EL107 Modules

MODULE TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF MACROSKILLS
Topic 5: Comprehension
Story Grammar: A Structural Approach to Facilitate Comprehension
This reading comprehension strategy was designed to provide students with a strategic
plan for selecting important aspects of story information for further study by asking
themselves the five “wh” questions.
Stage 1: Develop and Activate Background Knowledge
Prior to teaching the strategy, it is necessary to evaluate the student‟s background

knowledge. Using this in a classroom where the teacher is familiar with the students and
their reading abilities will provide a lot of this information. Formal or informal
assessments can be used to determine what skills the students possess and what skills
they lack; doing a task analysis will provide the information for identifying the skills
necessary to successfully complete the strategy.
Stage 2: Discuss the Strategy
This stage is the first stage in „initiating‟ the strategy. In this stage it is important to be up
front and open with the students about what you are doing and why it is to their benefit
to learn the strategy. It is important to stress the relevance of reading. Brainstorm with
the students any possible situations where reading stories accurately is important.
“When would it be important for you to read a story accurately?”
 For a test
 For an assignment
 Making an informed decision
 Learning more about something or someone of interest to you
 Enjoyment
 To gain information for enrichment
 Be able to answer comprehension
questions and get work completed
so you don‟t miss recess
 Get work done quicker and better
so you don‟t have homework
Stage 3: Model the Strategy
A wall chart will serve as a guide during

the modeling process. Cue cards will also
be provided so that each student will have
their own personal reminder of the
strategy prompts. The teacher will need to
use a “think aloud“ to demonstrate the use
of the strategy. The teacher will use a
graphic organizer (see figure 1) when
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modeling the process to show the students how to organize the information they marked
with their sticky tabs.
Stage 4: Support the Strategy
Memorizing the strategy is extremely important! We want the students to focus on the
task and not on the steps of the strategy. The activities themselves are not important.
The important part is whether or not they facilitate memorization. To begin students may
use their prompt cards to assist them in committing the strategy to memory.
Memorization Activities
1) Pair up and recite the stages with a partner, explaining what needs to be answered or
what each question is asking for.
2) Students will make their own cue cards with the strategy steps on them. The teacher
will make sure that all steps are complete and accurate.
3) Memory Circle – Students form a circle around one person. The person in the middle
calls out the “wh” word part of the prompt, and points to someone who has 5 seconds to
accurately state the rest of the question. If they don‟t get done within the 5 seconds then
they go to the middle.
4) Students will be prompted during various times of the day to recite different questions
in the strategy, and will be rewarded for correct responses.
Stage 5: Support the Strategy
In this stage scaffolding is important. With scaffolding it is possible for a gradual transfer
of strategy performance from teacher to student. This is possibly the most critical part of
the process; students need to be given adequate time and support to master the
strategy.
With teacher direction students will, as a class, read a story and answer the questions
using the story grammar strategy. The teacher will continue to model the use of the
strategy, sticky tabs, and graphic organizer. During this time the teacher can encourage
student participation by asking for input at appropriate times so that they begin to use
the strategy on their own.
Students will initially be put into pairs assigned by the teacher. This will allow them to
consult with others while reading and using the strategy. Students will be paired
according to their strengths and weaknesses, as well as their ability to work together.
To know more about Story Grammar please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K1jhUkwfmto
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Cloze Procedure Technique for the Improvement of Reading Comprehension
Cloze procedure is a technique in which words are deleted

from a passage according to a word-count formula or various
other criteria. The passage is presented to students, who
insert words as they read to complete and construct meaning
from the text. This procedure can be used as a diagnostic
reading assessment technique
Purpose of Cloze Procedure

It is used:
 to identify students' knowledge and understanding of the reading process
 to determine which cueing systems readers effectively employ to construct
meaning from print
 to assess the extent of students' vocabularies and knowledge of a subject
 to encourage students to monitor for meaning while reading
 to encourage students to think critically and analytically about text and content
To prepare materials for Cloze exercises, any of the following techniques may be
used:
1. Select a self-contained passage of a length appropriate for the grade level of the
students being assessed. Use materials easily read by the students.
2. Leave the first and last sentences and all punctuation intact.
3. Carefully select the words for omission using a word-count formula, such as every
fifth word or other criteria. To assess students' knowledge of the topic or their abilities to
use semantic cues, delete content words which carry meaning, such as nouns, main
verbs, adjectives and adverbs. To assess students' use of syntactic cues, delete some
conjunctions, prepositions and auxiliary words.
4. When preparing the final draft of the passage, make all blanks of equal length to
avoid including visual clues about the lengths
of omitted words.
5. Have the students read the entire passage
before they fill in the blanks.
6. Encourage the students to fill each blank if
possible.
7. Although there should be no time limit for
this exercise, the time necessary for
completion should be noted.
8. Suggest that students reread the completed
passage.
To know more about the Cloze Procedure Techniques please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hnxQw1GPXBs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qHyOssnhlmk
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Improving Comprehension through Semantic Webbing
Freedman and Reynolds (1980) define semantic webbing or mapping as a process of

organizing and integrating information that underlies many theories of conceptual
thinking. As a technique it is an effective way for teachers to organize and integrate with
the teacher‟s help. The resulting visual display – or semantic web – represents the
categories and relationships constructed from the story content and from the student‟s
related knowledge and theories about the world.
What are the components of a basic model?

There are four: The core question, the web strands, the strand supports, and the strand
ties.
 The core question is the focus of the web and the purpose of the inquiry. It is
chosen by the teacher. All information and ideas generated for the web by the
students are related to the core question. For example: Who are the characters
in the story “The Adarna Bird”? (Abelardo et. al., 1978).
 Web strands are the answers which students given to the core question. In our
example above, there are seven strands, one for each character in the story –
the king, the queen, the three princes Don Pedro, Don Diego, and Don Juan, the
old cripple, and the adarna bird.
 Strand supports are facts, inferences, and generalizations that students take
from the story to give clarity and validity to the strands and to differentiate one
from the other. Again, using “The Adarna Bird”, we find that the important strand
supports for the king are: a good ruler, was very sick, and had a strange malady
which could be cured only by the sweet songs of the adarna bird.
 Strand ties are the relationships that strands have for each other. In the same
selection two strand ties important for the meaning of the story are that the king
and queen are both rulers of the kingdom and that they are the parents of three
princes – Don Pedro, Don Diego, and Don Juan. A strand tie is also a means of
characterization, i.e., it shows that the two elder brothers are proud, selfish, cruel,
and rude whereas the youngest is exactly the opposite.
What are the basic steps in the semantic webbing process?

 Set a purpose for reading which encourages the students to use a specific
reading thinking strategy. Also decide what part of the story they will read.
Prepare a table of selected reading-thinking strategies (RTS) that you want to
develop and the reading units (RU) that may be used with each strategy.
 Formulate a core question based in the reading-thinking strategy and the reading
unit.
 Elicit from the students possible answers to the core question.
 Build the web strand with the students‟ support.
 Guide the students in relating the strands.
 Apply the web: to set purposes for further reading of the same story, for
constructing other webs for the same story or for other stories, or for bringing to
life through art, drama, or role playing other activities that relate web concepts to
other knowledge and experiences
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Reading-Thinking Strategies:
 Skimming for main ideas
 Scanning for details
 Using the table of contents
 Finding meanings in the glossary
 Describing characters
 Discovering meanings through context clues
 Giving synonyms and antonyms
 Determining sequence
 Showing cause-and-effect relationships
 Summarizing
 Outlining
To know more about Semantic Reading please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OGg8A2zfWKg
https://cehs.unl.edu/documents/secd/csi/sgrammar.pdf
https://diosa859.wordpress.com/2016/04/05/improving-comprehension-
through-semantic-webbing/
https://www.chino.k12.ca.us/cms/lib8/CA01902308/Centricity/Domain/22
43/Cloze%20Procedure.pdf
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Topic 4: Reading Strategies for Specific Purposes

Reading Readiness Period
Reading Strategies for Specific Purposes
General Instructional Activities
To correspond with a typical reading lesson,

comprehension strategy instruction can be organized
into a three-part framework, with specific activities
used before, during, and after reading.
Providing instruction such as the following example allows students to see, learn,
and use a variety of comprehension strategies as they read. Note, however, that the
framework is a general one and represents an array of strategies. All of the strategies in
this framework do not have to be used with every text or in every reading situation.
Before Reading
Before reading, the teacher may:

 Motivate students through activities that may increase their interest
(book talks, dramatic readings, or displays of art related to the text),
making the text relevant to students in some way.
 Activate students' background knowledge important to the content
of the text by discussing what students will read and what they
already know about its topic and about the text organization.
Students, with some help from the teacher, may:

 Establish a purpose for reading.
 Identify and discuss difficult words, phrases, and concepts in the text.
 Preview the text (by surveying the title, illustrations, and unusual text structures)
to make predictions about its content.
 Think, talk, and write about the topic of the text.
During Reading
During reading, the teacher may:
 Remind students to use comprehension strategies as they read
and to monitor their understanding.
 Ask questions that keep students on track and focus their
attention on main ideas and important points in the text.
 Focus attention on parts in a text that require students to make
inferences.
 Call on students to summarize key sections or events.
 Encourage students to return to any predictions they have made before reading
to see if they are confirmed by the text.
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 Determine and summarize important ideas and supportive details.
 Make connections between and among important ideas in the text.
 Integrate new ideas with existing background knowledge.
 Ask themselves questions about the text.
 Sequence events and ideas in the text.
 Offer interpretations of and responses to the text.
 Check understanding by paraphrasing or restating important and/or difficult
sentences and paragraphs.
 Visualize characters, settings, or events in a text.
After Reading
After reading, the teacher may:
 Guide discussion of the reading.

 Ask students to recall and tell in their own words important parts
of the text.
 Offer students opportunities to respond to the reading in various
ways, including through writing, dramatic play, music, readers'
theatre, videos, debate, or pantomime.

 Evaluate and discuss the ideas encountered in the text.
 Apply and extend these ideas to other texts and real life situations.
 Summarize what was read by retelling the main ideas.
 Discuss ideas for further reading.
To know more about Reading Strategies please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7BW9gv_OkU
Activities and Procedures for Use with Narrative

Texts
The following are some examples of specific procedures

that you can use to help students improve their
comprehension of narrative texts.
Retelling
Retelling involves having students orally reconstruct a

story that they have read.
Retelling requires students to activate their knowledge of how stories work and apply it
to the new reading. As part of retelling, students engage in ordering and summarizing
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information and in making inferences. The teacher can use retelling as a way to assess
how well students comprehend a story, then use this information to help students
develop a deeper understanding of what they have read.
The teacher uses explicit instruction, explaining why retelling is useful, modeling the
procedure, giving students opportunities to practice, and providing feedback. As the
following chart shows, students' retellings should become more detailed as they
become better readers.
Types of Retelling
Simple retelling
The student can:
 identify and retell the beginning, middle, and end
of a story in order.
 describe the setting.
 identify the problem and the resolution of a
problem.
More complete retelling

The student can:
 identify and retell events and facts in a
sequence.
 make inferences to fill in missing information.
 identify and retell causes of actions or events
and their effects.
Most complete retelling

The student can:
 identify and retell a sequence of actions or
events.
 make inferences to account for events or actions.
 offer an evaluation of the story.
To know more about the Retelling please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lqk-MneY2pM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XeSq2ylLk6o
Story Maps
Story maps are visual representations of the elements that make up a narrative.
The purpose of a story map is to help students focus on the important elements of
narratives-theme, characters, settings, problems, plot events, and resolution-and on the
relationship among those elements.
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Story maps to be used with younger students can be

very simple-like the one that follows. These maps focus on a
single element, such as the sequence of a simple plot.
With older students, the maps can be more
complicated, focusing on several elements. As with retellings,
the teacher uses explicit instruction to introduce the
procedure, explaining why story maps are useful, then
modeling the procedure, giving students opportunities to
practice, and providing feedback.
Simple Story Map

Story Title:
BEGINNING ⇒ MIDDLE ⇒ END
(The story starts when-) (After that-) (The story ends-)
Story Frames
Similar to story maps, story frames are visual representations that focus students'
attention on the structure of a story and on how the content of the story fits its structure.
Students use story frames as a way to activate their background knowledge of the
elements of story structure and thus to organize and learn new information from a story.
Simple story frames require students to provide basic information about the sequence of
events in a story:
The problem in the story is ______.
This is a problem because ______.
The problem is solved when ______.
In the end ______.
More complex frames might involve having students supply more detailed
information by summarizing sequences of actions or events, or providing factual
information to explain problems or motivations.
The procedure encourages students to interact with each other, asking
questions, seeking clarifications, and sharing evaluations. Again, as with story maps,
the procedure can be simplified for use with younger
students — it has been used successfully with grade-
one students *— or made more sophisticated for use
with older students.
And again, as with the other procedures that
have been described, the procedure is introduced
through explicit instruction, with the teacher first
explaining why story frames are useful, then
modeling when and where to use them, guiding
students through practice opportunities, and
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providing corrective feedback along the way.
Directed Reading and Thinking Activity (DRTA)
This procedure focuses on reading as a thinking process. Its intent is to teach

children to make predictions throughout reading. Before reading, the teacher asks
students to form a purpose for reading and to make predictions about the content of the
story to be read.
During reading, the teacher stops students at strategic points in the story to ask
students to make additional predictions and to verify, reject, or modify their purposes
and predictions.
After reading, the teacher asks students to find and read aloud any part of the
text that supports their predictions. Students
must use the text to explain their reasoning
and to prove the accuracy-or inaccuracy-of
their predictions.
Often teachers have students use charts such
as the following to record their predictions and
information from the text that proves the
prediction's accuracy:
I Predict Proof from the Text
To know more about Directed Reading and Thinking Strategies please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0x2fhPydzU
Activities and Procedures for Use with Expository Text
The following are some procedures teachers use to help students improve their
comprehension of expository texts.
K-W-L
The purpose of the K-W-L procedures is to help students become good readers by
learning to do the things that good readers do. Specifically it helps students learn to
activate their background knowledge and to set purposes for reading.
KWL stands for determining What I Know, What I Want to Learn, and reviewing What I
Have Learned. The following chart shows the steps in each part of the procedure:
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What I Know What I Want To Learn What I Learned
Students discuss what they Students discuss what After reading the text, students
already know about a topic in the they want to learn from discuss what they learned
text they will be reading. The reading the text and from it. They next write what
teacher has students list ideas write down specific they learned and answer s t u
and concepts related to the topic, questions that they d e n t - g e n e r a t e d
then has them organize their think may be answered questions about topics that
ideas into broad categories. in the text. were addressed in the text.
As they confirm the information in the Know column of the chart, students relate
new information gained from their reading to knowledge they already have. As they
generate questions for the Want column, they learn to set their own purposes for
reading. Further, because they are reading to answer their own questions, students are
more likely actively to monitor their comprehension. By putting information in their own
words for the Learned column, students better
understand what they know and what they do
not know. Proceeding through these steps
reinforces students' learning from text, involves
them in doing what good readers do, and
teaches them about their own reading
processes.
To know more about KWL Strategies please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nAr7F7iDYIg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PvF0ON4olOc
Questioning the Author

The Questioning the Author procedure involves
discussion, strategy instruction, and self-explanation. It
encourages students to reflect on what the author of a
selection is trying to say so as to build a mental
representation from that information. Teacher and students
work collaboratively, reading to resolve confusion and to
understand the meaning of the text.
Focusing on a segment of text, the students respond to teacher questions such as the
following:
 What is the author trying to say?
 What does the author mean by this?
 Why is the author saying this?
 What is the author getting at?
Through modeling, the teacher helps students to understand that some parts of a
text can cause confusion and hinder comprehension. The teacher then discusses with
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students what they can do when comprehension problems occur. Students learn to
"grapple" with text by emulating the teacher's questioning techniques.
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal Teaching is the name for a teaching procedure that is best described
as a dialogue between the teacher and students. "Reciprocal" means simply that each
person involved in the dialogue acts in response to the others. The dialogue focuses on
a segment of a text the group is reading and is structured by the use of four
comprehension strategies:
 asking questions,
 clarifying difficult words and ideas,
 summarizing what has been read, and
 predicting what might come next.
The teacher first models and explains how to

apply a comprehension strategy, then gradually turns
over the activity to the students. As the students become
more competent, the teacher requires their participation
at increasingly more challenging levels.
Reciprocal Teaching provides students with
opportunities to observe the value of applying strategies
in their "real" reading. In addition, it allows the teacher to
identify problems individual students might have in using
strategies and to provide instruction that is geared to
individual needs.
To know more about Reciprocal Teaching please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wKA3dWc7J4
Transactional Strategy Instruction

Transactional Strategy Instruction (TSI) is a procedure that involves teaching
students to construct meaning as they read by emulating good readers' use of
comprehension strategies.
TSI helps students (1) set goals and plan for reading, (2) use background knowledge
and text cues to construct meaning during reading, (3) monitor comprehension, (4)
solve problems encountered during reading, and (5) evaluate progress. To accomplish
these tasks, students are taught to use a set of reading strategies. The strategies
typically include:
 predicting based on prior-knowledge activation,
 generating and asking questions,
 clarifying,
 visualizing,
 relating background knowledge to text content, and
 summarizing.
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Instruction occurs in small-group settings, with

the strategies used as vehicles to coordinate
dialogue about text as students read aloud. In
their groups, students are encouraged to relate a
text to their background knowledge, to summarize
text, to describe any mental images they make
during reading, and to predict what might happen
next in the text. As students read aloud, they
engage in and exchange individual interpretations
of and responses to the reading.
The I-Chart Procedure
The I-Chart Procedure is a technique that promotes critical thinking by

encouraging students to apply reading strategies to learn from content-area texts.
The procedure is organized into three phases: Planning, Interacting, Integrating

and Evaluating. Students begin the Planning phase by using content-area texts to
identify a topic of study. They then generate questions they want to answer as they
read. Next, they construct a large chart, similar to the following, on which to record
information as they gather it. They complete the Planning phase by collecting materials
about the topic.
Teacher Questions and Student Questions

Other
Topic 1 2 3 4 Other Interesting Facts/Figures
Questions
What we
know
1
Sources
2
Summary
In the Interacting phase, students record their background knowledge of the

topic, as well as other information they might gather. In addition, the teacher elicits and
records relevant student questions. Finally, the students read and discuss, with teacher
guidance, the sources of information.
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In the final phase, Integrating and Evaluating, students make summaries for each
question on the chart, incorporating information they have gathered. Next, they compare
their summaries with background knowledge, clarify statements as necessary, and
discuss new knowledge they have acquired. Finally, they locate new information to
address any unanswered questions and report their findings to the group.
In this procedure, the teacher directs and models the phases of the procedure.
Gradually, however, the teacher releases responsibility for managing the procedure to
students. The goal is for the reader to satisfactorily apply these comprehension
strategies independently.
Reading Readiness Period
Keep in mind:
“The goal of reading is not just for a child to distinguish the sounds of the letters, or to
comprehend in the given text, but it must be a combination of the two.”
Reading readiness skills are those abilities necessary for a person to begin the process
of learning to read.
This includes:
• phonemic awareness/ alphabetic principle
• teaching a child how to handle a book properly
• Understanding and interpreting illustrations/ Visual discrimination
How do you know if a child is ready to read?

-Curiosity
-Imitation
-Attempting to sound-out the words
3 Levels of Comprehension:
Literal- Reading the lines
Inferential- Reading between the lines
Critical/ Creative Reading- Reading beyond the lines
Activities to help develop children’s reading skills:

 Read to your pupils as much as you can.
 Provide your pupils with a variety of interactive activities.
 Teach your pupils the letters of the alphabet.
 Teach sight words - a few at a time. (DOLCH’S LIST)
 After your child knows most of the sounds of the alphabet, begin to teach
blending.
 Practice making new words by substituting one letter for another (cat, rat, bat).
 Teach letter combinations such as ck and th.
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Physiological Factors
• Visual
• Auditory
• Speech Impairments
Psychological Factors
• Interest
• Intelligence
• Reading Readiness
• Attitude towards reading
• Teacher-related factors
https://www.readingrockets.org/article/strategies-promote-comprehension
https://www.slideshare.net/junniesalud/reading-readiness-stage-developmental-
reading
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Topic 3: Concepts, Theories and Principles of Vocabulary and Reading

Comprehension
The Importance of Vocabulary Development
According to Steven Stahl (2005), ―Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the

knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into
the world.‖ We continue to develop vocabulary throughout our lives. Words are
powerful. Words open up possibilities, and of course, that’s what we want for all of our
students.
Differences in Early Vocabulary Development

We know that young children acquire vocabulary indirectly, first by listening when others
speak or read to them, and then by using words to talk to others. As children begin to
read and write, they acquire more words through understanding what they are reading
and then incorporate those words into their speaking and writing.
Vocabulary knowledge varies greatly among learners. The word knowledge gap
between groups of children begins before they enter school. Why do some students
have a richer, fuller vocabulary than some of their classmates?
 Language rich home with lots of verbal stimulation

 Wide background experiences
 Read to at home and at school
 Read a lot independently
 Early development of word consciousness
Why do some students have a limited, inadequate vocabulary

compared to most of their classmates?
 Speaking/vocabulary not encouraged at home

 Limited experiences outside of home
 Limited exposure to books
 Reluctant reader
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 Second language—English language learners
Children who have been encouraged by their parents to ask questions and to learn
about things and ideas come to school with oral vocabularies many times larger than
children from disadvantaged homes. Without intervention this gap grows ever larger as
students proceed through school (Hart and Risley, 1995).
How Vocabulary Affects Reading Development
From the research, we know that vocabulary supports reading development and
increases comprehension. Students with low vocabulary scores tend to have low
comprehension and students with satisfactory or high vocabulary scores tend to have
satisfactory or high comprehension scores.
The report of the National Reading Panel states that the complex process of
comprehension is critical to the development of children’s reading skills and cannot be
understood without a clear understanding of the role that vocabulary development and
instruction play in understanding what is read (NRP, 2000).
Chall’s classic 1990 study showed that students with low vocabulary
development were able to maintain their overall reading test scores
at expected levels through grade four, but their mean scores for word
recognition and word meaning began to slip as words became more
abstract, technical, and literary. Declines in word recognition and
word meaning continued, and by grade seven, word meaning scores
had fallen to almost three years below grade level, and mean reading
comprehension was almost a year below. Jeanne Chall coined the
term ―the fourth-grade slump‖ to describe this pattern in developing
readers (Chall, Jacobs, and Baldwin, 1990).
Incidental and Intentional Vocabulary Learning
How do we close the gap for students who have limited or inadequate
vocabularies? The National Reading Panel (2000) concluded that there is no single
research-based method for developing vocabulary and closing the gap. From its
analysis, the panel recommended using a variety of indirect (incidental) and direct
(intentional) methods of vocabulary instruction.
Incidental Vocabulary Learning
Most students acquire vocabulary incidentally through indirect exposure to words

at home and at school—by listening and talking, by listening to books read aloud to
them, and by reading widely on their own.
The amount of reading is important to long-term vocabulary development

(Cunningham and Stanovich, 1998). Extensive reading provides students with repeated
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or multiple exposures to words and is also one of the means by which students see
vocabulary in rich contexts (Kamil and Hiebert, 2005).
Intentional Vocabulary Learning
Students need to be explicitly taught methods for

intentional vocabulary learning. According to Michael Graves
(2000), effective intentional vocabulary instruction includes:
 Teaching specific words (rich, robust instruction) to support understanding of

texts containing those words.
 Teaching word-learning strategies that students can use independently.
 Promoting the development of word consciousness and using word play activities
to motivate and engage students in learning new words.
Research-Supported Vocabulary-Learning Strategies
Students need a wide range of independent word-learning strategies. Vocabulary

instruction should aim to engage students in actively thinking about word meanings, the
relationships among words, and how we can use words in different situations. This type
of rich, deep instruction is most likely to influence comprehension (Graves, 2006;
McKeown and Beck, 2004).
Student-Friendly Definitions
The meaning of a new word should be explained to students rather than just
providing a dictionary definition for the word—which may be difficult for students to
understand. According to Isabel Beck, two basic principles should be followed in
developing student-friendly explanations or definitions (Beck et al., 2013):
 Characterize the word and how it is typically used.

 Explain the meaning using everyday language—language that is accessible and
meaningful to the student.
Sometimes a word’s natural context (in text or

literature) is not informative or helpful for deriving word
meanings (Beck et al., 2013). It is useful to intentionally
create and develop instructional contexts that provide
strong clues to a word’s meaning. These are usually
created by teachers, but they can sometimes be found in
commercial reading programs.
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Defining Words within Context
Research shows that when words and easy-

to-understand explanations are introduced in context,
knowledge of those words increases (Biemiller and
Boote, 2006) and word meanings are better learned
(Stahl and Fairbanks, 1986). When an unfamiliar
word is likely to affect comprehension, the most
effective time to introduce the word’s meaning may
be at the moment the word is met in the text.
Using Context Clues
Research by Nagy and Scott (2000) showed

that students use contextual analysis to infer the
meaning of a word by looking closely at surrounding
text. Since students encounter such an enormous
number of words as they read, some researchers
believe that even a small improvement in the ability
to use context clues has the potential to produce substantial, long-term vocabulary
growth (Nagy, Herman, and Anderson, 1985; Nagy, Anderson, and Herman, 1987;
Swanborn and de Glopper, 1999).
Sketching the Words
For many students, it is easier to

remember a word’s meaning by making a quick
sketch that connects the word to something
personally meaningful to the student. The
student applies each target word to a new,
familiar context. The student does not have to
spend a lot of time making a great drawing. The
important thing is that the sketch makes sense
and helps the student connect with the meaning of the word.
Applying the Target Words
Applying the target words provides another context for learning word
meanings. When students are challenged to apply the target words to
their own experiences, they have another opportunity to understand
the meaning of each word at a personal level. This allows for deep
processing of the meaning of each word.
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Analyzing Word Parts
The ability to analyze word parts also helps when

students are faced with unknown vocabulary. If students know
the meanings of root words and affixes, they are more likely to
understand a word containing these word parts. Explicit
instruction in word parts includes teaching meanings of word
parts and disassembling and reassembling words to derive
meaning (Baumann et al., 2002; Baumann, Edwards, Boland,
Olejnik, and Kame'enui, 2003; Graves, 2004).
Semantic Mapping
Semantic maps help students develop connections among words and increase
learning of vocabulary words (Baumann et al., 2003; Heimlich and Pittleman, 1986). For
example, by writing an example, a non-example, a synonym, and an antonym, students
must deeply process the word persists. Example:
Page 5
Word Consciousness
Word consciousness is an interest in and

awareness of words (Anderson and Nagy, 1992;
Graves and Watts-Taffe, 2002). Students who are
word conscious are aware of the words around
them—those they read and hear and those they write
and speak (Graves and Watts-Taffe, 2002). Word-
conscious students use words skillfully. They are
aware of the subtleties of word meaning. They are
curious about language, and they enjoy playing with
words and investigating the origins and histories of
words.
Teachers need to take word-consciousness into account throughout their

instructional day—not just during vocabulary lessons (Scott and Nagy, 2004). It is
important to build a classroom ―rich in words‖ (Beck et al., 2002). Students should have
access to resources such as dictionaries, thesauruses, word walls, crossword puzzles,
Scrabble® and other word games, literature, poetry books, joke books, and word-play
activities.
Teachers can promote the development of word consciousness in many ways:

 Language categories: Students learn to make finer distinctions in their word
choices if they understand the relationships among words, such as synonyms,
antonyms, and homographs.
 Figurative language: The ability to deal with figures of speech is also a part of
word-consciousness (Scott and Nagy 2004). The most common figures of
speech are similes, metaphors, and idioms.
Once language categories and figurative language have been taught, students
should be encouraged to watch for examples of these in all content areas.
To know more about Vocabulary Development please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MXlK4vj4x4U
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=awIXN5LgWKY
Page 6
READING COMPREHENSION
Comprehension: The Goal of Reading
Comprehension, or extracting meaning from

what you read, is the ultimate goal of
reading. Experienced readers take this for
granted and may not appreciate the reading
comprehension skills required. The process
of comprehension is both interactive and
strategic. Rather than passively reading text,
readers must analyze it, internalize it and
make it their own.
In order to read with comprehension, developing readers must be able to read

with some proficiency and then receive explicit instruction in reading comprehension
strategies (Tierney, 1982).
General Strategies for Reading Comprehension
The process of comprehending text begins before children can read, when
someone reads a picture book to them. They listen to the words, see the pictures in the
book, and may start to associate the words on the page with the words they are hearing
and the ideas they represent.
In order to learn comprehension strategies, students need modeling, practice,

and feedback. The key comprehension strategies are described below.
Using Prior Knowledge/Previewing
When students preview text, they tap into what they already know that will help
them to understand the text they are about to read. This provides a framework for any
new information they read.
Predicting
When students make predictions about the text they are

about to read, it sets up expectations based on their prior
knowledge about similar topics. As they read, they may
mentally revise their prediction as they gain more information.
Identifying the Main Idea and Summarization
Identifying the main idea and summarizing requires that

students determine what is important and then put it in their own words. Implicit in this
process is trying to understand the author’s purpose in writing the text.
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Questioning
Asking and answering questions about text is

another strategy that helps students focus on
the meaning of text. Teachers can help by
modeling both the process of asking good
questions and strategies for finding the
answers in the text.
Making Inferences
In order to make inferences about something

that is not explicitly stated in the text,
students must learn to draw on prior knowledge and recognize clues in the text itself.
Visualizing
Studies have shown that students who visualize while reading have better recall
than those who do not (Pressley, 1977). Readers can take advantage of illustrations
that are embedded in the text or create their own mental images or drawings when
reading text without illustrations.
Strategies for Reading Comprehension: Narrative Text

Narrative text tells a story, either a true story or a fictional story. There are a
number of strategies that will help students understand narrative text.
Story Maps
Teachers can have students diagram the story grammar of the text to raise their
awareness of the elements the author uses to construct the story. Story grammar
includes:
 Setting: When and where the story takes place (which can change over the
course of the story).
 Characters: The people or animals in the story, including the protagonist (main
character), whose motivations and actions drive the story.
 Plot: The story line, which typically includes one or more problems or conflicts
that the protagonist must address and ultimately resolve.
 Theme: The overriding lesson or main idea that the author wants readers to
glean from the story. It could be explicitly stated as in Aesop’s Fables or inferred
by the reader (more common).
To know make a story map please click the link below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lcD6ijirN2g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQI1fhBm5B0
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Sample Story Maps
Retelling
Asking students to retell a story in their own words forces them to analyze the content to
determine what is important. Teachers can encourage students to go beyond literally
recounting the story to drawing their own conclusions about it.
Prediction
Teachers can ask readers to make a prediction about a
story based on the title and any other clues that are
available, such as illustrations. Teachers can later ask
students to find text that supports or contradicts their
predictions.
Answering Comprehension Questions

Asking students different types of questions requires that
they find the answers in different ways, for example, by
finding literal answers in the text itself or by drawing on
prior knowledge and then inferring answers based on
clues in the text.
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Strategies for Reading Comprehension: Expository Text

Expository text explains facts and concepts in order to inform, persuade, or
explain.
The Structure of Expository Text

Expository text is typically structured with visual cues such as headings and
subheadings that provide clear cues as to the structure of the information. The first
sentence in a paragraph is also typically a topic sentence that clearly states what the
paragraph is about.
 Expository text also often uses one of five

common text structures as an organizing
principle:
 Cause and effect
 Problem and solution
 Compare and contrast
 Description
 Time order (sequence of events, actions, or
steps)
Teaching these structures can help students recognize relationships between ideas
and the overall intent of the text.
Main Idea/Summarization
A summary briefly captures the main idea of the text and the key details that
support the main idea. Students must understand the text in order to write a good
summary that is more than a repetition of the text itself.
K-W-L
There are three steps in the K-W-L process (Ogle, 1986):
 What I Know: Before students read the text, ask them as a group to identify what
the already know about the topic. Students write this list in the ―K‖ column of their
K-W-L forms.
 What I Want to Know: Ask students to write questions about what they want to
learn from reading the text in the ―W‖ column of their K-W-L forms. For example,
students may wonder if some of the ―facts‖ offered in the ―K‖ column are true.
 What I Learned: As they read the text, students should look for answers to the
questions listed in the ―W‖ column and write their answers in the ―L‖ column
along with anything else they learn.
After all of the students have read the text, the teacher leads a discussion of the
questions and answers.
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Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers provide visual representations of the concepts in expository

text. Representing ideas and relationships graphically can help students understand
and remember them. Examples of graphic organizers are:
Page 11
Page 12
To know more about the Reading Comprehension please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NvfJSJ8Rsw4&t=15s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1oqdI5JMJnM
https://www.readnaturally.com/research/5-components-of-reading/vocabulary
Honig, B., L. Diamond, and L. Gutlohn. (2013). Teaching reading sourcebook, 2nd ed. Novato,
CA: Arena Press.
Ogle, D. M. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository
text. The Reading Teacher 38(6), pp. 564–570.
Pressley, M. (1977). Imagery and children’s learning: Putting the picture in developmental
perspective. Review of Educational Research 47, pp. 586–622.
Tierney, R. J. (1982). Essential considerations for developing basic reading comprehension
skills. School Psychology Review 11(3), pp. 299–305.
Page 13
Topic 2: Three Models of Reading Strategies
Bottom-Up
Bottom-up theories hypothesize

that learning to read progresses from
children learning the parts of language
(letters) to understanding whole text
(meaning). Much like solving a jigsaw
puzzle, bottom-up models of the
reading process say that the reading
puzzle is solved by beginning with an
examination of each piece of the puzzle
and then putting pieces together to
make a picture. Gough’s (1972) One
Second of Reading model described
reading as a sequential or serial mental process. Readers, according to Gough, begin
by translating the parts of written language (letters) into speech sounds, then piece the
sounds together to form individual words, then piece the words together to arrive at an
understanding of the author’s written message.
Teachers who believe that bottom-up theories fully explain how children become
readers often teach sub skills first: they begin instruction by introducing letter names
and letter sounds, progress to pronouncing whole words, then show students ways of
connecting word meanings to comprehend texts. Although bottom-up theories of the
reading process explain the decoding part of the reading process rather well, there is
certainly more to reading than decoding. To become readers, students must compare
their knowledge and background experiences to the text in order to understand the
author’s message. Truly, the whole purpose of reading is comprehension.
To know more about the Bottom up Model please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4J_G7W2nbf4
Top-Down
Top-down reading models teach students to read by
introducing them to literature as a whole. Instead of
teaching students to read by sounding out each word in a
sentence, teachers read whole passages of a text.
Students begin to use context clues to decipher unfamiliar
words. The top-down reading model theory encourages
students to focus more on understanding the main ideas of
a passage than understanding every word.
Even if students do not understand each word, they are

likely to grasp the meaning of a text as a whole. The top-
down reading model encourages students to rely on their
Page 1
own knowledge and use context clues to understand new concepts or words. The
teaching model allows students choose books to read based on their own interests.
Teachers urge students to select materials of personal interest so they are more likely
to be motivated to read it. Instead of assigning one book for an entire class to read
together, the teacher might take the entire class to the library and allow them to choose
their own books.
Teachers will encourage readers to develop speaking and listening skills by reading
aloud to the class or to a smaller group of students. Instead of stopping students to
correct a pronunciation mistake, the teachers will urge the reader to continue reading,
even if struggling with a particular passage.
To know more about the Top Down Model please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIrfIM7mxiY
Interactive Model
The Interactive Reading Model, as developed by

David E. Rumelhart in 1977, describes a model
of the reading process and the way linguistic
elements are processed and interpreted by the
brain. The model combines both surface
structure systems -- the sensory, bottom-up
portion of reading - with deep structure systems -
- the thinking, or top-down, aspects of reading --
to build meaning and memory for all learners.
Readers use both knowledge of word structure

and background knowledge to interpret the texts
they read. For example, a student who
encounters an unknown word might use surface
structure systems like graph phonic, or letter-sound, knowledge to decode the word. A
different student might find it easier to use deep structure systems like semantic
knowledge, such as meaning and vocabulary, to decode the same unknown word. Each
student makes connections in different ways.
The most evident benefit of this model is the opportunity for the differentiation
that it provides students. Students are not required to fit into a set mold or have identical
skill sets to decode and interpret text. They are encouraged to use their own strengths
to gain understanding and new information. When used in the classroom setting,
students should be encouraged to share their knowledge with classmates or peers. This
model allows the reader to bring his own background knowledge to reading and to
interact with others to build meaning and memory from the text.
To know more about the Interactive Model please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rcEkzHtfWhg
Page 2
The Comparison between the Three Models:
Bottom-Up Models Top-Down Models Interactive Models

1960s - 1970s 1970s - 1980s late 1980s - present
Reading is Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing Reading is a process
a decoding process game (focus on the reader). of constructing meaning
(focus on the text). from text through
The "whole language" approach to the use of both bottom-
The phonics approac teaching reading is used. up and top-down
h to teaching reading processes, strategies,
is used. and skills (focus on
the interaction).
The balanced
approach to teaching
reading is used.
1) alphabet letters + 1) The reader receives input from the 1) Both bottoms-up and
sounds g words text, makes predictions (based on top-down processes
conceptual abilities, background occur simultaneously fo
2) words + grammar knowledge, and language processing r the reader to
rules skills), tests and confirms or revises thos comprehend the
g sentences e predictions. meaning of the text.
3) sentences + 2) Use a holistic approach to reading and 2) Two levels of

discourse writing that advocates the use of interaction:
rules g paragraphs g children's literature and authentic reading The interaction
longer discourse materials. between the
reader and the text.
The interaction
between two kinds of
cognitive
skills: identification and
Interpretation.
Page 3
Reading and Schema Theory
The function of background knowledge in the reading process is

formalized in schema theory. According to schema theory, the
reader brings previously acquired background knowledge organized
into interrelated patterns, or schemata, to the reading process.
Then the reader creates meaning by relating the text to this
background knowledge, including knowledge of customs and
beliefs from his or her own experiences.
Three are three types of schemata that have an impact

on reading comprehension:
 Formal schemata: prior knowledge of rhetorical structures and conventions (e.g.

different types of expository organizational patterns: cause and effect,
comparison and contrast, problem and solution, and chronological order, etc.)
 Content schemata: background knowledge of the subject of the text, which is
often culture-bound.
 Linguistic schemata: decoding knowledge used to recognize words and
determine their syntax in a sentence; that is, prior knowledge of a particular
vocabulary and grammar rules.
Teaching Reading Skills and the Use of Computers
Grabe (1991) identified six component skills and

knowledge areas essential for reading fluency:
 automatic word recognition skills
 vocabulary and structure knowledge
 formal discourse structure knowledge
 content/world background knowledge
 synthesis and evaluation skills
 metacognitive knowledge and skills
Automatic Word Recognition Skills
Automatic recognition skills allow readers to identify letters

and words without being consciously aware of the process.
Good readers are able to read rapidly because they can
recognize most words automatically, and therefore process
this information very efficiently. The combination of rapid and
precise word recognition has proven to be an effective
predictor of reading ability, particularly of young readers.
Page 4
The use of computers to facilitate the development of recognition skills

Examples of using the phonics approach:
- Learn to Read at Starfall
- BBC Words and Pictures
Examples for Speed Reading:

- AceReader (download the AceReader Original Demo)
- Best Reader (download the trial version)
Vocabulary and Structural Knowledge
1. The importance of vocabulary learning for reading comprehension:
a. Readers need to know a large percentage (approximately 95%) of the words in

any given text in order to comprehend the meaning of the reading or to guess the
meaning of words unfamiliar to them.
b. Vocabulary is not acquired in quick doses, but rather is a process of

incremental learning and constant
reinforcement. Readers need to know not just
one meaning of a word in a particular context
but also its alternative meanings in different
contexts and other aspects of the word such
as its grammatical properties.
2. Things needed to be included in vocabulary lessons (Zimmerman, 1997):
a. multiple exposure to words

b. exposure to words in meaningful contexts
c. rich and varied information about each word
d. establishment of ties between instructed words student experience, and prior
knowledge
e. active participation by students in the learning process
3. The use of computers to facilitate vocabulary development:

Examples:
- Online dictionaries (see 3.2.2 Online Dictionaries)
- Online concordancers (see 3.2.3 Online Concordancers)
- Word games: Word Based Games for ESL Students
Vocabulary for K-12 and ESL Kids
ESL games in EnglishClub.com
4. The importance of grammar learning for reading comprehension: Grammatical

structures provide readers significant information that allows them to understand the
meaning relationships among words and among sentences in a reading text.
Page 5
5. The use of computers to facilitate the development of structural skills:

Grammar Website Examples:
- English Grammar from EnglishClub.com
- Grammar from EFLnet.com
- Guide to Grammar and Writing
- Guide to Grammar and Style
- English Grammar
Formal Discourse Structure Knowledge
1. Knowledge of the structure of formal discourse / rhetorical organizational

patterns (i.e. formal schemata) assists the learner in understanding and remembering
the text. Research indicated that explicit teaching of rhetorical organization of text
facilitated ESL students' reading comprehension.
2. The use of computers to facilitate the development of discourse structure knowledge:
Content / World Background Knowledge
1. Activating the reader's knowledge of the subject

matter and cultural content of the text is a significant factor in
both reading comprehension and recall. Research shows that L2
learners can better recall information from text on
topics familiar to them than readings of equivalent difficulty level
on subjects with which they are less familiar. Moreover, readers
can more easily comprehend and recall texts of which the content
is based on their own culture than texts based on unfamiliar and
more remote cultures.
2. The use of computers to facilitate the development of content/world knowledge:
Synthesis and Evaluation Skills
a. Fluent readers are able not only to comprehend the text,

but to make judgments about the information, the author's
purpose, and the usefulness of the text. They usually use
strategies like predicting to assist them in anticipating text
development and evaluating the author's perspective as
they read.
b. The use of computers to encourage students learning to

synthesize and evaluate reading text:
Page 6
Examples:
- Ace Detectives (mystery-solving game)
- Story Mapping Activity
Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills
Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about

how learners think and self-regulate their cognitive
processes. It includes knowledge about
language and ability to recognize structural and
rhetorical features of the text using suitable
strategies for accomplishing particular goals.
In the reading process, metacognitive skills

include recognizing main ideas, adjusting reading rate
for skimming, scanning, paraphrasing, and summarizing, guessing
meaning from word formation rules, prefixes, and suffixes, and taking notes. The ability
to effectively apply metacognitive strategies to the reading process is a key ingredient to
skilled reading, especially for older readers.
The use of computers to assist students in developing metacognitive skills:
Examples:
- Reading Strategies: Scaffolding Students' Interactions with Texts
- Reading comprehension strategies for English language learners
- Effective Reading: Reading Strategies
- Reading Your Textbooks Effectively and Efficiently
To know more about the Reading and Schema please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V4_Kio9pPwE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=37_jM6lIFf8
http://www2.nkfust.edu.tw/~emchen/CALL/unit7.htm
https://www.scribd.com/document/257729029/Three-Models-of-
Reading-Strategies
Page 7
PART III. TEACHING STRATEGIES: READING
Objectives:
a.) Define the function of Reading as part of the Macro skills.
b.) Enumerate the levels of comprehension
c.) Utilize reading strategies to assess students reading skills.
d.) Cultivate reading activities for the development of reading
comprehension.
TOPIC 1: Meaning and Nature of Reading: Old and New Views
Nature of Reading
 Reading similar to listening, speaking and writing, is a communication skill.

 Reading is a process because it has series of acts proceeding from one step to
the next.
Steps Involve in Reading
Perception is the step involve in reading by which the reader perceived the written
symbols on the text through the use of his external senses.
Comprehension is the step involve in reading by which the reader understands the
text.
Reaction is the step involve in reading wherein the reader evaluates the text which is
being read.
Psychological Reading Reading

Theory Theory Strategy
Behaviorism Bottom-Up Phonics
Cognitivism Top-Down Whole Language
Social Constructivism Interactive Compensatory KWL/SQ3R
Reading Theories Reading Directions

Bottom-Up Uni-directional
Top-Down Uni-directional
Interactive Compensatory Bi-directional
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Reading Theorists
Kenneth Goodman = Cognitivism
Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game.
Jean Piaget = Cognitivism
Assimilation is the process by which the readers incorporate new

experience into an already existing knowledge.
Accomodation is the process by which the readers change one’s

already existing knowledge as a result of the experiences.
Rumelhart = cognitivism
Schema is the “building block of cognition.”
Patricia Carrell = cognitivism
Two kinds of schema

formal schema = rhetorical patterns of writing
content schema = culture of the reader
Keith Stanovich = Social Constructivism
Context Clues can be used to compensate for the meaning of words

which we do not know.
Page 2
Characteristics of the Reading Process
 Reading is a complex process

 Reading is a two-way process
 Reading is a largely visual process
 Reading is an active process
 Reading makes use of a linguistic system which
enables readers to be more effective users of written
language
 Effective reading is partly dependent on the reader’s
prior knowledge or background experiences.
Types of Reading Materials
Developmental – scientifically prepared materials which are

aimed at developing reading skills
Remedial – specifically prepared to help learners overcome

reading difficulties
Recreatory – provide for the development of appreciation

and enjoyment of reading material
Functional – provide for the development of comprehension

and utilization of skills in areas of study
Levels of Comprehension
The three levels of comprehension, or sophistication of thinking, are presented

in the following hierarchy from the least to the most sophisticated level of reading.
 Least = surface, simple reading

 Most = in-depth, complex reading
Level One: LITERAL - what is actually stated.
 Facts and details

 Rote learning and memorization
 Surface understanding only
Tests in this category are objective tests dealing with true / false, multiple choice
and fill-in-the-blank questions.
Common questions used to illicit this type of thinking are who, what,
when, and where questions.
Page 3
Level Two: INTERPRETIVE - what is implied or meant, rather than what is actually
stated.
 Drawing inferences
 Tapping into prior knowledge / experience
 Attaching new learning to old information
 Making logical leaps and educated guesses
 Reading between the lines to determine what
is meant by what is stated.
Tests in this category are subjective, and the types of questions asked are open
ended, thought-provoking questions like why, what if, and how.
Level Three: APPLIED - taking what was said (literal) and

what was meant by what was said (interpretive) and then
extend (apply) the concepts or ideas beyond the situation.
 Analyzing
 Synthesizing
 Applying
In this level we are analyzing or synthesizing information

and applying it to other information.
REQUIRED READING:
https://realizeforum.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Handout-6.2-Levels-of-Comprehension-and-Question-
types_2015.pd_.pdf
http://www.compton.edu/facultystaff/jcrozier/docs/_Levels%20of%20Comprehension-Overview-Explain.pdf
To know more about the Levels of Comprehension please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NvfJSJ8Rsw4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YAxuZb-V_T4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n_g7Nq-sTIA
https://www.cuesta.edu/student/resources/ssc/study_guides/reading_co
mp/302_read_levels.html
Page 4
TOPIC 3: LEVELS OF LISTENING
Understanding the Levels of Listening To Improve Your Listening Skill
Listening occurs at different levels, some more

demanding than others. Not all interactions require us to
listen at the deepest, most demanding levels. In his book
“Listening to Conflict”, Eric Van Slyke, posits six levels of
listening. Understanding these levels of listening can help
you improve the quality of your listening.
Level I: Passive listening
This is the lowest level of listening. Here the person being spoken to is aware
that the speaker is speaking but actually understands little of what is said. At this level,
the listener pays little attention and catches only a few words here and there.
In passive listening, the listener may appear to be listening to the speaker and
her words but makes no effort to understand the message. Unlike the active listener, the
passive listener is not paying attention. Whenever you listen to music while you are
doing something else, such as studying or doing chores, you are passive listening. You
may be aware of the music, but your attention is on your task.
A passive listener in a conversation or learning environment may accept and

retain the information she hears but does not question or challenge the message or
show interest through words or body language. She avoids getting into debates and
giving opinions and is unreceptive to new ideas.
Sometimes, the passive listener talks more than she listens. While this may
suggest that she is an active participant in a conversation, she is actually not paying
attention to what the other person is saying.
Page 1
Level II: Responsive Listening
At this level of listening, we give the speaker verbal or nonverbal indicators that
we are listening, a head nod or an occasional “uh-huh,” for instance, but we actually
aren’t paying much attention, and our comprehension level is still low.
Purpose of Responsive Listening
To listen responsively, listen with the intent of understanding, instead of

replying. Use responsive listening to enhance the
ability to:
 obtain information,
 identify problems,
 resolve conflicts,
 improve the accuracy of communication,
 solve problems,
 motivate the speaker.
Responsive listeners demonstrate to the speaker that they are listening and
understanding what is being said, which encourages the speaker to continue.
Encouraging responses may include both nonverbal and verbal cues:
Nonverbal Responses
 Smiling
 Appropriate facial expression
 An affirmative nod of the head
 Good (appropriate) eye contact
 Minimizing distractions (turning off cell
phones, etc.)
 Taking notes (under-utilized way to
broaden the depth of learning)
 Leaning slightly towards the speaker
Verbal Responses
 “Uh-huh”
 “I see”
 “Yes”
 “Really?”
Occasionally repeating or paraphrasing short phrases to show what you’ve heard
Page 2
Level III: Selective Listening
A number of us listen selectively, and when we

do, we are not paying attention to the entire message.
What we do is merely paying attention to certain words
or phrases that appeals our interest. We aren’t
interested in the speaker’s entire message, only the
part of it that concerns us.
Selective listening is like a student with a

highlighter. When students study for a test they
commonly use a highlighter to focus on key ideas in a
textbook. They might skim over text that doesn't seem
critical but focus on text that gets to the point.
The following are common features of selective listening:
 Multitasking
Giving listening less than full attention. For example, planning what you're going
to say while someone is talking.
 Skimming
Deciding when to retain important information and when to ignore non-critical
information.
 Prioritizing
Focusing on high priority information (e.g. when your boss speaks).
 Summarizing
Developing a general impression of what is said rather than memorizing an
accurate account.
Is Selective Listening A Bad Habit?
Selective listening has a reputation as being a bad habit. It's certainly a bad way to build
rapport. People tend to know if you're fully listening to them. They tend to feel insulted if
they catch you drifting off when they're talking.
Selective listening isn't as accurate as devoting

your fully attention to everything that's said.
Despite these disadvantages, it's widely
practiced.
It does have potential advantages. Selective

listening allows you to filter and summarize
information while multitasking.
Page 3
Level IV: Attentive Listening
In attentive listening, listeners provide feedback

to the speaker by asking for more information or
by paraphrasing the speaker’s message to gain
further clarification from the speaker. In this
level of listening, listeners are more involved,
engaging their intellect in the listening process
and are able to comprehend more information
than at previous levels. However, we are merely
listening for our own selfish interests, and are
probing for more information because we
perceive the information as yielding some profitable value to us, not because we want to
benefit the speaker with our understanding.
Great listening doesn’t come easily. It’s hard work. There are two major types of
listening skills: attentive and interactive. The following attentive listening skills will help
you uncover the true messages your counterparts are conveying.
 Be motivated to listen. Knowing that the person with the most information is
usually the one in control of a negotiation should give you an incentive to be a
better listener. It is wise to set goals for the amount and type of information you
hope to receive from your counterpart. The more you can learn, the better off you
will be.
 If you must speak, ask questions. To get specific, useful information and
uncover your counterpart’s needs and goals, you have to continually ask
questions. By moving from broad to narrow questions, you will eventually acquire
the information you need to make the best decisions.
Level V: Active Listening
Active listening techniques require listeners to engage not only their intellect in
listening, but their emotions as well. Listening actively allows listeners the exchange of
information—asking the speaker question to gain complete comprehension. They reflect
their interpretations of what’s been said back to the speaker so that the speaker feels
heard and has a chance to correct any
misunderstanding. Active listening
techniques require listeners to engage not
only their intellect in listening, but their
emotions as well. Listening actively allows
listeners the exchange of information—
asking the speaker question to gain complete
comprehension. They reflect their
interpretations of what’s been said back to
the speaker so that the speaker feels heard
and has a chance to correct any
misunderstanding.
Page 4
Becoming an Active Listener
There are five key active listening

techniques you can use to help you become a
more effective listener:
1. Pay Attention
Give the speaker your undivided
attention, and acknowledge the message.
Recognize that non-verbal communication also "speaks" loudly.
 Look at the speaker directly.
 Put aside distracting thoughts.
 Don't mentally prepare a rebuttal!
 Avoid being distracted by environmental factors. For example, side
conversations.
 "Listen" to the speaker's body language .
2. Show That You're Listening
Use your own body language and gestures to show that you are engaged.
 Nod occasionally.
 Smile and use other facial expressions.
 Make sure that your posture is open and interested.
 Encourage the speaker to continue with small verbal comments like yes, and "uh
huh."
3. Provide Feedback
Our personal filters, assumptions, judgments, and beliefs can distort what we
hear. As a listener, your role is to understand what is being said. This may require you
to reflect on what is being said and to ask questions.
 Reflect on what has been said by paraphrasing. "What I'm hearing is... ," and
"Sounds like you are saying... ," are great ways to reflect back.
 Ask questions to clarify certain points. "What do you mean when you say... ." "Is
this what you mean?"
 Summarize the speaker's comments periodically.
4. Defer Judgment
Interrupting is a waste of time. It frustrates the speaker and limits full
understanding of the message.
 Allow the speaker to finish each point before asking questions.
 Don't interrupt with counter arguments.
5. Respond Appropriately
Active listening is designed to encourage respect and understanding. You are
gaining information and perspective. You add nothing by attacking the speaker or
otherwise putting her down.
 Be candid, open and honest in your response.
 Assert your opinions respectfully.
 Treat the other person in a way that you think she would want to be treated.
Page 5
Level VI: Empathic Listening
Emphatic Listening is listening at its peak— it is the

deepest level of listening. It differs from active listening in
an important way. When we listen empathically, we try to
step out of our own perspective and view things from that
of the speaker’s. This is not only understanding what the
person is saying and feeling, but empathizing with it and
making effort to communicate this understanding to the
speaker.
Empathic listening requires listening nonjudgmentally. We

cannot empathize with others if we are judging them.
Nonjudgmental listening does not mean that we agree with or condone what a person is
saying, only that we are willing to step out of ourselves long enough to see how the
person views what he or she is saying.
7 Tips for Empathic Listening
1. Be nonjudgmental
This isn’t always easy, but letting go of your own

opinions frees you to focus on the other person’s
perspective. Acknowledging a person’s views and
emotions helps you to help them. This doesn’t mean you
need to agree with everything the person says; it’s about
letting them know you care, that they matter.
2. Give the person your undivided attention.
Remove distractions. Ensure that you have the time to spend

with the person, and make sure no computers or other devices are
between you and them. Giving them your full focus displays respect,
and a person is more likely to stay calm when they feel respected.
3. Listen carefully (to feelings and facts).
Soak in the words as well as the larger view of

that individual in that specific situation. Notice tone of
voice, body language, and other clues to go beyond
the words and gain insight into emotions. I love
how Kim Warchol describes Empathic Listening when
she says, “Listen with your ears, eyes, and heart.”
Page 6
4. Show that you are listening carefully.
Think about your posture and nonverbal messages. Pepper

in supportive body language like eye contact, nodding, and other
signals as appropriate to advertise your attentiveness without
interrupting.
5. Don’t be afraid of silence.
Sometimes all a person needs is to be heard or know you’re

there. Pay attention to the context and quality of the silence before
responding. The individual might be thinking about what to say next
or may need a few silent moments to rein in emotions.
6. Restate and paraphrase.
If you speak, refer to the person’s words, ask

questions, and clarify comments as needed. Keep that
nonjudgmental and respectful spirit, and give the
person time to respond. Remember, there’s no script
for Empathic Listening. Respond based on that person,
situation, and moment.
7. Follow up.
Check with the person to see if they have further questions or comments. Set up
another time to meet if needed.
To know more about the Levels of Listening please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WX9F-3t1nm8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eLfXpRkVZaI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a7so_wrViek
https://ifioque.com/listening/levels_of_listening
https://thinkedc.com/3-modes-effective-listening/
https://training.simplicable.com/training/new/what-is-selective-listening
https://peterstark.com/attentive-listening-skills/
https://www.mindtools.com/CommSkll/ActiveListening.htm
Page 7
TOPIC 2: Barriers to Effective Listening
Barriers to effective listening are present at

every stage of the listening process. At the
receiving stage, noise can block or distort incoming
stimuli. At the interpreting stage, complex or
abstract information may be difficult to relate to
previous experiences, making it difficult to reach
understanding. At the recalling stage, natural limits to our memory and challenges to
concentration can interfere with remembering. At the evaluating stage, personal biases
and prejudices can lead us to block people out or assume we know what they are going
to say. At the responding stage, a lack of paraphrasing and questioning skills can lead
to misunderstanding. In the following section, we will explore how environmental and
physical factors, cognitive and personal factors, and bad listening practices present
barriers to effective listening.
Environmental and Physical Barriers to Listening
Environmental factors such as lighting, temperature, and furniture affect our

ability to listen. A room that is too dark can make us sleepy, just as a room that is too
warm or cool can raise awareness of our physical discomfort to a point that it is
distracting. Some seating arrangements facilitate listening, while others separate
people. In general, listening is easier when listeners can make direct eye contact with
and are in close physical proximity to a speaker.
Physiological noise, like environmental noise, can interfere with our ability to
process incoming information. This is considered a physical barrier to effective listening
because it emanates from our physical body.
Physiological noise is noise stemming from a physical

illness, injury, or bodily stress. Ailments such as a cold,
a broken leg, a headache, or a poison ivy outbreak can
range from annoying to unbearably painful and impact
our listening relative to their intensity. Another type of
noise, psychological noise, bridges physical and
cognitive barriers to effective listening.
Psychological noise, or noise stemming from our

psychological states including moods and level of
arousal, can facilitate or impede listening. Any mood or
state of arousal, positive or negative, that is too far
above or below our regular baseline creates a barrier to
message reception and processing. The generally
positive emotional state of being in love can be just as
much of a barrier as feeling hatred. Excited arousal can
also distract as much as anxious arousal. Stress about
Page 1
an upcoming events ranging from losing a job, to having surgery, to wondering about
what to eat for lunch can overshadow incoming messages.
Cognitive and Personal Barriers to Listening
Aside from the barriers to effective listening that may be

present in the environment or emanate from our bodies, cognitive limits,
a lack of listening preparation, difficult or disorganized messages,
and prejudices can interfere with listening. Whether you call it
multitasking, daydreaming, glazing over, or drifting off, we all
cognitively process other things while receiving messages. If you
think of your listening mind as a wall of ten televisions, you may
notice that in some situations five of the ten televisions are tuned into
one channel. If that one channel is a lecture being given by your
professor, then you are exerting about half of your cognitive processing
abilities on one message. In another situation, all ten televisions may be
on different channels. The fact that we have the capability to process more than one
thing at a time offers some advantages and disadvantages. But unless we can better
understand how our cognitive capacities and personal preferences affect our listening,
we are likely to experience more barriers than benefits.
Difference between Speech and Thought Rate
Our ability to process more information than what comes from one speaker or
source creates a barrier to effective listening. While people speak at a rate of 125 to 175
words per minute, we can process between 400 and 800 words per minute.
This gap between speech rate and thought rate gives us an opportunity to side-
process any number of thoughts that can be distracting from a more
important message. Because of this gap, it is impossible to give one
message our ―undivided attention,‖ but we can occupy other
channels in our minds with thoughts related to the central message.
For example, using some of your extra cognitive processing abilities
to repeat, rephrase, or reorganize messages coming from one
source allows you to use that extra capacity in a way that reinforces
the primary message.
Additionally, we are often challenged when presented with messages that we do not
find personally relevant.
In general, we employ SELECTIVE ATTENTION, which refers to

our tendency to pay attention to the messages that benefit us in
some way and filter others out. So the student who is checking his
or her Twitter feed during class may suddenly switch his or her
attention back to the previously ignored professor when the
following words are spoken: ―This will be important for the exam.‖
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RESPONSE PREPARATION refers to our tendency to rehearse what we are going to

say next while a speaker is still talking. Rehearsal of what we will say once a speaker’s
turn is over is an important part of the listening process that
takes place between the recalling and evaluation and/or the
evaluation and responding stage. Rehearsal becomes
problematic when response preparation begins as someone
is receiving a message and hasn’t had time to engage in
interpretation or recall. In this sense, we are listening with the
goal of responding instead of with the goal of understanding,
which can lead us to miss important information that could
influence our response.
Lack of Listening Preparation
Another barrier to effective listening is a general

lack of listening preparation. Unfortunately, most
people have never received any formal training or
instruction related to listening. Although some people
think listening skills just develop over time, competent
listening is difficult, and enhancing listening skills takes
concerted effort. Even when listening education is
available, people do not embrace it as readily as they
do opportunities to enhance their speaking skills. After teaching communication courses
for several years, I have consistently found that students and teachers approach the
listening part of the course less enthusiastically than some of the other parts. Listening
is often viewed as an annoyance or a chore, or just ignored or minimized as part of the
communication process.
Bad Messages and/or Speakers
Bad messages and/or speakers also present a

barrier to effective listening. Sometimes our trouble
listening originates in the sender. In terms of message
construction, poorly structured messages or messages
that are too vague, too jargon filled or too simple can
present listening difficulties. In terms of speakers’
delivery, verbal fillers, monotone voices, distracting
movements or a disheveled appearance can inhibit our
ability to cognitively process a message.
Listening also becomes difficult when a speaker

tries to present too much information. Information
overload is a common barrier to effective listening those good speakers can help
mitigate by building redundancy into their speeches and providing concrete examples of
new information to help audience members interpret and understand the key ideas.
Page 3
Prejudice
Oscar Wilde said, ―Listening is a very

dangerous thing. If one listens one may be
convinced.‖ Unfortunately, some of our default
ways of processing information and perceiving
others lead us to rigid ways of thinking. When
we engage in prejudiced listening, we are
usually trying to preserve our ways of thinking
and avoid being convinced of something
different. This type of prejudice is a barrier to
effective listening, because when we prejudge a
person based on his or her identity or ideas, we usually stop listening in an active and/or
ethical way.
We exhibit prejudice in our listening in several ways, some of which are more
obvious than others. For example, we may claim to be in a hurry and only selectively
address the parts of a message that we agree with or that aren’t controversial. We can
also operate from a state of denial where we avoid a subject or person altogether so
that our views are not challenged. Prejudices that are based on a person’s identity, such
as race, age, occupation, or appearance, may lead us to assume that we know what he
or she will say, essentially closing down the listening process. Keeping an open mind
and engaging in perception checking can help us identify prejudiced listening and
hopefully shift into more competent listening practices.
Bad Listening Practices
The previously discussed barriers to effective listening may be difficult to

overcome because they are at least partially beyond our control. Physical barriers,
cognitive limitations, and perceptual biases exist
within all of us, and it is more realistic to believe that
we can become more conscious of and lessen them
than it is to believe that we can eliminate them
altogether. Other ―bad listening‖ practices may be
habitual, but they are easier to address with some
concerted effort. These bad listening practices include
interrupting, distorted listening, eavesdropping,
aggressive listening, narcissistic listening, and
pseudo-listening.
Page 4
Interrupting
Conversations unfold as a series of
turns, and turn taking is negotiated through
a complex set of verbal and nonverbal
signals that are consciously and
subconsciously received. In this sense,
conversational turn taking has been
likened to a dance where communicators
try to avoid stepping on each other’s toes.
One of the most frequent glitches in the
turn-taking process is interruption, but not
all interruptions are considered ―bad
listening.‖ An interruption could be
unintentional if we misread cues and think
a person is done speaking only to have him or her start up again at the same time we
do.
Sometimes interruptions are more like overlapping statements that show support
(e.g., ―I think so too.‖) or excitement about the conversation (e.g., ―That’s so cool!‖).
Back-channel cues like ―uh-huh,‖ as we learned earlier also overlap with a speaker’s
message. We may also interrupt out of necessity if we’re engaged in a task with the
other person and need to offer directions (e.g., ―Turn left here.‖), instructions (e.g., ―Will
you whisk the eggs?‖), or warnings (e.g., ―Look out behind you!‖). All these interruptions
are not typically thought of as evidence of bad listening unless they become distracting
for the speaker or are unnecessary.
Unintentional interruptions can still be considered bad listening if they result from
mindless communication. As we’ve already learned, intended meaning is not as
important as the meaning that is generated in the interaction itself. So if you interrupt
unintentionally, but because you were only half-listening, then the interruption is still
evidence of bad listening.
The speaker may form a negative impression

of you that can’t just be erased by you noting that
you didn’t ―mean to interrupt.‖ Interruptions can also
be used as an attempt to dominate a conversation.
A person engaging in this type of interruption may
lead the other communicator to try to assert
dominance, too, resulting in a competition to see
who can hold the floor the longest or the most often.
More than likely, though, the speaker will form a
negative impression of the interrupter and may
withdraw from the conversation.
Page 5
Distorted Listening
Distorted listening occurs in many ways. Sometimes we just get the order of
information wrong, which can have relatively little negative effects if we are casually
recounting a story, annoying effects if we forget the order of turns (left, right, left or right,
left, right?) in our driving directions, or very negative effects if we recount the events of a
crime out of order, which leads to faulty testimony at a criminal trial. Rationalization is
another form of distorted listening through which we adapt, edit, or skew incoming
information to fit our existing schemata. We may, for example, reattribute the cause of
something to better suit our own beliefs. If a
professor is explaining to a student why he
earned a ―D‖ on his final paper, the student
could reattribute the cause from ―I didn’t
follow the paper guidelines‖ to ―this
professor is an unfair grader.‖ Sometimes
we actually change the words we hear to
make them better fit what we are thinking.
This can easily happen if we join a
conversation late, overhear part of a
conversation, or are being a lazy listener
and miss important setup and context.
Eavesdropping
Eavesdropping is a bad listening practice that involves a calculated and planned

attempt to secretly listen to a conversation. There is a difference between
eavesdropping on and overhearing a conversation. Many if not most of the interactions
we have throughout the day occur in the presence of other people. However, given that
our perceptual fields are usually focused on the interaction, we are often unaware of the
other people around us or don’t think about the fact that they could be listening in on our
conversation. We usually only become aware of the fact that other people could be
listening in when we’re discussing something private.
People eavesdrop for a variety of reasons. People might think another person is talking
about them behind their back or that someone is engaged in illegal or unethical
behavior. Sometimes people eavesdrop to feed the
gossip mill or out of curiosity.
In any case, this type of listening is

considered bad because it is a violation of people’s
privacy. Consequences for eavesdropping may
include an angry reaction if caught, damage to
interpersonal relationships, or being perceived as
dishonest and sneaky. Additionally, eavesdropping
may lead people to find out information that is
personally upsetting or hurtful, especially if the point
Page 6
of the eavesdropping is to find out what people are saying behind their back.
Aggressive Listening
Aggressive listening is a bad listening

practice in which people pay attention in order to
attack something that a speaker says. Aggressive
listeners like to ambush speakers in order to
critique their ideas, personality, or other
characteristics. Such behavior often results from
built-up frustration within an interpersonal
relationship. Unfortunately, the more two people
know each other, the better they will be at
aggressive listening. Take the following exchange
between long-term partners:
I’ve been thinking about making a salsa garden next to the side porch. I think
Deb: it would be really good to be able to go pick our own tomatoes and peppers
and cilantro to make homemade salsa.
Summer: Really? When are you thinking about doing it?
Deb: Next weekend. Would you like to help?
I won’t hold my breath. Every time you come up with some ―idea of the week‖
Summer: you get so excited about it. But do you ever follow through with it? No. We’ll
be eating salsa from the store next year, just like we are now.
Although Summer’s initial response to Deb’s idea is seemingly appropriate and

positive, she asks the question because she has already planned her upcoming
aggressive response. Summer’s aggression toward Deb isn’t about a salsa garden; it’s
about a building frustration with what Summer perceives as Deb’s lack of follow-through
on her ideas. Aside from engaging in aggressive listening because of built-up
frustration, such listeners may also attack others’ ideas or mock their feelings because
of their own low self-esteem and insecurities.
Narcissistic Listening
Narcissistic listening is a form of self-

centered and self-absorbed listening in which
listeners try to make the interaction about
them. Narcissistic listeners redirect the focus
of the conversation to them by interrupting or
changing the topic. When the focus is taken
off them, narcissistic listeners may give
negative feedback by pouting, providing
negative criticism of the speaker or topic, or
Page 7
ignoring the speaker. A common sign of narcissistic listening is the combination of a

―pivot,‖ when listeners shift the focus of attention back to them, and ―one-upping,‖ when
listeners try to top what previous speakers have said during the interaction. You can see
this narcissistic combination in the following interaction:
My boss has been really unfair to me lately and hasn’t been letting me work
Bryce: around my class schedule. I think I may have to quit, but I don’t know where I’ll
find another job.
Why are you complaining? I’ve been working with the same stupid boss for two
years. He doesn’t even care that I’m trying to get my degree and work at the
Toby:
same time. And you should hear the way he talks to me in front of the other
employees.
Narcissistic listeners, given their self-centeredness, may actually fool themselves

into thinking that they are listening and actively contributing to a conversation. We all
have the urge to share our own stories during interactions, because other people’s
communication triggers our own memories about related experiences. It is generally
more competent to withhold sharing our stories until the other person has been able to
speak and we have given the appropriate support and response. But we all shift the
focus of a conversation back to us occasionally, either because we don’t know another
way to respond or because we are making an attempt at empathy.
Pseudo-Listening
Do you have a friend or family member who repeats stories? If so, then you’ve
probably engaged in pseudo-listening as a politeness strategy. Pseudo-listening is
behaving as if you’re paying attention to a speaker when you’re actually not
Outwardly visible signals of attentiveness are an important part of the listening

process, but when they are just an ―act,‖ the pseudo-listener is engaging in bad listening
behaviors. She or he is not actually going through the stages of the listening process
and will likely not be able to recall the speaker’s message or offer a competent and
relevant response. Although it is a bad listening practice, we all understandably engage
in pseudo-listening from time to time. If a friend needs
someone to talk but you’re really tired or experiencing
some other barrier to effective listening, it may be
worth engaging in pseudo-listening as a relational
maintenance strategy, especially if the friend just
needs a sounding board and isn’t expecting advice or
guidance. We may also pseudo-listen to a romantic
partner or grandfather’s story for the fifteenth time to
prevent hurting their feelings. We should avoid
pseudo-listening when possible and should definitely
avoid making it a listening habit.
Page 8
To know more about the Barriers of Listening please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o6JGi2voyDM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZ_i8wVRNak
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G7LCTueQyKk
PRELIM ASSIGNMENT: Read the text below and answer the

questions that follow.
“Getting Plugged In”

Technology, Multitasking, and Listening
Do you like to listen to music while you do homework? Do you clean your apartment while talking to your
mom on the phone? Do you think students should be allowed to use laptops in all college classrooms?
Your answers to these questions will point to your preferences for multitasking. If you answered ―yes‖ to
most of them, then you are in line with the general practices of the ―net generation‖ of digital natives for
whom multitasking, especially with various forms of media, is a way of life. Multitasking is a concept that
has been around for a while and emerged along with the increasing expectation that we will fill multiple
role demands throughout the day. Multitasking can be pretty straightforward and beneficial—for example,
if we listen to motivating music while working out. But multitasking can be very inefficient, especially when
one or more of our concurrent tasks are complex or unfamiliar to us.Fleura Bardhi, Andres J. Rohm, and
Fareena Sultan, ―Tuning in and Tuning out: Media Multitasking among Young Consumers,‖ Journal of
Consumer Behaviour 9 (2010): 318.
Media multitasking specifically refers to the use of multiple forms of media at the same time, and it can
have positive and negative effects on listening.Fleura Bardhi, Andres J. Rohm, and Fareena Sultan,
―Tuning in and Tuning out: Media Multitasking among Young Consumers,‖ Journal of Consumer
Behaviour 9 (2010): 322. The negative effects of media multitasking have received much attention in
recent years, as people question the decreasing attention span within our society. Media multitasking
may promote inefficiency, because it can lead to distractions and plays a prominent role for many in
procrastination. The numerous options for media engagement that we have can also lead to a feeling of
chaos as our attention is pulled in multiple directions, creating a general sense of disorder. And many of
us feel a sense of enslavement when we engage in media multitasking, as we feel like we can’t live
without certain personal media outlets.
Media multitasking can also give people a sense of control, as they use multiple technologies to access
various points of information to solve a problem or complete a task. An employee may be able to use her
iPad to look up information needed to address a concern raised during a business meeting. She could
then e-mail that link to the presenter, who could share it with the room through his laptop and a LCD
projector. Media multitasking can also increase efficiency, as people can carry out tasks faster. The links
to videos and online articles that I’ve included in this textbook allow readers like you to quickly access
additional information about a particular subject to prepare for a presentation or complete a paper
assignment. Media multitasking can also increase engagement. Aside from just reading material in a
textbook, students can now access information through an author’s blog or Twitter account.
Media multitasking can produce an experience that feels productive, but is it really? What are the
consequences of our media- and technology-saturated world? Although many of us like to think that we’re
good multitaskers, some research indicates otherwise. For example, student laptop use during class has
been connected to lower academic performance.Carrie B. Fried, ―In-Class Laptop Use and Its Effects on
Student Learning,‖ Computers and Education 50 (2008): 906–14. This is because media multitasking has
Page 9
the potential to interfere with listening at multiple stages of the process. The study showed that laptop use
interfered with receiving, as students using them reported that they paid less attention to the class
lectures. This is because students used the laptops for purposes other than taking notes or exploring
class content. Of the students using laptops, 81 percent checked e-mail during lectures, 68 percent used
instant messaging, and 43 percent surfed the web. Students using laptops also had difficulty with the
interpretation stage of listening, as they found less clarity in the parts of the lecture they heard and did not
understand the course material as much as students who didn’t use a laptop. The difficulties with
receiving and interpreting obviously create issues with recall that can lead to lower academic
performance in the class. Laptop use also negatively affected the listening abilities of students not using
laptops. These students reported that they were distracted, as their attention was drawn to the laptop
screens of other students.
1.) What are some common ways that you engage in media multitasking? What are some positive and
negative consequences of your media multitasking?
2.) What strategies do you or could you use to help minimize the negative effects of media multitasking?
3.) Should laptops, smartphones, and other media devices be used by students during college classes?
Why or why not? What restrictions or guidelines for use could instructors provide that would capitalize on
the presence of such media to enhance student learning and help minimize distractions?
https://sites.educ.ualberta.ca/staff/olenka.bilash/Best%20of%20Bilash/fourskills.html
http://www.onestopenglish.com/community/teacher-talk/advancing-learning/advancing-
learning-the-fifth-skill-viewing/557577.article
Page 10
PART II: TEACHING STRATEGIES: LISTENING
Objectives:
a.) Value the importance of listening.
b.) Identify the nature of listening.
c.) Evaluate the impact of the barriers of listening to teaching strategies.
d.) Integrate the levels of listening ability to teaching strategies.
TOPIC 1: The Importance of Listening
Listening skills are essential to many business roles and functions, including:
 managing, coaching, mentoring, facilitation
 sales, negotiation, arbitration, market research
 appraisal, interviewing, training, consultancy
Good listening is also a vital part of these activities:

 making decisions
 reaching agreements
 selling and influencing
 dealing with students
 getting and giving information (such as policy, instructions, feedback).
LISTENING IN LANGUAGE LEARNING-The Nature of Listening
Listening is the Cinderella skill in second language learning. All too often, it has
been overlooked by its elder sister - speaking. For most people, being able to claim
knowledge of a second language means being able to speak and write in that language.
Listening and reading are therefore secondary skills - means to other ends, rather than
ends in themselves. Every so often, however, listening comes into fashion. In the
1960s, the emphasis on oral language skills gave it a boost. It became fashionable
again in the 1980s, when Krashen's (1982) ideas
about comprehensible input gained prominence. A
short time later, it was reinforced by James
Asher's (1988) Total Physical Response, a
methodology drawing sustenance from Krashen's
work, and based on the belief that a second
language is learned most effectively in the early
stages if the pressure for production is taken off
the learners.
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THE NATURE OF THE LISTENING PROCESS
Listening is assuming greater and greater importance in foreign

language classrooms. There are several reasons for this growth in
popularity. By emphasizing the role of comprehensible input, second
language acquisition research has given a major boost to listening.
As Rost 1994, pp. 141-142) points out, listening is vital in the
language classroom because it provides input for the learner.
Without understanding input at the right level, any learning simply
cannot begin. Listening is thus fundamental to speaking.
Two views of listening have dominated language pedagogy since the early
1980s. These are the bottom-up processing view and the top-down interpretation
view. The bottom-up processing model assumes that listening is a process of
decoding the sounds that one hears in a linear fashion, from the smallest meaningful
units (phonemes) to complete texts. According to this view, phonemic units are decoded
and linked together to form words, words are linked together to form phrases, phrases
are linked together to form utterances, and utterances are linked together to form
complete, meaningful texts. In other words, the process is a linear one, in which
meaning itself is derived as the last step in the process. In their introduction to listening,
Anderson and Lynch (1988) call this the ‘listener
as tape recorder view' of listening because it
assumes that the listener takes in and stores
messages sequentially, in much the same way as
a tape recorder - one sound, one word, one
phrase, and one utterance at a time.
The alternative, top-down view suggests

that the listener actively constructs (or, more
accurately, reconstructs) the original meaning of
the speaker using incoming sounds as clues. In this reconstruction process, the listener
uses prior knowledge of the context and situation within which the listening takes place
to make sense of what he or she hears. Context and situation include such things as
knowledge of the topic at hand, the speaker or speakers, and their relationship to the
situation, as well as to each other and prior events. These days, it is generally
recognized that both bottom-up and top-down strategies are necessary. In developing
courses, materials, and lessons, it is important to teach not only bottom-up processing
skills, such as the ability to discriminate between minimal pairs, but also to help learners
use what they already know to understand what they hear. If teachers suspect that
there are gaps in their learners' knowledge, the listening itself can be preceded by
schema-building activities to prepare learners for the listening task to come.
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There are many different types of

listening, which can be classified according to
a number of variables, including purpose for
listening, the role of the listener, and the type
of text being listened to. These variables are
mixed in many different configurations, each
of which will require a particular strategy on
the part of the listener. Listening purpose is
an important variable. Listening to a news
broadcast to get a general idea of the news of
the day involves different processes and
strategies from listening to the same broadcast for specific information, such as the
results of an important sporting event. Listening to a sequence of instructions for
operating a new piece of computer software requires different listening skills and
strategies from listening to a poem or a short story. In designing listening tasks, it is
important to teach learners to adopt a flexible range of listening strategies.
This can be done by holding the listening text constant (working, say, with radio
news broadcast reporting a series of international events) and getting learners to listen
to the text several times - however, following different instructions each time. They
might, in the first instance, be required to listen for gist, simply identifying the countries
where the events have taken place. The second time they listen, they
might be required to match the places with a list of events.
Another way of characterizing listening is in terms of whether

the listener is also required to take part in the interaction. This is known
as reciprocal listening. When listening to a monologue, either live or
through the media, the listening is, by definition, nonreciprocal. The listener
(often to his or her frustration) has no opportunity of answering back,
clarifying understanding, or checking that he or she has comprehended
correctly. In the real world, it is rare for the listener to be cast in the
role of nonreciprocal "eavesdropper" on a conversation. However, in
the listening classroom, this is the normal role.
To know more about the Nature of Listening please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8xNBWKzYOs
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TOPIC 4: Activities in Integrating Listening with Other Macro Skills

(Speaking, Reading, Writing, Viewing)
Four Skills Activities: Reading, Writing, Speaking & Listening
When a teacher makes use of activities that have been specially designed to
incorporate several language skills simultaneously (such as reading, writing, listening,
and writing), they provide their students with situations that allow for well-rounded
development and progress in all areas of language learning. In her reflection, Anna
refers to activities that make use of ‘the four skills’ but she is not quite sure how to plan
activities that incorporate all four. In this section we will discuss the 'four skills' as well
some activities that can be used in the classroom to promote all four.
What are the four skills?

 Reading (comprehension skill)
 Listening (comprehension skill)
 Speaking (production skill)
 Writing (production skill)
How are the four skills used in the language classroom?
Through daily activities, teachers provide learners with opportunities to develop

each skill: students listen (to the teacher use the target language, to a song, to one
another in a pair activity), speak (pronunciation practice, greetings, dialogue creation or
recitation, songs, substitution drills, oral speed reading, role play), read (instructions,
written grammar drills, cards for playing games, flashcards) and write (fill-in-the-blank
sheets, sentences that describe a feeling, sight or experience, a dialogue script, a
journal entry).
This approach, however, does not combine the four skills so that they can be
used together to reach the same end (i.e. language development that is well-rounded).
Watch the video to see how this language teacher uses four skills activities in her
classroom: https://youtu.be/k6Z-GDKMYTE
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How can the four skills be used together effectively?
The four skills work in tandem when the activities that require their use are
designed to support learners in the process of learning, creating and producing a
specific product. Four approaches in particular are structured so that the four skills can
be used simultaneously. These approaches are: the focal skill approach, content-based
instruction, task-based instruction and the project-based approach.
The Focal Skill Approach
The goal of the focal skill approach is studying in the SL in order to acquire it. This
second language curriculum stresses the balanced development of listening, speaking,
reading and writing by measuring competency in each skill and then focusing on the
development of the weakest skill.
Content-based Instruction(CBI)
Oxford (2001) describes approaches to CBI, which include theme-based &

adjunct learning. Theme-based CBI focuses on a theme of high interest to students and
develops a wide range of language skills around that theme. The learning of the content
requires considerable exposure to a variety of forms of information, which, in turn,
requires the use of all four modalities.
In the adjunct form of CBI, language and content courses are taught separately
but are carefully coordinated so that literacy, oral
language development and thinking skills are positively
enhanced. In this approach, the content teacher
presents content to students while the language
teacher brings vocabulary, grammar and sub skill
development to students’ attention through typical
exercises, all of which focus on the lexicon of the
content.
Task-Based Instruction(TBI)
According to Nunan (1999), task-based instruction (TBI) uses tasks or stand-

aline activities which require comprehending, producing, manipulating or interacting in
the target language. The amount of listening, speaking, reading and writing involved to
complete the problem posed by the task is dictated by the task itself; however, most
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complex (multi step) real-life tasks that take learners

into the world outside the classroom will utilize all
four skills. TBI helps learners explore the multitude
of communication opportunities provided in their
surroundings. The tasks themselves are scaffolded
according to the cognitive demand required to
complete them and can be carried out individually, in
pairs or in small cooperative groups.
Project-Based Approach
This approach concretizes the integration of not only the
four skills but also language, culture, experience and learning
strategies (Turnbull, 1999). With the careful selection of a final
project that requires learners to demonstrate what they have
learned through both oral and written production, the teacher
plans backwards to identify what aspects of language, culture,
experience and learning strategies are required to complete the
end project.
Examples of Activities that Integrate the Four Skills

Two activities that make use of all four skills in tandem are Self-introduction and
Reading and Retell.
Self-introduction takes the answers to a series of personal

questions (name, age, grade level, where you live, members of your
family, favorite sports, animals, colors, subjects, etc.) and sequences
them into a self-introduction. Students are given large visuals to trigger
each component of the self-introduction. The teacher can point to each
picture while modeling a self-introduction (students
are listening) and then invite learners to introduce
themselves (speaking) to one or two if their peers. Some
of the visuals can then be changed and the students can
be invited to introduce themselves to others in the class to
whom they have never spoken. This activity can be
adapted to become a regular (daily, weekly) warm-up activity to get learners talking in
the target language. Having covered listening and speaking in the oral self-introduction,
a scenario can then be created wherein learners must write a self-introduction to a
potential homestay host. The same picture cues can be used, reconfigured to show a
salutation, closing and signature. The picture cues provide learners with support without
giving them a text to memorize.
In multilevel SL classes, graded readers can be excellent springboards for

another activity that integrates the four skills- a reading and retell. First, learners select
a book or story at their own level and read it. Learners are then given a template to
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follow to summarize their thoughts about the story (writing). The summary is designed
to help learners gauge the amount of detail required in a retell. After additional
practice reading the summary silently and aloud several times, learners are asked to
select two or three illustrations from the book to help them tell the story. They then
practice telling the story by using the pictures and remembering what they wrote in the
template. Students find a partner who has not read the same story and retell (speaking)
their story to one another using the selected illustrations. Partners not only listen to the
retell but also complete a feedback checklist (writing) about the retell. After reading the
feedback, partners switch roles.
Why are four skills activities useful?
Four skills activities in the language classroom serve many valuable purposes:
they give learners scaffolded support, opportunities to create, contexts in which to use
the language for exchanges of real information, evidence of their own ability (proof of
learning) and, most important, confidence.
LISTENING: THE TQLR PROCESS (Jocson, 1999)
TUNE IN: Right as the lecture begins, determine the speaker's topic and recall
what you may already know about the topic.
QUESTION: Early in the lecture, begin the listening process by asking

questions such as: "What point is the speaker making?", "What devices for
support is he/she using?", "What do I need to specifically remember?"
This process, if continued throughout the entire lecture, helps lead to an
understanding of main ideas, the speaker's organization of the material
being covered, and supporting details.
LISTEN: This includes hearing the basic message and answering the questions
being raised during the total process. In order to accomplish this, you must
anticipate what
Will be said, and take in what is said. Active alertness is ALWAYS REQUIRED.
REVIEW: This is the process of checking on the anticipated

message after the message is delivered. To review, you must
evaluate the message against your questions, fit ideas together,
summarize ideas, and evaluate the meaning and impact of
the message based on your circumstances. This review
process should lead to further questions and keep you constantly
tuned in to the lecture.
The TQLR process is one that works in a circular motion:

TUNE IN QUESTION
REVIEW LISTEN
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EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE LISTENING HABITS

EFFECTIVE
 Finding or creating something to arouse interest

in a speech or lecture you must listen to.
 Trying to get the message rather than worrying
about how it is presented.
 Listening to all that the speaker has to say before
criticizing.
 Looking for major ideas and relationships among
various points.
 Determining the speaker's organization first, then
taking notes that reflect his/her pattern.
 Really paying attention so that at any time you
can summarize the speaker's main ideas up to
that point in the lecture.
 Sitting where you will hear, then listening.
 Listening with a purpose.
 Subordinating specific words to the total meaning of the context.
 Anticipating what the speaker will say next, identifying ideas and support,
recapitulating
 Every few minutes what the speaker has told you.
INEFFECTIVE
 Calling the subject uninteresting.

 Criticizing the speaker's delivery.
 Getting overstimulated about specific
points in the speech.
 Listening only for the facts.
 Trying to make an outline of everything.
 Faking attention to the speaker.
 Tolerating or creating distractions.
 Evading difficult material.
To know more about the Activities in Integrating Listening with Other Macro Skills:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gh4BGdErylY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kvw12HtdfNw
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Advancing Learning: The Fifth Skill – “VIEWING”
We all know about the traditional four skills of reading, writing, speaking and
listening. But what about the fifth skill of ’viewing’? Kieran Donaghy, expert in the use of
visual arts in language teaching, explains what viewing is, why it’s important and how
you can implement it in the classroom.
We are living in a visual world. The advent of the internet and the digital
revolution, the ubiquity of mobile devices which allow us to capture still and moving
images easily, the appearance of video-sharing platforms such as YouTube and Vimeo,
and the emergence of social media networks such as Instagram and Facebook whose
users upload largely visual content, have all contributed to an extraordinary rise in visual
communication and to the image, and increasingly the moving image, becoming the
primary mode of communication around the world.
The majority of texts young people are encountering and creating are multimodal.
(A multimodal text is one where the meaning is communicated by more than one
mode – e.g. written text, audio, still pictures, moving pictures, gesture, use of space,
etc. Digital multimodal texts can include, for example, videos, slideshows and web
pages, while live multimodal texts can include theatre, storytelling and dance.) The fact
that communication nowadays is largely multimodal changes the construct of
communicative competence. This has huge implications for our educational systems.
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VIEWING DEFINED
In the Canadian Common Curriculum Framework, viewing is
defined as follows:
‘An active process of attending and comprehending visual

media, such as television, advertising images, films,
diagrams, symbols, photographs, videos, drama, drawings,
sculpture and paintings.’
So ‘viewing’ is about ‘reading’ – analyzing, evaluating and
appreciating – visual texts. Viewing is an active rather than a
passive process.
Importance of Viewing
We are language teachers, so it’s obvious we should focus on the written and
spoken word in our classes. So why images or multimodal texts that use should images,
matter at all to language teachers? Many teachers argue that language and text-based
approaches should take priority and that the image just distracts from the word.
However, as the majority of texts our students are accessing outside the classroom are
visual texts and multimodal texts which use images, surely we should give our student’s
opportunities to ‘read’ – analyses and evaluate – these types of texts in the classroom.
Furthermore, the majority of these multimodal texts – YouTube videos, info graphics,
websites, blogs, social media sites – are a combination of print text and image, where
the image, far from distracting from the text, actually enhances it.
Therefore, viewing is important because as students are dealing with mainly

multimodal texts they need to understand
them and to become more effective, active
and critical viewers to be able to participate
fully in society. Viewing helps students
develop the knowledge and skills to analyses
and evaluate visual texts and multimodal
texts that use visuals. Viewing also helps
students acquire information and appreciate
ideas and experiences visually communicated
by others.
What do active viewers do?

According to the Canadian Common Curriculum Framework, active and effective
viewers would ask themselves a series of questions such as:
 What is the text representing?
 How is the text constructed?
 What assumptions, interests, beliefs, biases and values are portrayed by the
text?
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 What is the purpose of the text?

 To whom is the text directed? Who does the text exclude?
 What is my reaction to the text? What causes this reaction?
 What personal connections and associations can I make with this text?
It’s important that students are aware that understanding the viewing process is as
important as understanding the listening and reading process. Students should
understand that effective, active viewers engage in the following procedure:
Pre-viewing: Students prepare to view by activating their schema (the prior knowledge
they bring to the study of a topic or theme), anticipating a message, predicting,
speculating, asking questions, and setting a purpose for viewing.
During viewing: Students view the visual text to understand the message by seeking
and checking understanding, by making connections, making and confirming predictions
and inferences, interpreting and summarizing, pausing and reviewing, and analyzing
and evaluating. Students should monitor their understanding by connecting to their
schema, questioning and reflecting.
After viewing / responding: Students should be given opportunities to respond

personally, critically and creatively to visual texts. Students respond by reflecting,
analyzing, evaluating and creating.
Film and video: The 3Cs and 3Ss

This framework was developed by Into Film and is used widely
in schools in the UK. The 3Cs (Color, Camera, Character) and the
3Ss (Story, Setting, Sound) framework can be used to help students
discuss and analyses all the elements of a film text.
Story, Setting, Sound, Color, Character and Camera are
simple headings with discussion questions teachers can use as an
easy way for exploring any film. Here are some of the discussion
questions:
Color
 What colors do you see?
 What do the colors make you feel?
 Why do you think certain colors are used?
 What mood do you think the colors create?
Camera
 What shots have been used? Can you name them?
 Through whose eyes do we see the story?
 When do we see different characters’ point of view?
 When does the camera move and when does it stay
still?
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Character
 What do the main characters look like?
 How do they speak and what do they say?
 How do they behave?
 Which character interests you the most? Why?
Story
 What happens in the beginning, middle and at the end
of the story?
 What are the most important things (events) that happen in the story?
 How do we know where the story takes place?
 How long does the story take place in ‘real’ time?
Setting
 Where does the action take place?
 When and how does the setting change?
 How could you tell where the story was taking
place?
 How could you tell when the story was taking
place?
Sound
 How many different sounds do you hear? What are
they?
 How does the music make you feel?
 Are there any moments of silence?
 Can you hear any sound effects?
Paintings and Photographs: See, Think, Wonder
The See, Think, Wonder routine is one of the Visible Thinking Routines developed by
researcher-educators for Project Zero at Harvard University. This routine helps students
make careful observations and develop their own ideas and interpretations based on
what they see when viewing a painting or photograph by asking these three questions.
 What do you see?
 What do you think about what you see?
 What does it make you wonder?
By separating the two questions – ‘What do you see?’ and ‘What do you think about
what you see?’ – the routine helps students distinguish between observations and
interpretations. By encouraging students to wonder and ask questions, the routine
stimulates students’ curiosity and helps students reach for new connections.
Watch the video to see to see the See, Think, Wonder routine being put into practice with secondary school
students:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qng_jR05xEI&list=FLYvTGljpRx7DFga8C19WhTg&index=24&t=149s
Page 9
The Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS)

The Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) approach was co-developed by Abigail
Housen and Philip Yenawine 30 years ago. It finds meaning in imagery and develops
visual literacy skills through learning in the arts, fostering thinking and communication
skills through listening carefully and expressing oneself. The approach works in the
following way:
 Students silently examine carefully selected art images

 The teacher asks these three open-ended questions
 What’s going on in this picture?
 What do you see that makes you say that?
 What more can we find?
 Students then …
 Look carefully at the image
 Talk about what they observe
 Back up their ideas with evidence
 Listen and consider the views of
others
 Discuss many possible interpretations
 Construct meaning together
 The teacher …
 Listens carefully to each comment
 Paraphrases student responses demonstrating language use
 Points to features described in the artwork throughout the discussion
 Facilitates student discussions
 Encourages scaffolding of observations and
interpretations
 Validates individual views
 Links related ideas and points of
agreement/disagreement
 Reinforces a range of ideas
Watch these videos to see the Visual Thinking Strategies approach being put into practice:
https://vimeo.com/201175331
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TOPIC 3: TYPES OF LISTENING
Most people, most of the time, take listening for granted, it’s something that just
happens. It is only when you stop to think about listening and what it entails that you
begin to realize that listening is in fact an important skill that needs to be nurtured and
developed.
General Listening Types:
The two main types of listening - the foundations of all listening sub-types are:
 Discriminative Listening
 Comprehensive Listening
Discriminative Listening
Discriminative listening is first

developed at a very early age – perhaps
even before birth, in the womb. This is the
most basic form of listening and does not
involve the understanding of the meaning of
words or phrases but merely the different
sounds that are produced. In early
childhood, for example, a distinction is made
between the sounds of the voices of the
parents – the voice of the father sounds
different to that of the mother.
Discriminative listening develops through childhood and into adulthood. As we

grow older and develop and gain more life experience, our ability to distinguish between
different sounds is improved. Not only can we recognize different voices, but we also
develop the ability to recognize subtle differences in the way that sounds are made –
this is fundamental to ultimately understanding what these sounds mean. Differences
include many subtleties, recognizing foreign languages, distinguishing between regional
accents and clues to the emotions and feelings of the speaker.
Being able to distinguish the subtleties of sound made by somebody who is

happy or sad, angry or stressed, for example, ultimately adds value to what is actually
being said and, of course, does aid comprehension. When discriminative listening skills
are combined with visual stimuli, the resulting ability to ‘listen’ to body-language enables
us to begin to understand the speaker more fully – for example recognizing somebody
is sad despite what they are saying or how they are saying it.
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Comprehensive Listening
Comprehensive listening involves

understanding the message or
messages that are being
communicated. Like discriminative
listening, comprehensive listening is
fundamental to all listening sub-
types.
In order to be able use

comprehensive listening and
therefore gain understanding the
listener first needs appropriate vocabulary and language skills. Using overly
complicated language or technical jargon, therefore, can be a barrier to comprehensive
listening. Comprehensive listening is further complicated by the fact that two different
people listening to the same thing may understand the message in two different
ways. This problem can be multiplied in a group setting, like a classroom or business
meeting where numerous different meanings can be derived from what has been said.
Comprehensive listening is complimented by sub-messages from non-verbal

communication, such as the tone of voice, gestures and other body language. These
non-verbal signals can greatly aid communication and comprehension but can also
confuse and potentially lead to misunderstanding. In many listening situations it is vital
to seek clarification and use skills such as reflection aid comprehension.
To know more about the types of Listening, please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lM8Mfv-QFzY
Specific Listening Types
Discriminative and comprehensive listening are prerequisites for specific listening types.
Listening types can be defined by the goal of the listening.
The three main types of listening most common in interpersonal communication are:
 Informational Listening (Listening to Learn)
 Critical Listening (Listening to Evaluate and Analyze)
 Therapeutic or Empathetic Listening (Listening to
Understand Feeling and Emotion)
In reality you may have more than one goal for listening
at any given time – for example, you may be listening to
learn whilst also attempting to be empathetic.
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Informational Listening
Whenever you listen to learn something, you

are engaged in informational listening. This is true
in many day-to-day situations, in education and at
work, when you listen to the news, watches a
documentary, when a friend tells you a recipe or
when you are talked-through a technical problem
with a computer – there are many other examples of
informational listening too.
Although all types of listening are ‘active’ –

they require concentration and a conscious effort to understand. Informational listening
is less active than many of the other types of listening. When we’re listening to learn or
be instructed we are taking in new information and facts, we are not criticizing or
analyzing. Informational listening, especially in formal settings like in work meetings or
while in education, is often accompanied by note taking – a way of recording key
information so that it can be reviewed later.
Critical Listening
We can be said to be engaged in critical listening when the goal is to evaluate or

scrutinize what is being said. Critical listening is a much more active behaviour than
informational listening and usually involves some sort of problem solving or decision
making. Critical listening is akin to critical reading; both involve analysis of the
information being received and alignment with what we already know or
believe. Whereas informational listening may be mostly concerned with receiving facts
and/or new information - critical listening is about analysing opinion and making a
judgment.
When the word ‘critical’ is used to describe listening, reading or thinking it does
not necessarily mean that you are claiming that the information you are listening to is
somehow faulty or flawed. Critical listening is, therefore, fundamental to true learning.
Many day-to-day decisions that we make are based on some form of ‘critical’
analysis, whether it be critical listening, reading or thought. Our opinions, values and
beliefs are based on our ability to process information and formulate our own feelings
about the world around us as well as weigh
up the pros and cons to make an informed
decision.
It is often important, when listening
critically, to have an open-mind and not be
biased by stereotypes or preconceived
ideas. By doing this you will become a better
listener and broaden your knowledge and
perception of other people and your
relationships.
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Therapeutic or Empathic Listening
Empathic listening involves attempting to

understand the feelings and emotions of the
speaker – to put yourself into the speaker’s
shoes and share their thoughts.
Empathy is a way of deeply connecting with

another person and therapeutic or empathic
listening can be particularly
challenging. Empathy is not the same as
sympathy, it involves more than being
compassionate or feeling sorry for
somebody else – it involves a deeper
connection – a realization and
understanding of another person’s point of
view.
Counselors, therapists and some other

professionals use therapeutic or empathic
listening to understand and ultimately help their clients. This type of listening does not
involve making judgments or offering advice but gently encouraging the speaker to
explain and elaborate on their feelings and emotions. Skills such as clarification and
reflection are often used to help avoid misunderstandings.
We are all capable of empathic listening and may practise it with friends, family
and colleagues. Showing empathy is a desirable trait in many interpersonal
relationships – you may well feel more comfortable talking about your own feelings and
emotions with a particular person. They are likely to be better at listening
empathetically to you than others, this is often based on similar perspectives,
experiences, beliefs and values – a good friend, your spouse, a parent or sibling for
example.
Other Listening Types
Although usually less important or useful in interpersonal relationships there are

other types of listening, these include:
Appreciative Listening
Appreciative listening is listening for enjoyment. A

good example is listening to music, especially as a way to
relax.
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Rapport Listening
When trying to build rapport with others we can engage in a type of

listening that encourages the other person to trust and like us. A
salesman, for example, may make an effort to listen carefully to what
you are saying as a way to promote trust and potentially make a
sale. This type of listening is common in situations of negotiation.
Selective Listening
This is a more negative type of listening; it implies that the

listener is somehow biased to what they are hearing. Bias can
be based on preconceived ideas or emotionally difficult
communications. Selective listening is a sign of failing
communication – you cannot hope to understand if you have
filtered out some of the message and may reinforce or
strengthen your bias for future communications.
To know more about the types of Listening, please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=22gzvSindTU
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/listeningtypes.html
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-communications/chapter/stages-of-
listening/
Page 5
PART 1: LISTENING
Objectives:
a.) Identify the function of Listening.
b.) Define the steps in listening process
c.) Imbibe the benefits of public speaking.
TOPIC 1: LISTENING
Listening is receiving language through the ears. Listening involves identifying the
sounds of speech and processing them into words and sentences. When we listen, we
use our ears to receive individual sounds (letters, stress, rhythm and pauses) and we
use our brain to convert these into messages that mean something to us.
Listening in any language requires focus and attention. It is a skill that

some people need to work at harder than others. People who
have difficulty concentrating are typically poor listeners.
Listening in a second language requires even greater
focus.
Like babies, we learn this skill by listening to people who already know how to speak the
language. This may or may not include native speakers. For practice, you can listen to
live or recorded voices. The most important thing is to listen to a variety of voices as
often as you can. To become a fluent speaker in English, you need to develop strong
listening skills. Listening not only helps you understand what people are saying to you. It
also helps you to speak clearly to other people. It helps you learn how to pronounce
words properly, how to use intonation, and where to place stress in words and
sentences.
Listening is NOT the Same as Hearing
Hearing refers to the sounds that enter your ears. It is a physical process that, provided
you do not have any hearing problems, happens automatically.
Listening, however, requires more than that: it requires focus and

concentrated effort, both mental and sometimes physical as well.
Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is
told, the use of language and voice, and how the other person
uses his or her body. In other words, it means being aware of both
verbal and non-verbal messages. Your ability to listen effectively
depends on the degree to which you perceive and understand
these messages.
Page 1
TOPIC 2: FIVE STEPS IN THE LISTENING PROCESS
STAGE 1: The Receiving Stage
The first stage of the listening process is the receiving stage, which involves
hearing and attending.
Hearing is the physiological process of registering sound waves as they hit the
eardrum. As obvious as it may seem, in order to effectively gather information through
listening, we must first be able to physically hear what we’re listening to. The clearer the
sound, the easier the listening process becomes.
The Challenges of Reception

Listeners are often bombarded with a variety of auditory stimuli all at once, so
they must differentiate which of those stimuli are speech sounds and which are not.
Effective listening involves being able to focus in on speech sounds while disregarding
other noise. For instance, a train passenger that hears the captain’s voice over the
loudspeaker understands that the captain is speaking then
deciphers what the captain is saying despite other voices in the
cabin. Another example is trying to listen to a friend tell a story
while walking down a busy street. In order to best listen to what
she’s saying, the listener needs to ignore the ambient street
sounds.
STAGE 2: The Understanding Stage
The understanding stage is the stage during which the listener determines the
context and meanings of the words that are heard.
The second stage in the listening process is the understanding stage.

Understanding or comprehension is ―shared meaning between parties in a
communication transaction‖ and constitutes the first step in the listening process. This is
the stage during which the listener determines the context and meanings of the words
he or she hears. Determining the context and meaning of individual words, as well as
assigning meaning in language, is essential to understanding sentences. This, in turn, is
essential to understanding a speaker’s message.
Page 2
Once the listeners understand the speaker’s

main point, they can begin to sort out the rest of the
information they are hearing and decide where it
belongs in their mental outline. For example, a political
candidate listens to her opponent’s arguments to
understand what policy decisions that opponent
supports.
Before getting the big picture of a message, it

can be difficult to focus on what the speaker is saying.
Think about walking into a lecture class halfway
through. You may immediately understand the words
and sentences that you are hearing, but not immediately understand what the lecturer is
proving or whether what you’re hearing in the moment is a main point, side note, or
digression.
Understanding what we hear is a huge part of our everyday lives, particularly in

terms of gathering basic information. In the office, people listen to their superiors for
instructions about what they are to do. At school, students listen to teachers to learn
new ideas. We listen to political candidates give policy speeches in order to determine
who will get our vote. But without understanding what we hear, none of this everyday
listening would relay any practical information to us.
One tactic for better understanding a speaker’s meaning is to ask questions.

Asking questions allows the listener to fill in any holes he or she may have in the mental
reconstruction of the speaker’s message.
STAGE 3: The Remembering Stage
The remembering stage occurs as the

listener categorizes and retains the information
she’s gathering from the speaker.
In the listening process, the remembering

stage occurs as the listener categorizes and
retains the information she’s gathered from the
speaker for future access. The result–memory–
allows the person to record information about
people, objects and events for later recall. This
happens both during and after the speaker’s
delivery.
Memory is essential throughout the listening process. We depend on our memory

to fill in the blanks when we’re listening and to let us place what we’re hearing at the
moment in the context of what we’ve heard before. If, for example, you forgot everything
that you heard immediately after you heard it, you would not be able to follow along with
Page 3
what a speaker says, and conversations would be impossible. Moreover, a friend who
expresses fear about a dog she sees on the sidewalk ahead can help you recall that the
friend began the conversation with her childhood memory of being attacked by a dog.
Remembering previous information is critical to moving forward. Similarly,

making associations to past remembered information can help a listener understand
what she is currently hearing in a wider context. In listening to a lecture about the
symptoms of depression, for example, a listener might make a connection to the
description of a character in a novel that she read years before.
Using information immediately after receiving it enhances information retention

and lessens the forgetting curve, or the rate at which we no longer retain information in
our memory. Conversely, retention is lessened when we engage in mindless listening,
and little effort is made to understand a speaker’s message.
Because everyone has different memories, the speaker and the listener may attach
different meanings to the same statement. In this sense, establishing common ground in
terms of context is extremely important, both for listeners and speakers.
STAGE4: The Evaluating Stage
The evaluating stage is the listening stage during which the listener critically
assesses the information they received from the speaker.
This stage of the listening process is the one during which the listener assesses
the information they received, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Evaluating allows the
listener to form an opinion of what they heard and, if necessary, to begin developing a
response.
During the evaluating stage, the listener determines whether or not the
information they heard and understood from the speaker is well
constructed or disorganized, biased or unbiased, true or
false, significant or insignificant. They also ascertain how
and why the speaker has come up with and conveyed the
message that they delivered. This may involve
considerations of a speaker’s personal or professional
motivations and goals. For example, a listener may
determine that a co-worker’s vehement condemnation of
another for jamming the copier is factually correct, but may also
understand that the co-worker’s child is sick and that may be putting
them on edge. A voter who listens to and understands the points made in a political
candidate’s stump speech can decide whether or not those points were convincing
enough to earn their vote.
This stage of critical analysis is important for a listener in terms of how what they
heard will affect their own ideas, decisions, actions, and/or beliefs.
Page 4
STAGE 5: The Responding/Feedback Stage
The responding stage is when the listener provides

verbal and/or nonverbal reactions to what she hears.
The responding stage is the stage of the

listening process wherein the listener provides
verbal and/or nonverbal reactions based on short-
or long-term memory. Following the remembering
stage, a listener can respond to what they hear
either verbally or non-verbally. Nonverbal signals can
include gestures such as nodding, making eye contact, tapping
a pen, fidgeting, scratching or cocking their head, smiling, rolling their eyes, grimacing,
or any other body language. These kinds of responses can be displayed purposefully or
involuntarily. Responding verbally might involve asking a question, requesting additional
information, redirecting or changing the focus of a conversation, cutting off a speaker, or
repeating what a speaker has said back to her in order to verify that the received
message matches the intended message.
Nonverbal responses like nodding or eye contact allow the listener to

communicate their level of interest without interrupting the speaker, thereby preserving
the speaker/listener roles. When a listener responds verbally to what they hear and
remember—for example, with a question or a comment—the speaker/listener roles are
reversed, at least momentarily.
Responding adds action to the listening process, which would

otherwise be an outwardly passive process. Oftentimes, the speaker
looks for verbal and nonverbal responses from the listener to determine
if and how their message is being understood and/or considered. Based
on the listener’s responses, the speaker can choose to either adjust or
continue with the delivery of her message. For example, if a listener’s
brow is furrowed and their arms are crossed, the speaker may determine that she
needs to lighten their tone to better communicate their point. If a listener is smiling and
nodding or asking questions, the speaker may feel that the listener is engaged and her
message is being communicated effectively.
To know more about the Roles in the Production, please click the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lM8Mfv-QFzY
To know more about the Listening process please click the link below.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=47TD4uIs7xQ
https://www.englishclub.com/listening/what.htm
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/listening-skills.html
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-communications/chapter/stages-of-listening/
Page 5

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MODULE TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF MACROSKILLS

Story Grammar: A Structural Approach to Facilitate Comprehension

Stage 1: Develop and Activate Background Knowledge

Prior to teaching the strategy, it is necessary to evaluate the student‟s background

Stage 2: Discuss the Strategy

Stage 3: Model the Strategy

A wall chart will serve as a guide during

Stage 4: Support the Strategy

Stage 5: Support the Strategy

Cloze Procedure Technique for the Improvement of Reading Comprehension

Cloze procedure is a technique in which words are deleted

Purpose of Cloze Procedure

Improving Comprehension through Semantic Webbing

Freedman and Reynolds (1980) define semantic webbing or mapping as a process of

What are the components of a basic model?

What are the basic steps in the semantic webbing process?

Topic 4: Reading Strategies for Specific Purposes

Reading Strategies for Specific Purposes

General Instructional Activities

To correspond with a typical reading lesson,

Before reading, the teacher may:

Students, with some help from the teacher, may:

Students, with some help from the teacher, may:

After reading, the teacher may:

 Guide discussion of the reading.

Students, with some help from the teacher, may:

Activities and Procedures for Use with Narrative

The following are some examples of specific procedures

Retelling involves having students orally reconstruct a

More complete retelling

Most complete retelling

Story maps to be used with younger students can be

Simple Story Map

providing corrective feedback along the way.

Directed Reading and Thinking Activity (DRTA)

This procedure focuses on reading as a thinking process. Its intent is to teach

I Predict Proof from the Text

Activities and Procedures for Use with Expository Text

What I Know What I Want To Learn What I Learned

Questioning the Author

The teacher first models and explains how to

Transactional Strategy Instruction

Instruction occurs in small-group settings, with

The I-Chart Procedure

The I-Chart Procedure is a technique that promotes critical thinking by

The procedure is organized into three phases: Planning, Interacting, Integrating

Teacher Questions and Student Questions

In the Interacting phase, students record their background knowledge of the

Reading Readiness Period

How do you know if a child is ready to read?

Activities to help develop children’s reading skills:

Topic 3: Concepts, Theories and Principles of Vocabulary and Reading

The Importance of Vocabulary Development

According to Steven Stahl (2005), ―Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the

Differences in Early Vocabulary Development

 Language rich home with lots of verbal stimulation

Why do some students have a limited, inadequate vocabulary

 Speaking/vocabulary not encouraged at home

 Second language—English language learners

How Vocabulary Affects Reading Development

Incidental and Intentional Vocabulary Learning

Incidental Vocabulary Learning

Most students acquire vocabulary incidentally through indirect exposure to words

The amount of reading is important to long-term vocabulary development