃗B = A B
This is maximum value of scalar product.
(iii) Scalar product of anti-parallel vectors:-
Let A⃗ and B ⃗ are anti-parallel vectors then θ = 180o between them. Now their scalar product is given as:
⃗A . ⃗B = A B cos 180o
As cos 180o = −1
⃗A . ⃗B = A B (−1)
⃗A. ⃗B = − A B
(iv) Scalar product of perpendicular vectors:-
Let ⃗A and ⃗B are perpendicular vectors then θ = 90o between them. Now their scalar product is given as:
⃗A . ⃗B = A B cos 90o
As cos 90o = 0
⃗A . ⃗B = A B (0)
⃗ .B
A ⃗ =0
This is minimum value of scalar product.
(v) Scalar product of a self-vector:-
Scalar product of A ⃗ with itself is given as:

⃗ .A
A ⃗ =A⃗  A
⃗  cos θ
Here θ = 0o .
⃗A . ⃗A = (A) (A) cos 0o
As cos 0o = 1
⃗A . ⃗A = A2 (1)
⃗A. ⃗A = A2
This is maximum value of scalar product.
(vi) Scalar product of self-unit vector:-
Scalar product of unit vector î with itself is given as:

î . î =  î î cos θ
Here θ = 0o .
î . î =  î î cos 0o
As  î = 1 and cos 0o = 1
î . î = (1)(1)(1)
î . î = 1
Similarly,
î . î = ĵ . ĵ = k̂ . k̂ = 1
(vii) Scalar product of perpendicular unit vectors:-
Scalar product of perpendicular unit vectors î and ĵ is given as:

î . ĵ =  î ĵ cos θ
Here θ = 90o .
î . ĵ =  î ĵ cos 90o
As  î =  ĵ = 1 and cos 90 = 0 o
î . ĵ = (1)(1)(0)
î . ĵ = 0
Similarly,
ĵ . î = ĵ . k̂ = k̂ . ĵ = î. k̂ = k̂. î = 0
(viii) Scalar product in terms of components of vectors (or) Angle between the vectors:-
Let us consider:
⃗A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
⃗ = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂
B
⃗ .B
A ⃗ = A B cos θ − − − − − − − − − −→ (𝐚)
Also A . ⃗B = (Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂). (Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂)
⃗
⃗A . ⃗B = Ax Bx (î. î) + Ax By (î. ĵ) + Ax Bz (î. k̂) + Ay Bx (ĵ. î) + Ay By (ĵ. ĵ) + Ay Bz (ĵ. k̂) +
Az Bx (k̂. î) + Az By (k̂. ĵ) + Az Bz (k̂. k̂)
As î . î = ĵ . ĵ = k̂ . k̂ = 1
and î . ĵ = ĵ . î = ĵ . k̂ = k̂ . ĵ = î. k̂ = k̂. î = 0
⃗A . ⃗B = Ax Bx (1) + Ax By (0) + Ax Bz (0) + Ay Bx (0) + Ay By (1) + Ay Bz (0) + Az Bx (0) +
Az By (0) + Az Bz (1)
⃗A . ⃗B = Ax Bx (1) + 0 + 0 + 0 + Ay By (1) + 0 + 0 + 0 + Az Bz (1)
⃗A . ⃗B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz − − − −−→ (𝐛)
Comparing equation (1) and (2),
A B cos θ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
Ax Bx +AyBy +Az Bz
cos θ = AB
−1 Ax Bx +AyBy +Az Bz
θ= cos ( AB
)
From equation (b), we can write as;
⃗A
⃗ .B
⃗⃗
θ = cos −1 ( A B )
---------------------------------
Key Points:
1) Scalar product obeys commutative law.

2) Scalar product does not obey associative law.
3) The scalar product is distributive over addition. This means ⃗A. (B ⃗ + ⃗C) = ⃗A. ⃗B + ⃗A. ⃗C
4) Scalar product of orthogonal vectors is zero.
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VECTOR PRODUCT
Definition:-
Vector product of two vectors is a vector quantity.

Or
The magnitude of the vector product of two vectors can be constructed by taking the product of the magnitudes of
the vectors times the sine of the angle (less than 180 degrees) between them is called vector product.
Or
The product of two real vectors in three dimensions, which is itself a vector at right angles to both the original
vectors. Its magnitude is the product of the magnitudes of the original vectors and the sine of the angle between
their directions is called vector product.
Or
When a vector is multiplied vectorially with other vector then as a result another vector quantity is obtained. Such
type of vector multiplication is called vector product.
Another Name:-
Vector product is also known as outer product and occasionally directed as area product.
Cross Product:-
Mathematically, vector product is represented by a cross sign (x) that is why it is also known as cross product.
Mathematically Formula:-
Vector product of two vectors ⃗A and ⃗B is given as;

⃗A × ⃗B =  ⃗A ⃗B sin θ (n̂)
Or
⃗ ×B
A ⃗ = AB sin θ (n̂)
Here ‘AB sin θ’ gives magnitude of new/resultant vector while ‘ n̂ ’ represents the direction of resultant vector.
Direction of resultant vector is given by ‘right hand rule’ or ‘screw right hand rule’.
Right Hand Rule:-
Coincide the tails of the given vectors. Rotate the first vector into second vector through
smaller angle. Curl the fingers of right hand along the direction of rotation by keeping
thumb erect. The thumb will indicate the direction of resultant vector which is always
perpendicular to the plane containing given vectors.
Pictorial Representation:-
⃗ ×B
A ⃗ = AB sin θ (n̂) ⃗ = BA sin θ (− n̂)
⃗ ×A
B
Physical Significance:-
Physically vector product means that we have to multiply the magnitude of first vector with the component of
other vector which is not in the direction of first vector.
Example:-
(i) Torque, 𝜏 = r × ⃗F
𝜏 = r F sinθ n̂
(ii) Angular momentum, L ⃗ =r × p⃗
⃗L = r p sinθ n̂
(iii) Linear velocity, v ⃗ =w
⃗⃗ × r
⃗ = w r sin θ n̂
v
(iv) Linear acceleration a⃗ = a⃗ × r
a⃗ = a r sinθ n̂
⃗ m = I (L
(v) Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor, F ⃗ ×B
⃗ )
⃗ m = I LB sinθ n̂
F
(vi) Magnetic force on a moving charge, ⃗Fm = q (V
⃗ × ⃗B )
⃗ m = q V B sinθ n̂, etc.
F
Characteristics:-
(i) Vector product is non-commutative:-
In vector product, order of multiplication of vectors does matter.

Explanation:-
Let us consider two vectors 𝐴 & 𝐵 ⃗
Then ⃗A x ⃗B =  ⃗A ⃗B sin θ (n̂)
Or ⃗ xB
A ⃗ = AB sin θ (n̂) − − − − − − − −−→ (𝟏)
Also
⃗ xA
B ⃗ =B ⃗  A
⃗  sin θ (−n̂)
⃗B x ⃗A = −BA sin θ (n̂)
Or −B⃗ x ⃗A = AB sin θ (n̂) − − − − − − − −−→ (𝟐)
Comparing equation (1) and (2);
⃗A x ⃗B ≠ ⃗B x ⃗A or ⃗A x ⃗B = −B
⃗ x ⃗A
Hence vector product of two vectors is non-commutative.
(ii) Vector product of parallel vectors:-
Let ⃗A and ⃗B are parallel vectors then θ = 0o between them. Now their vector product is given as:
⃗A x ⃗B = AB sin θ (n̂)
⃗A x ⃗B = AB sin 0o (n̂)
As sin 0o = 0
⃗A x ⃗B = A B (0) (n̂) ⇒ ⃗A x ⃗B = (0) (n̂)
⃗ xB
A ⃗
⃗ =0
This is minimum value of vector product.
(iii) Vector product of antiparallel vectors:-
Let ⃗A and ⃗B are antiparallel vectors then θ = 180o between them. Now their vector product is given as:
⃗A x ⃗B = AB sin θ (n̂)
⃗A x ⃗B = AB sin 180o (n̂)
As sin 180o = 0
⃗ xB
A ⃗ = A B (0) (n̂) ⇒ ⃗ xB
A ⃗ = (0) (n̂)
⃗ xB
A ⃗
⃗ =0
(iv) Vector product of perpendicular vectors:-
Let ⃗A and ⃗B are perpendicular vectors then θ = 90o between them. Now their vector product is given as:
⃗ xB
A ⃗ = AB sin θ (n̂)
⃗ xB
A ⃗ = AB sin 90o (n̂)
As sin 90o = 1
⃗ xB
A ⃗ = A B (1) (n̂)
⃗ xB
A ⃗ = A B (n̂)
This is maximum value of vector product.
(v) Vector product of a self-vector:-
Vector product of ⃗A with itself is given as:

⃗ xA
A ⃗ =A ⃗  A
⃗  sin θ n̂
o
Here, θ = 0 .
⃗ xA
A ⃗ = (A) (A) sin 0o n̂
As sin 0o = 0
⃗ xA
A ⃗ = A2 (0) n̂
⃗ xA
A ⃗ =0⃗
(vi) Vector product of self unit vector:-
î × î =  î   î  sin0o n̂
= (1) (1) (0) n̂ (∴ sin 0o = 0)
î × î = ⃗0
Similarly, ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = ⃗0
(vii) Vector product of perpendicular unit vectors:-
î × ĵ =  î  ĵ sin90o n̂

= (1) (1) (1) n̂
î × ĵ = n̂
According to right hand rule,
Here n̂ = k̂
î × ĵ = k̂
ĵ × î = −k̂
Similarly:
ĵ × k̂ = î, k̂ × î = ĵ, k̂ × ĵ = −î, î × k̂ = −ĵ
(viii) Area of parallelogram:-
If two sides of parallelogram are represented by vectors ⃗A and ⃗B then,

 ⃗A × ⃗B  = Area of parallelogram
(ix) Vector product in terms of components of vector:-
Let us consider,
⃗A = Axî + Ayĵ + Azk̂
⃗B = Bxî + Byĵ + Bzk̂
⃗ ×B
A ⃗ = (Axî + Ayĵ + Azk̂ ) × (Bxî + Byĵ + Bzk̂ )
= AxBx (î × î ) + AxBy (î × ĵ) + AxBz (î × k̂ ) + AyBx (ĵ × î ) + AyBy (ĵ × ĵ) + AyBz (ĵ × k̂) +
AzBx (k̂ × î ) + AzBy (k̂ × ĵ ) + AzBz (k̂ × k̂)
=0⃗ + AxBy (k̂) + AxBz (−ĵ) + AyBx (−k̂) + 0 ⃗ + AyBz (î) + AzBx (ĵ) + AzBy (−î) + 0 ⃗
⃗ ×B
A ⃗ = î (AyBz – AzBy) + ĵ ( AzBx – AxBz) + k̂ ( AxBy – AyBx) ------→ (a)
î ĵ k̂
|Ax Ay Az | = î (AyBz – AzBy) - ĵ (AxBz-AzBx) + k̂ (AxBy – AyBx)
Bx By Bz
= î (AyBz – AzBy) + ĵ (AzBx- AxBz) + k̂ (AxBy – AyBx) ------→ (b)
Comparing (a) and (b),
î ĵ k̂
⃗A × ⃗B = |Ax Ay Az |
Bx By Bz
---------------------------------
TORQUE
Definition:-
Turning effect of force is called torque.

Or
Moment of force is called torque.
Or
Vector product (or cross product) of moment arm (position vector) & force is called torque.
Formula:-
⃗
τ⃗ = r × F
Or
τ⃗ = r F sin θ n̂
In magnitude form, we may write as;
τ⃗ = r F sin θ n̂
τ = r F sin θ n̂
As n̂ = 1
τ = r F sin θ
Unit:-
SI unit of torque is ‘N m’ or ‘J’ or ‘Kg m2 s-2’
Dimension:-
Magnitude of torque is given as;

τ = r F sin θ
In terms of SI units;
= Nm
= (kg ms2 ) m (∴ N = kg m s 2 )
= kg m2 s2
[τ] = [ML2 T −2 ]
Nature:-
Torque is of a vector quantity.
Direction:-
Direction of torque is given by “right hand rule”.
Right hand rule:-
Coincide the tails of r and F⃗ vectors. Rotate the first vector (r) into second vector (F⃗ ) through smaller angle. Curl
the fingers of right hand along the direction of rotation by keeping the thumb erect. The erect thumb will indicate the
direction of torque (τ⃗) which is always perpendicular to the plane containing r and F⃗ vectors.
Line of action of force:-
The direction of applied force is called line of action of force.

Or
The ling along which a force acts on an object is called line of action of force.
Moment arm:-
Perpendicular displacement from line of action of force to the pivot (point of rotation) is called moment arm.
Necessary Condition:-
Line of action of force must not pass through pivot or point of rotation.
Conventions:-
Clockwise torque is taken as negative.

Anticlockwise or counter clockwise torque is taken as positive.
Minimum Torque:-
When θ = 0o (when r and ⃗F becomes parallel) or θ = 180o between r and ⃗F (when r and ⃗F becomes anti-
parallel) then torque will be minimum.
As τ = r F sin θ
When θ = 0o
τmin = r F sin 0o
τmin = r F (0) (∴ sin 0o = 0)
τmin = 0
Also
When θ = 180o
τmin = r F sin 180o
τmin = r F (0) (∴ sin 180o = 0)
τmin = 0
In vector form, τ⃗min = ⃗0
Maximum Torque:-
⃗ becomes perpendicular) then torque will be maximum.

When θ = 90o (when r and F
As 𝜏 = r F sin θ
When θ = 90o
τmax = r F sin 90o
τmax = r F (1) (∴ sin 90o = 1)
τmax = r F
In vector form, τ⃗min = r F n̂
Torque of rigid body:-
Consider a rigid body of mass ‘m’ which is capable to rotate about its axis, around point of rotation or pivot ‘o’
⃗ ’. Magnitude of torque acting on rigid body can be calculated by following two
under the application of force ‘F
ways.
From fig (i)

𝜏 = r (Fy )
𝜏 = r (Fsinθ) (∴ Fy = F sinθ)
From fig (ii)

Or
𝜏 = F (ry )
𝜏 = F (r sinθ) (∴ ry = r sinθ)
Fig (i) Fig (ii)

Comparison between Force & Torque:-
➢ Toque is the rotational analogous of force in linear motion.

➢ Force produces linear acceleration while torque produces angular acceleration in an object.
➢ If an object is rotating or circulating with constant angular speed (velocity)
then no torque is acting on it.
Newton’s 2nd law in terms of rotational motion is given as;
τ=I∝=I
Where, I = moment of inertia
∝ = angular acceleration
At constant angular speed
∝=o
∴𝜏=0
---------------------------------
EQUILIBRIUM
Definition:-
An object at rest or moving with uniform velocity is said to be in the state of equilibrium.
Necessary requirement:-
For a system/object to be in the state of equilibrium it’s all types of accelerations i.e. linear and angular, must be
zero. This condition implies that no net force & net torque acts on the system/object.
Conditions of equilibrium:-
(i) First condition of equilibrium

(ii) Second condition of equilibrium
First condition of equilibrium:-
Statement:-
Vector or algebraic sum of all the forces acting on the system must be zero.
Mathematical Form:-
∑ ⃗F = ⃗0
In scalar form; ∑ F = 0
In case of co-planer forces;
∑F⃗x = 0⃗ or ∑ Fx = 0
and ⃗
⃗y = 0
∑F or ∑ Fy = 0
Explanation:-
According to Newton’s second law of motion;

F=ma − − − − − −→ (i)
According to first condition to first condition of equilibrium;
F=0 − − − − − −→ (ii)
Comparing eq. (i) and eq.(ii), we get;
ma=0
As m ≠ 0 ∴a=0
Therefore, in order to fulfill first condition of equilibrium linear acceleration of the system/ object should be
zero.
Second condition of equilibrium:-
Statement:-
Vector sum of all the torques acting on the system must be zero.
Mathematical Form:-
∑ τ⃗ = ⃗0
In scalar form; ∑ τ = 0
Or τclockwise = τanti−clockwise
Explanation:-
According to Newton’s second law of motion in terms of rotational motion;

τ=Iα − − − − − −→ (a)
According to first condition to second condition of equilibrium;
τ=0 − − − − − −→ (b)
Comparing eq. (a) and eq.(b), we get;
Iα=0
As I ≠ 0 ∴α=0
Therefore, in order to fulfill second condition of equilibrium, angular acceleration of the system / object should be
zero.
Translational Equilibrium:-
When only first condition of equilibrium is satisfied i.e. only linear acceleration of the object is zero then the object
is said to be in the state of translational equilibrium.
Rotational Equilibrium:-
When only second condition of equilibrium is satisfied i.e. only angular acceleration of the object is zero, then
the object is said to be in the state of rotational equilibrium.
Complete Equilibrium:-
When both conditions of equilibrium are satisfied i.e. both linear and angular accelerations of the object are
zero, then the object is said to be in the state of complete equilibrium.
Static Equilibrium:-
When both conditions of equilibrium are satisfied i.e. both linear and angular accelerations of the object are zero
and the object is at rest, then it is said to be in the state of static equilibrium.
Dynamic Equilibrium:-
When both conditions of equilibrium are satisfied i.e. both linear and angular accelerations of the object are zero
and the object is moving with uniform velocity (uniform motion) then it is said to be in the state of dynamic
equilibrium.
---------------------------------
Concurrent Force System:-
A system in which all the forces are acting at a single point is called concurrent force system.
Or
In a concurrent force system, all forces pass through a common point.
Short Questions (Exercise)
2.1: (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Define the terms (i) unit vector (ii) position vector (iii) components of vector?
Ans:
Unit vectors
Unit vector is a vector having magnitude one and it is used to represent the direction of given vector. It has no units.
A unit vector in the direction of A⃗ is written as 𝐴̂. It is obtained by dividing a vector by its magnitude.
⃗A = ÂA
̂=A
A ⃗ /A
The most frequently used unit vectors are vectorî, ĵ and k̂
Which represents the direction of x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively.
Position vectors: (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
A vector that describes the location of a point with respect to origin is known as position vector (r).
Position vector in ‘plane’ is written as
r = aî + bĵ
Position vector in ‘space’ is given by
r = aî + bĵ + c k̂
Components of a vectors:
The effective value of a vector in a particular direction is called component of vector in that direction. Component of
a vector is a vector heaving its own magnitude and direction and it has its influence in the resultant. (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
For example, vector ⃗A has its rectangular components which are given by,
⃗A = Ax î + Ay ĵ
2.2:
The vector sum of three vectors gives a zero resultant. What can be the orientation of the vectors?
Ans:
If three vectors are added in such a way that they represent the three sides of an equilateral triangle, than their
resultant will be zero as shown in figure because there is no room b/e the tail of first and head of last i.e. ⃗R =
⃗ + 𝐶 = 0. In this case the angle b/w any two vectors is 120 . (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
⃗A + B ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ o
⃗ ,B
Three vectors A ⃗ are added by head to tail rule.
⃗ and C
2.3:
⃗ lies in the xy plane. For what orientation will both of its rectangular components be negative? For
Vector 𝐀
what orientation will its components have opposite signs?
Ans:
(a) If the vector ⃗A lies in the 3rd quadrant then both of its rectangular components will be negative.
In the 3rd quadrant:
Ax = A cos θ
Ax = A cos(180o + ϕ)
Where ϕ is from 0o to 90o
Because cos(180o + ϕ) = −ve
So, Ax = A cos(180o + ϕ) = −ve -------------- (i)
Now, Ay = A sin θ
Ay = A sin(180o + ϕ)
Where ϕ is from 0o to 90o (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
sin(180o + ϕ) = −ve
Ay = A sin(180o + ϕ) = −ve ---------------(ii)
⃗ lies in the 2nd and 4th quadrant, then both of its rectangular
(b) If the vector A
components will have opposite signs.
In the 2nd quadrant:
Ax = A cos θ
Ax = A cos(180o − ϕ)
Because cos(180o − ϕ) = −ve
So, Ax = A cos(180o − ϕ) = −ve -------------- (iii)
Now, Ay = A sin θ
Ay = A sin(180o − ϕ)
Where ϕ is from 0o to 90o (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
sin(180o − ϕ) = +ve
Ay = A sin(180o − ϕ) = +ve ---------------(iv)
In the 4th quadrant:
Ax = A cos θ
Ax = A cos(360o − ϕ)
Because cos(360o − ϕ) = +ve
So, Ax = A cos(360o − ϕ) = +ve -------------- (v)
Now, Ay = A sin θ
Ay = A sin(360o − ϕ)
sin(360o − ϕ) = −ve
Ay = A sin(360o − ϕ) = −ve ---------------(vi)
2.4:
If one of the rectangular components of a vector is not zero, can its magnitude be zero? Explain.
Ans:
No, the magnitude of vector is not zero because the magnitude of vector is the sum of square root of the squared
values of its rectangular components. If a vector ⃗R has its rectangular components ⃗R x and ⃗R y , then the magnitude of
resultant is given by (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
R = √R x 2 + R y 2
Let R y = 0
Then R = √R x 2 + (0)2
R = Rx
So the magnitude of resultant vector will be equal to the magnitude of the other component if one of the components
is zero.
2.5: (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Can the magnitude of a vector have a negative value?
Ans:
No, the magnitude of a vector can never be negative quantity because the magnitude is obtained by taking the square
root of sum of squared values of its components i.e.
R = √R x 2 + R y 2
If one of the components or both are negative, even then the magnitude of resultant vector is not negative because
the square of negative term is positive. Secondly negative magnitude is a meaningless idea. (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Note: Negative sign with vectors is used only to represent the opposite direction of vector w.r.t. a given vector.
2.6:
Can a vector have a component greater than the vectors magnitude?
Ans:
The answer of this question has two possibilities.
Possibility I:
In case of rectangular components, the magnitude of components can never be greater than resultant vectors
magnitude because resultant itself is obtained by taking the square root of the sum of squared values of its
rectangular components i.e.
R = √R x 2 + R y 2 (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
The resultant magnitude is equal to the magnitude of the other component if one of the components is zero. For
example if R x = 0 then R = R y but it cannot be less than components magnitude.
Possibility II:
In case of components other than rectangular components, the magnitude of component or components may or may
not be greater than resultant, depending upon te angle b/w the component vectors.
For example figure shows two equal vectors ⃗A 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗B added by head to tail rule. Their resultant vector is ⃗R = ⃗A −
⃗ . from the figures it is clear that.
B
⃗ | < |A
|R ⃗|
⃗ | < |B
|R ⃗|
2.7:
If A + B = 0, what can you say about the components of the two vectors?
Ans:
According to the given condition,
If ⃗ +B
A ⃗ =0 ⃗ (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Then ⃗
A=−B ⃗
The above equation vector A and B are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
In the components form
Ax î + Ay ĵ = (Bx î + By ĵ)
Ax î + Ay ĵ = Bx î + By ĵ _____________________ (i)
Equation the co-efficient on both sides (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Ax î = Bx î ______________________________________ (ii)
Ay ĵ = By ĵ ______________________________________ (iii)
From eq. (ii) and (iii) it is clear that vectors A and B have their components
Also equal in magnitudes but opposite in their directions.
2.8:
Under what circumstances would a vector have components that are equal in magnitude?
Ans:
According to the given condition,
Ax = Ay
A cos θ = A sin θ
A cos θ
A sin θ
=1
tan θ = 1
θ = tan-1 (I)
θ = 45o (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
From the above calculation, it is clear that if a vector makes angle of 45o with x-axis then both f its rectangular
components will have equal magnitude.
2.9:
Is it possible to add a vector quantity to scalar quantity?
Ans:
No, it is not possible to add a vector quantity to a scalar quantity, because vectors have direction but scalars have no
direction. So, it is out of rule to add a vector in a scalar. Only like quantities are added i.e. forces are added in forces,
velocities are added in velocities and so on.
2.10:
Can you add zero to a null vector?
Ans:
No, we cannot add zero to a null vector because zero is a scalar but null vector is a vector and it is out of rule to add a
vector into a scalar. (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
2.11:
Two vectors have unequal magnitudes. Can their sum be zero?
Ans:
No, for two vectors having unequal magnitudes cannot have their sum equal to zero, because for the sum of two
vectors to be zero the following two conditions must be fulfilled.
i). The two vectors should have equal magnitudes.
ii). The two vectors should have opposite direction i.e. the angle between them should be 180o. (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
2.12:
Show that the sum and difference of two perpendicular vectors of equal length are also perpendicular and of
the same length.
Ans:
Given that: (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
(i) ⃗ ⊥B
A ⃗
(ii) ⃗
|A| = |B ⃗|
If the sum and difference of ⃗A and ⃗B is ⃗R1 = ⃗A + ⃗B and ⃗R 2 = ⃗A − ⃗B
Respectively then we have to prove that |R ⃗ 1 | = |R⃗ 2 |and R⃗1⊥R ⃗2
⃗ 𝟏|
Proof for |𝐑 = |⃗𝐑𝟐 |
As we know that;
|⃗R1 | = √A2 + B 2
⃗ | = |B
Put |A ⃗ | or A= B
⃗ 1 | = √A2 + A2
|R
⃗ 1 | = √2 A2
|R
⃗ 1 | = √2 A ------------------------------ (i)
|R
Similarly;
|⃗R2 | = √A2 + (−B)2 (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
|R⃗ 2| = √A2 + B2
⃗ ⃗
Put |A| = |B| or A= B
|R⃗ 2 | = √A2 + A2
|R⃗ 2 | = √2 A2
|⃗R2 | = √2 A ------------------------------- (ii)
From eq. (i) & (ii) it is clear that |R
⃗ 1 | is equal to |R
⃗ 2|
⃗⃗ 𝟏 ⊥ 𝐑
Proof for 𝐑 ⃗⃗ 𝟐 (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Firstly for θ1 ;
B
θ1 = tan−1 ( )
A
Put B = A
A
θ1 = tan−1 (A)
θ1 = tan−1 (1)
θ1 = 45o
Now for θ2 ;
B
θ2 = tan−1 ( )
A
Put B = A
A
θ2 = tan−1 (A)
θ2 = tan−1 (1)
θ2 = 45o
The angle between ⃗R1 & ⃗R 2 is θ
θ = θ1 + θ2
θ = 45o + 45o
θ = 90o ------------------------------ (iii)
From eq. (i), (ii) & (iii) it is clear that |R
⃗ 1 | = |R
⃗ 2 |and ⃗R1 ⊥ ⃗R 2
2.13:
How would the two vectors of same magnitude have to be oriented, if they were to be combined to give a
resultant equal to the vector of same magnitude?
Ans:
If two vectors A and B of equal magnitude are combined at an angle of 120o with each other, then their resultant
would have the same magnitude as that of A or B, as shown in figure.
Proof:
We are given that; (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
⃗ | = |A
|R ⃗ | = |B
⃗|
According to the formula for magnitude of resultant vector
R = √A2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ
Taking square on both sides
R2 = (√A2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ )2
R2 = A2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ
Put |R ⃗ | = |B
⃗ | = |A ⃗ | or R = A = B in above equation
A2 = A2 + A2 + 2AA cos θ
0 = A2 + 2A2 cos θ
−2A2 cos θ = A2
A2
cos θ = −2A2 (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
−1
θ = cos (−0.5)
θ = 120o
2.14:
The two vectors to be combined have magnitudes 60 N and 35 N. Pick the correct answer from those given
below and tell why it is only one of the three that is correct.
(i) 100 N (ii) 70 N (iii) 20 N
Ans:
When two vectors are added, the magnitude of their resultant has the minimum value equal to the simple difference
of their magnitudes and maximum value equal to the simple sum of their magnitudes i.e. the range of magnitude of
resultant of two vectors is from simple difference of magnitudes to the simple sum of magnitudes. (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
The range of 60 N and 35 N is from 25 N to 95 N, so; their resultant can never be 100 N and 20 N, because both of
these are out of range. The correct answer will be between 25 N to 95 N which is 70 N. The correct answer is option
(ii).
Proof: (A product of PAK ACADEMY)

The resultant of two forces is maximum when they act in the same direction.
For magnitude,
R = √F1 2 + F2 2 + 2F1 F2 cos θ
Put F1 = 60 N and F2 = 35 N and θ = 0o
R = √(60)2 + (35)2 + 2(60)(35) cos 0o
R = 95 N
Which is the maximum value of magnitude.
The resultant of two forces is minimum if they are in opposite direction. The magnitudes of the minimum resultant
will be equal to the difference of magnitudes of two forces.
In this case, (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
R = √F1 2 + F2 2 + 2F1 F2 cos θ
Put F1 = 60 N and F2 = 35 N and θ = 180o
R = √(60)2 + (35)2 + 2(60)(35) cos 180o
R = 25 N
Which is the minimum value of magnitude.
Hence, the sum cannot be less than 25 N and more than 95 N. Therefore; the only possible value for correct answer is
70 N.
2.15:
Suppose the sides of a closed polygon represent vector arranged head to tail. What is the sum of these
vectors? (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Ans:
The resultant vector would be zero when the vectors are arranged in the form of closed polygon, because there
would be no room between the tail of first to the head of last vector.
Hence,
⃗A + ⃗B + ⃗C + ⃗D + ⃗E = ⃗0
2.16(i):
Identify the correct answer.
Two ships X and Y are travelling in different direction at equal speeds. The actual direction of motion of X is
due north but to an observer on Y, the apparent direction of motion of X is north east. The actual direction of
motion of Y as observed from the shore will be
(a) East (b) West (c) South east (d) South west
Ans:
Ship Y moves toward west and observer in Y will see the ship X with angle 45 o with east west line. The relative
velocity of ship X with respect to ship Y is vx – v’x
Mathematically,
v’x = vx – vy (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
vy = vx – v’x
vy = vx + (– v’x)
from fig it is clear that correct option is B (west)
2.16 (ii):
A horizontal force F is applied to a small object P of mass m at rest on a smooth plane inclined at an angle 𝛉
to the horizontal as shown in figure. The magnitude of the resultant force acting up and along the surface of
the plane, on the object is
(a) F cos𝛉-mg sin𝛉 (b) F sin𝛉-mg cos𝛉 (c) F cos𝛉+mg cos𝛉 (d) F sin𝛉+mg sin𝛉 (e) mg tan𝛉
Ans:
The correct option is (a) F cosθ-mg sinθ.
In order to find the correct option, resolve weight mg and force F into there rectangular components. Components of
mg are mg sinθ which is along the length of plane and mg cosθ which is perpendicular to the plane of inclined plane.
The component mg sinθ is balanced by the component of force F cosθ and normal reaction force is balanced by the
vector sum of F sinθ and mg cosθ as shown in the figure.
Mathematically
F cosθ = mg sinθ
Or, F cosθ - mg sinθ = 0
And, Fn = F sinθ + mg cosθ
2.17:
⃗ 1 and A
If all the components of vectors A ⃗ 2 were reversed, how would this alter A
⃗ 1x A
⃗ 2?
Ans:
Firstly, for the magnitude of ⃗A1 x ⃗A2
|A⃗ 1x A
⃗ 2 | = A1 A2 sin θ ------------------------- (i)
The direction of A ⃗ 1x A
⃗ 2 is perpendicular to the plane of paper as shown
in figure (i)
(A product of PAK ACADEMY) Fig. (i)

If all the components of ⃗A1 and ⃗A2 are reversed then ⃗A1 and
⃗ 2 would become −A
A ⃗ 1 and −A ⃗ 2 respectively.
Secondly, for the magnitude of −A ⃗ 1 x − ⃗A2

|−A ⃗ 1 x −A
⃗ 2 | = A1 A2 sin θ ---------------------- (ii)
The direction of −A ⃗ 1 x − ⃗A2 is also perpendicular to the plane of paper as shown in
figure (ii)
Fig. (ii)
From eq. (i) & (ii) and fig. (i) & (ii) it is clear that if all the components of ⃗A1and ⃗A2 were reversed then it would not
effect A
⃗ 1x A
⃗ 2.
2.18:
⃗ 𝟏𝐱 𝐀
Name the three different conditions that would make 𝐀 ⃗.
⃗ 𝟐=𝟎
Ans:
Condition under which ⃗A1 x ⃗A2 = ⃗0 are
(i) ⃗ 𝟏 and 𝐀
When two vectors are parallel (𝛉 = 𝟎𝐨 between 𝐀 ⃗ 𝟐)
⃗A1 x ⃗A2 = A1 A2 sin θ n̂
⃗ 1 and A
If A ⃗ 2 are parallel
⃗A1 x ⃗A2 = A1 A2 sin ( 0o ) n̂
⃗A1 x ⃗A2 = A1 A2 ( 0) n̂ (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
⃗A1 x ⃗A2 = ⃗0
(ii) When two vectors are antiparallel (𝛉 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝐨 between 𝐀 ⃗ 𝟏 and 𝐀
⃗ 𝟐)
⃗A1 x ⃗A2 = A1 A2 sin θ n̂
⃗ 1 and A
If A ⃗ 2 are antiparallel
⃗A1 x ⃗A2 = A1 A2 sin (18 0o ) n̂
⃗A1 x ⃗A2 = A1 A2 ( 0) n̂
⃗A1 x ⃗A2 = ⃗0
(iii) ⃗ 𝟐 is a null vector
When one of the vectors is a null vector, say 𝐀
If A2 is a null vector, then mathematically;
⃗
⃗ 1x A
A ⃗ 2 = A1 (0) sin θ n̂
⃗ 1x A
A ⃗2=0 ⃗
2.19:
Identify true or false statements and explain the reason.
(a) A body in equilibrium implies that it is not moving nor rotating.
(b) If coplanar forces acting on a body form a closed polygon, then the body is said to be in equilibrium.
Ans:
(a) Statement (a) is false.
Because a body in equilibrium may be moving uniformly or rotating with uniform angular velocity such that it may
be in the state of dynamic equilibrium.
(b) Statement (b) is true.

When the forces acting on a body form a closed polygon then vector sum of these coplanar forces becomes zero
because there is no room between the tail of the first and head of the last.
Secondly, Σ τ is also zero because coplanar forces in a closed path cannot produce any rotation.
2.20:
A picture is suspended from a wall by two strings. Show by diagram the configuration of the strings for
which the tension in the string will be minimum.
For the configuration in which tension will be minimum,
Σ Fy = 0
T1 sin θ1 + T2 sin θ2 − w = 0
Where T1 = T2 = T because angles of two strings with x-axis should be same so,
T sin θ + T sin θ = w
2 T sin θ = w
w
T = 2sin θ
For minimum tension the value of sin θ should be maximum which is
sin θ = maximum
sin θ = 1
θ = sin−1 (1)
θ = 90o
The configuration is shown in the figure;
Value of minimum tension is:

w w
T = 2sin 90o = 2
2.21:
Can a body rotate about its center of gravity under the action of its weight?
Ans:
No, a body cannot rotate about its center of gravity under the action of its weight because the line of action of force
(weight) is passing through the pivot and moment arm is zero, hence no torque is produced and in the absence of
torque a body cannot have its rotational motion.

Numericals
Problem 2.1
⃗ has its tail at point P(-2,-3) and its tip at Q(3,9). Determine
Suppose, in a rectangular coordinate system, a vector 𝐀
distance between these two points.
Solution:
Let us consider O (0, 0) is the origin of reference axis where P (-2, -3) and Q (3, 9) are located on xy-plane, so:
∧ ∧
Position vector of point P, r̂p = −2i − 3j
∧ ∧
Position vector of point P, r̂Q = 3i + 9j
According to head to tail rule:
→
A = r̂Q − r̂p
By putting the values, we get;
→ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
A = (3i + 9j ) − (−2i − 3j )
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗A = 3i + 9j + 2i + 3j
∧ ∧
⃗A = 5i + 12j
Distance between P and Q is equal to magnitude of PQ or ⃗A , so
PQ = |A⃗| = √(5)2 + (12)2
=√25 + 144 = √169 = 13units
Problem 2.2
A certain corner of a room is selected as the origin of a rectangular coordinate system. If an insect is crawling on an
adjacent wall at a point having coordinates (2,1) where (A product of PAK ACADEMY) the units are in meters. What is the
distance of the insect from this corner of the room?
Solution:
Let us consider O(0,0) is origin and P(2,1) is the point of position of insect.
∧ ∧
Position vector of point P, r̂p = 2i + 1j
∧ ∧
Position vector of point O (origin), r̂O = 0i + 0j
Displacement between point ‘O’ and ‘P’, ⃗d = r̂p − r̂O
By putting the values, we get;
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗d = (2i + 1j ) − (0i + 0j )
∧ ∧
⃗ = 2i + 1j
d
⃗ ’ or distance of the insect from reference point is given as;
Magnitude of displacement ‘d
Distance of the insect from origin = √22 + 12 = √4 + 1 = √5 = 2.24m
Thus distance of insect from given corner of the room is 2.24m.
Problem 2.3
∧ ∧
⃗ = 𝟒𝐢 + 𝟑𝐣 .
What is the unit vector in the direction of the vector 𝐀
Solution:
∧ ∧
⃗A = 4i + 3j
∧
A =?
Using
∧ ∧
∧ ⃗A⃗ ∧ Ax i +Ay j
A= ⃗⃗
⇒A=
|A|
√Ax 2 +A2y
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
∧ 4i +3j 4i +3j 4i +3j 4i ++3j
A= = = =
√4 2 +32 √16+9 √25 5
Problem 2.4
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
Two particles are located at 𝐫⃗⃗⃗𝟏 = 𝟑𝐢 + 𝟕𝐣 and 𝐫⃗⃗⃗𝟐 = −𝟐𝐢 + 𝟑𝐣 respective. Find both the magnitude of the
vector (𝐫⃗⃗⃗𝟐 − ⃗⃗⃗
𝐫𝟏 )and its (A product of PAK ACADEMY) orientation with respective the x-axis.
Solution:
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
Here ⃗⃗⃗
r1 = 3i + 7j , r2 = −2i + 3j
⃗⃗⃗
⃗ is resultant of ⃗⃗⃗
Let R r1 & ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗
r2 i.e R r2 − ⃗⃗⃗
r1
∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗
R r2 − ⃗⃗⃗
r1 = (−2i + 3j) − (3i + 7)
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗
R r2 − ⃗⃗⃗
r1 = −2i + 3j − 3i − 7j
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗
R r2 − ⃗⃗⃗
r1 = −2i − 3i + 3j − 7j
∧ ∧
⃗R = ⃗⃗⃗
r2 − ⃗⃗⃗
r1 = −5i − 4j
R = √R2x + R2y
Magnitude:
⃗ | = |r⃗⃗⃗2 − ⃗⃗⃗
|R r1 | = √(−5)2 + (−4)2
= √25 + 16 = 6.4
Direction (angle with X-axis):
We know that;
Ry −4
ϕ = tan−1 (R ) = tan−1 (−5)
x
ϕ = tan−1 (0.8) = 38.65∘ ≈ 39∘
Since x & y components of ⃗R = ⃗⃗⃗
r2 − ⃗⃗⃗
r1 i.e.
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗
Resultant are negative, so R r2 − ⃗⃗⃗
r1 lies in third quadrant.
Thus,
θ = 180∘ + ϕ
θ = 180∘ + 39∘
θ = 219∘
Problem 2.5
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ is added to vector 𝐀
If a vector 𝐁 ⃗ , the resultant is 𝟔𝐣 + 𝐣 . If B is subtracted from A, the resultant is −𝟒𝐢 + 𝟕𝐣 . What
⃗.
is the magnitude of vector 𝐀
Solution: (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
It is given that
∧ ∧
⃗A + ⃗B = 6i + j …….(i)
∧ ∧
⃗A − ⃗B = −4i + 7j …… (ii)
Adding eq. (i) and (2)
∧ ∧
⃗A + ⃗B = 6i + j
∧ ∧
⃗A − ⃗B = −4i + 7j
∧ ∧
⃗ = 2i + 8j
2A
∧ ∧
⃗ = i + 4j
A
Now using
⃗ | = √A2x + A2y
|A
⃗ | = √12 + 42 = √17 = 4.1
|A
Problem 2.6
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = 𝟐𝐢 + 𝟑𝐣 and ⃗𝐁 = 𝟑𝐢 + 𝟒𝐣 . Find the magnitude and direction.
Given that 𝐀
(a) 𝐂=𝐀 ⃗ + ⃗𝐁 (b) ⃗𝐃 = 𝟑𝐀
⃗ − 𝟐𝐁⃗
Solution:
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = 2i + 3j andB
A ⃗ = 3i + 4j
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ =A
C ⃗ +B
⃗ = (2i + 3j ) + (3i − 4j )
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = 2i + 3j + 3i − 4j = 5i − j
C
a)
⃗ | = √Cx2 + Cy2 = √(5)2 + (−1)2
|C
⃗ | = √25 + 1 = √26
|C
⃗ | = 5.099 = 5.1
|C
Direction:
Using
C
ϕ = tan−1 (Cy )
x
−1
ϕ= tan−1 ( ) [Neglecting negative sign]
5
−1
ϕ = tan (0.2)
ϕ = 11. 3∘ ≈ 11∘
∴ y − comp. is" − " and x − comp. is" + "
→
C lies in 4th quadrant. Therefore
θ = 360 − ϕ
θ = 360 − 11
θ = 349∘
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
D ⃗ − 2B
⃗ = 3A ⃗ = 3(2i + 3j ) − 2(3i − 4j )
b) ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = 6i + 9j − 6i + 8j = 17j
D
Magnitude:
⃗ | = √D2x + D2y = √(0)2 + (17)2
|D
⃗ | = √(17)2 = 17
|D
Direction:
∧
⃗ = 17j shows that D
Value of D ⃗ is along positive y-axis i.e. at an angle of 90o with positive x-axis.
Dy 17
ϕ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 (∞)
Dx 0
ϕ = 90∘
θ = ϕ = 90∘
Problem 2.7
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = 𝟓𝐢 + 𝐣 , 𝐁
Find the angle between the two vectors. 𝐀 ⃗ = 𝟐𝐢 + 𝟒𝐣

∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗A = 5i + j and ⃗B = 2i + 4j
We know that;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗A. ⃗B = ABcosθ ⇒ cosθ = A.B
AB
⃗A
⃗ .B
⃗⃗
θ= cos−1 ( )
AB
Ax Bx +Ay By+Ax Bx
θ = cos−1 [ ]
√A2x +A2y +A2z √B2x +B2y +B2z
Here Ax = 5, Ay = 1 , Az = 0
& Bx = 2 By = 4 , Bz = 0
Therefore,
(5)(2)+(1)(4)+(0)(0)
θ = cos−1 [ ]
√52 +12 +02 √22 +4 2 +02
10+4+0 14
θ= cos−1 [ 26 20 ] = cos−1 26×20
√ √ √
14
θ= cos−1 ( ) = cos−1 (0.62) = 52∘
22.8
Problem 2.8
∧ ∧
Find the work done when the point of application of force 𝟑𝐢 + 𝟐𝐣 moves in a straight line form the point (2,-1) to the
point (6,4).
Solution:
∧ ∧
Here ⃗F = 3i + 2j
Let P(2,-1) & Q (6,4) forms ⃗d(displacement )
∧ ∧
⃗d = PQ
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (x2 − x1 )i + (y2 − y1 )j
∧ ∧
⃗ = [6 − 2]i + [4 − 4(−1)]j
D
∧ ∧
⃗ = 4i + 5j
d
Now using
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
W = ⃗F. ⃗d = (3i + 2j ). (4i + 5j )
W = (3)(4) + (2)(5) = 12 + 10 = 22
W = 22units
Problem 2.9
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
Show that the three vectors 𝐢 + 𝐣 + 𝐤, 𝟐𝐢 − 𝟑𝐣 + 𝐤and 𝟒𝐢 + 𝐣 − 𝟓𝐤are mutually perpendicular.
∧ ∧ ∧
Let ⃗ = i + j +k
A
∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = 2i − 3j + k
B
∧ ∧ ∧
⃗C = 4i + j − 5k
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗A. ⃗B = (i + j + k). (2i − 3j + k)
⃗ .B
A ⃗ = (1)(2) + (1)(−3) + (1)(1) = 2 − 3 + 1 = 0
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ .C
B ⃗ = (2i − 3j + k). (4i + j − 5k)
⃗B. ⃗C = (2)(4) + (−3)(1) + (1)(−5) = 8 − 3 − 5 = 0
⃗B. ⃗C = 0
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ . A = (4i + j − 5k). (i + j + k)
C
⃗ . A = (4)(1) + (1)(1) + (−5(1) = 4 + 1 − 5 = 0
C
Thus
⃗ .B
A ⃗ = 0 shows A⃗ ⊥B ⃗
⃗B. ⃗C = 0 shows ⃗B ⊥ ⃗C
⃗⃗⃗ A
C. ⃗ = 0 shows C⃗ ⊥A⃗ , hence, A
⃗ ,B ⃗ are ⊥ to each other
⃗ ,C
Problem 2.10
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = 𝐢 − 𝟐𝐣 + 𝟑𝐤and 𝐁
Given that 𝐀 ⃗ = 𝟑𝐢 − 𝟒𝐤, find the length of the projection of A on B.
Solution:
∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = i − 2j + 3k
A
∧ ∧
⃗ = 3i − 4k
B
Projection of ⃗A and = ⃗B = A cosθ=? Using
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗ = ABcosθ ⇒ A.B = Acosθ
⃗ .B
A B
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗A
⃗ .B
⃗⃗ (i −2j +3k).(3i −4k)
Acosθ = =
B √(3)2 +(0)2 +(−4)2
(1)(3)+(−2)(0)+(3)(−4)
Acosθ =
√9+0+16
3+0−12 9
Acosθ = = −5
√25
Problem 2.11
⃗ , ⃗𝐁 & 𝐂 are 4 units North, 3 units west and 8 units east respectively. Describe carefully.
Vectors 𝐀
⃗ ×𝐁
(a) 𝐀 ⃗ (b) ⃗ ×𝐂
𝐀 (c) ⃗ ×𝐂
𝐁
Solution:
Here ⃗A = 4 units , ⃗B = 3units west , ⃗C = 8 units east.

(a)
⃗A = ⃗B =?
∧
⃗A = ⃗B = ABsinθn
∧
⃗A = ⃗B = (4)(3)sin90∘ n
∧
⃗ =B
A ⃗ = 12n
∧
According to right hand rule nis vertically up
⃗A × ⃗B = 12units vertically up.
(b) (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
⃗A × ⃗C =?
∧ ∧
⃗A × ⃗C = ACsinθn = (4)(8)sin90n
∧
⃗ ×C
A ⃗ = 32n32units vertically down.
(c)
⃗ =?
⃗ ×C
B
∧ ∧
⃗ = BCsinθn = (8)(3)sin180∘ n
⃗ ×C
B
∧
⃗B × ⃗C = (24)(0)n = 0
Problem 2.12
The torque or turning of force about a given point is given by 𝐫 × 𝐅, where 𝐫is the vector from given point to the
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
point of application of 𝐅. Consider a fore 𝐅 = −𝟑𝐢 + 𝐣 + 𝟓𝐤 (newton) acting on the point 𝟕𝐢 + 𝟑𝐣 + 𝐤 (m). what is the
torque in N m about the origin?
Solution:
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = −3i + j + 5k
r = 7i + 3j + k, F
∧ ∧ ∧
i j k
r = r × ⃗F = |7 3 1|
−3 1 5
∧ 3 1 ∧ 7 ∧
1 7 3
= i| | −j | | + k| |
1 5 −3 5 −3 1
∧ ∧ ∧
= i (15 − 1) − j (38) + k(16)
∧ ∧ ∧
= i (14) − j (38) + k(16)
∧ ∧ ∧
= 14i − 38j + 16k(Nm)
Problem 2.13
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
The line of action of force 𝐅 = 𝐢 − 𝟐𝐣 , passes through a point whose position vector is −𝐣 + 𝐤. Find (a) the moment
∧ ∧
arm of F about origin. (b) the moment of F about the point of which the position vector is 𝐢 + 𝐤.
Solution:
∧ ∧
r = −j + k
∧ ∧
⃗F = i − 2j
Moment of force is given as;
∧ ∧ ∧
i j k
⃗ = τ⃗ = r × F
F ⃗ =|
0 −1 1|
1 −2 0
∧ −1 1 ∧ 0 ∧
1 0 −1
= i| |− j| | + k| |
−2 0 1 0 1 −2
∧ ∧ ∧
= i (0 + 2) − j (0 − 1) + k(0 + 1)
∧ ∧ ∧
= 2i + j + k
(b) Let O′is the point about which torque is tue determined
r1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OP and r1 = OO′
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
Here ⃗⃗⃗
r1 = −j + k, ⃗⃗⃗ r2 = i + k
For moment, about point O′as origin (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
r1 = O′P = O′O + OP
⃗⃗⃗
= −OO′ + OP
r = −r⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗
r1
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
r = ⃗⃗⃗
r1 − ⃗⃗⃗
r2 = (−j + k) − (i + k)
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
r = −j + k − i − k
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
⃗ = i − 2j
r = −j − i = −i − j , F
⃗
τ⃗ = r × F
Moment of force
∧ ∧ ∧
i j k
= τ⃗ = r × ⃗F = |−1 −1 0|
1 −2 0
∧ −1 0 ∧ −1 ∧
0 −1 −1
= i| |− j| |+k| |
−2 0 1 0 1 2
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
= i (0 − 0) − j (0 − 0) + k(2 + 1) = 3k
Problem 2.14
Magnitude of dot & cross-product of two vectors are 𝟔√𝟑and 6 respectively. Find the angle between the vectors.
Solution:
Given ⃗A. ⃗B = 6√3, |A

⃗ ×B⃗ | = 6 to find θ=?
Using |A⃗ ×B ⃗ | = ABsinθ
6 = ABsinθ ……….(i)
Also ⃗ .B
|A ⃗ | = ABsinθ
6√3 = ABcosθ ……….(ii)
Dividing (i) by (ii)
6 ABsinθ 1
6√3
= ABcosθ ⇒ = tanθ
√3
1
θ = tan−1 ( ) = 30∘
√3
Problem 2.15
A load of 10N is suspended from a cloth line which makes an angle 15o with horizontal. Find the tension in cloth line.
Solution:
Given W=10N , θ =15o

To find T=?
Resolving the tension vector on both sides as shown in fig
Upward forces are T sin θ& T sin θ
Downward force is W
According to 1st condition of equilibrium ∑ Fy = 0
T sin θ+T sin θ-W=0
2T sin θ-W=0
W 10 10
T = 2sinθ = 2sin15∘ = 2(2588) = 19.3N
(A product of PAK ACADEMY) 


Chapter No. 2 First Year Notes

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Chapter No. 2 First Year Notes

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Lecture Notes on Physics by Usman Danish Class: First Year Chapter No.

Types on the basis of direction

Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, torque, momentum, etc.

A vector can be represented in there ways.

ii) Components form:-

Graphically a vector can be represented by a line and arrow head drawn in a

➢ Length of the line, on a suitable scale, represents magnitude of vector. θ

RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM

2–D RCS 3–D RCS A vector in 3-D space

ADDITION OF VECTORS OR VECTOR ADDITION

Graphically vectors can be added by head to tail rule.

We can add infinite number of vectors by using head to tail rule.

Vector subtraction is non-commutative i.e. in subtraction order of vectors does matter.

Scalar Product Vector Product

❖ Magnitude of vector changes ❖ Magnitude of vector changes

➢ Unit vector î indicates /represents direction along x-axis.

Unit vector is used to indicate / represent direction of a vector.

Here, ⃗A and ⃗B are perpendicular vectors.

The effective value of a vector in particular direction is called component of a vector.

Rectangular components of a Vector:-

Resolution of a Vector into its rectangular components:-

X-component of the vector:-

DETERMINATION OF A VECTOR FROM ITS RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS

We can determine a vector from its rectangular Components.

In ∆OPM, by using Pythagoras theorem;

Direction of resultant vector:-

Symbolically position vector is represented by r.

i) 2-D position vector:

Its magnitude is given as: b r

ii) 3-D position vector: z P (a, b, c)

VECTOR ADDITION BY THEIR RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS

Working steps / Procedure:-

X-component of resultant vector:-

From fig. it is clear that;

Or ⃗⃗⃗⃗x = (Ax + Bx )î

Y-component of resultant vector:-

Again from fig. it is clear that;

Or ⃗⃗⃗⃗y = (Ay + By )ĵ

Resultant vector can be written as;

Magnitude of resultant vector:-

Direction of resultant vector:-

Direction of resultant vector is given as;

In case of more than two given vectors,

Determination of final angle:-

Scalar product of two vectors is a scalar quantity.

Mathematically scalar product of two vectors ⃗A & ⃗B is given as

⃗A . ⃗B =  ⃗A ⃗B cos θ

⃗A . ⃗B = (Magnitude of ⃗A) (Projection of ⃗B along ⃗A)

Few example of scalar product are:

Characteristics of scalar product:-

In scalar product, order of multiplication of vectors does not matter.

Hence scalar product of two vectors is commutative.

(ii) Scalar product of parallel vectors:-

(iii) Scalar product of anti-parallel vectors:-

(v) Scalar product of a self-vector:-

Scalar product of A ⃗ with itself is given as:

(vi) Scalar product of self-unit vector:-

Scalar product of unit vector î with itself is given as:

Scalar product of perpendicular unit vectors î and ĵ is given as:

1) Scalar product obeys commutative law.

Vector product of two vectors is a vector quantity.

Vector product of two vectors ⃗A and ⃗B is given as;

Direction of resultant vector:-