Remedial

Instructions in
English
Martin Dave Ramirez
Enopequis
Instructor
Course Description:
This three-unit course in Remedial Instruction in
English deals with the strategies and methods of
contemporary English language teaching.
This is geared for English language learners who
are faced with difficulty in competence in one or
more domains. It also attempts to provide actual
remediation through hands-on practice and various
situational case studies.
I. Orientation to Functional
Grammar
a. Parts of speech
b. Verbs & Tenses
c. Sentences Structures
Suggested Reading/Resources Materials
Theory and Problems of ENGLISH
GRAMMAR Third Edition by Eugene Ehrlich
ACTIVITY
 Remedial
Instructions in
English
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson/session, students will be
able to:
• Identify the Remedial Classroom which includes
organization and management.
• Determine general instructional guidelines that
should be considered.
Warm Up Motivation!
(Get ¼ sheet of paper)
Unit I.
The Remedial Classroom:
Organization and
Management
A remedial program primarily helps students
address language skills deficits by helping them
acquire self-confidence to face their own
weakness and overcome these through the
acquisition of self-help strategies.
A thorough assessment must be conducted before
organizing a remedial program, while consistent
monitoring is imperative in managing the
Below are general instructional guidelines that
should be considered;
 Instruction is systematic when it is planned, deliberate
in application, and proceeds in an orderly manner. This
does not mean a rigid progression of one-size-fits-all
teaching.
 Intensive instruction on any particular skill or strategy
should be based on need. Thus, intensity will vary both
with individuals and groups.
 There is no substitute for ongoing documentation and
monitoring of learning to determine the order in which
skills should be addressed and the level of intensity
required to help a child or group of children succeed in a
particular area.
 To track specific goals and objectives within an
integrated language-arts framework, teachers must
know the instructional objectives their curriculum
requires at the grade or year level they teach.
A. Organization
In organizing a remedial program,
one must consider the following
factors:
1. CURRICULUM
a. Base goals and standards for language learning
on theory and research.
b. Relate teacher beliefs and knowledge about
instruction to research.
c. Organize the curriculum framework so that it
is usable
d. Select materials that facilitate accomplishment
of school goals.
2. INSTRUCTION
a. The program must identify instructional strategies and
activities for learners.
b. Instruction must be based upon what we know about the
effective teaching of language skills.
c. Those involved in designing or selecting instructional
activities need to consider the variables that contribute to
success in language learning, given its interactive and
constructive nature.
d. Time must be provided in the classroom for practice.
2. INSTRUCTION
e. Composing should be an integral part of
the program.
f. Students should be given opportunities to become
independent and to self-monitor their progress.
g. The climate in a school must be conducive to the
development of students. h. The school must develop an
organizational structure that meets individual needs of
students.
i. The program must provide for coordination among all
language programs offered in the school.
3. ASSESSMENT
a. Use assessment to guide instruction.
b. Develop scoring guides and rubrics.
c. Seek alignment among various layers of
assessment
B. Management
School-based remedial sessions tend to involve 3 to 10 learners,
and typically last between 30 to 50 minutes, depending on whether
they are in the elementary or secondary level.
A plan to maximize the utilization of that time should be a high
priority. To ensure that the program is effective, one must
consider the six components of an ideal remedial program (Manzo
& Manzo, 1993). These principles may also be applicable in
remediation for other skills aside from reading.
1. The orientation component. The orientation component
provides continuity and focus to the remedial session. It may
be an engaging question or statement related to local or
national news, or even school life. It must focus on
structured routines, materials, equipment, venue, people
involved, and the objective of the program.
2. Direct Instruction Component. This is the instructional
heart of the remedial session. It should never be traded
away, even for one period, without some compelling reason.
3. Reinforcement and Extension Component. This
period of time ideally should build on the direct
instructional period and be spent in empowered reading,
writing, and discussion of what was read. Writing activities
may vary from simply listing key words to summarizing and
reacting.
4. Schema-Enhancement Component. This unit of time
should be spent in building a knowledge base for further
reading and independent thinking. It is an ideal time to teach
study skills such as outlining, note taking, and memory
training. Ideally, it should flow or precede Component 3.
5. Personal-Emotional Growth Development. There is
little learning or consequence that can occur without the
learner involvement and anticipation of personal progress.
6. Cognitive Development Component. This component
should contain an attempt to enhance basic thinking
operation such as: inference, abstract verbal reasoning,
analogical reasoning, constructive-critical/ creative reading,
convergent and divergent analysis, problem-solving, and
metacognition
 Remedial
Instructions in
English
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson/session, students will be
able to:
• Determine Remedial Instruction in READING and
its other special features
• Correcting Perceptual and Decoding Deficits in
Word Recognition
Unit II
Remedial Instruction in
READING
A. Correcting Perceptual
and Decoding Deficits in
Word Recognition
We can identify the student who has insufficient competence in
the visual analysis of words in two ways. First, the student, when
pronouncing words verbally, selects inappropriate elements to
sound out and often he/she tries again and again to use the same
analysis even when it does not work.
The second way can be done when the teacher shows him/her the
word covering up parts of it, if the student is able to recognize it,
then at least one of his/her problems in word recognition is faulty
visual analysis.
B. Definition
of Terms
1. Alphabetic Knowledge: understanding that letters
represent sound so that words may be read by saying the
sounds represented by the letters, and words may be
spelled by writing the letters that represent the sounds in
a word.
2. Sight-Word Knowledge: all words any one reader can
recognize instantly (with automaticity) not necessarily
with meaning.
3. Basic Sight Words: a designated list of words,
usually of high utility.
4. Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence:
(a.k.a. graphophonic knowledge) the readers’
ability to use phonics, phonemic, and structural
analysis knowledge.
C. Correcting Sight-
Word Knowledge
Deficit
1. Write a sentence on the chalkboard with the new
word used in context. Underline the word.
2. Let students read the sentence and attempt to say the
new word using context clues along with other word-
attack skills. If you are introducing a new story, it is
especially important that you do not tell them each new
word in advance, as this deprives them of the
opportunity to apply word-attack skills themselves.
3. Discuss the meaning of the word or how it is used in
talking and writing. Try to tie to something in their
experience. If possible, illustrate the word with a picture
or a concrete object.
4. Write the word as students watch. Ask them to look
for certain configuration clues such as double letters,
extenders, and descenders. Also ask them to look for any
well-known phonograms or word families, e.g. ill, ant,
ake, but do not call attention to little words in longer
words.
WARM UP!
(Get your Notebook)
SPELL OUT
WORDS
1. Inevitable - unavoidable
2. Vicious - cruel or dangerous
3. Chihuahua – kind of dogs
4. Colloquial – informal/ordinary
5. Amorphous - no shape
6. Fallacious – false or mistaken idea
7. Straighten – to make straight
8. Viscount - noblemen from Britain
9. Opaque – Not transparent, unable to seen through
10. Acquaintance – a person knowledge of something
D. Correcting Basic
Sight Vocabulary
Deficit
1. Have the students trace the word; write it on
paper, or use chalk or magic slates.
2. Have the students repeat the word each time
it is written.
3. Have the students write the word without
looking at the flash card; then compare the two.
4. Create “study buddies.” Match learners in the
classroom with fellow students who have mastered the
words. Take time to teach the “tutors” how to reinforce
new words. Provide a big reward to both tutor and learner
once the learner has attained the goal.
5. Provide reinforcement games for students to use on their
own or with their study buddies. Games may be open-
ended game boards or developed by levels according to the
sublists
6. Provide charts, graphs, and other devices for
students to display their progress. These serve as
excellent motivators, especially since students are
competing with themselves rather than each other.
7. Use your imagination. Have students dramatize
phrases, build a sight-word “cave,” practice words
while lining up, read sight-word “plays,” etc.
E. Syllabication
Principles
1. When two consonants stand between two vowels, the word is
usually divided between the consonants, e.g., dag-ger and cir-
cus. In some of the newer materials, materials are divided after
the double consonant, e.g., dagg-er. It should be remembered
that in reading we are usually teaching syllabication as a
means of word attack. Therefore, we should also accept a
division after double consonants as correct even though the
dictionary would not show it that way.
2. When one consonant stands between two vowels, try
dividing first so that the consonant goes with the second
vowels, e,g., pa-per and motor, Students should be taught
that flexibility is required in using this rule; if this does
not give a word in the student’s speaking-listening
vocabulary, then the student should divide it so that the
consonant goes with the first vowel, as in riv-er and lev-
er.
3. When a word ends in a consonant and le, the
consonant usually begins the last syllable, e.g., ta-ble
and hum-ble.
4. Compound words are usually divided between
word parts and between syllables in this parts, e.g.,
hen-house and po-lice-man.
5. Prefixes and suffixes usually form separate
syllables
Unit II, Lesson 2.
Remediation through
Phonemic Awareness
The following are Critical Phonemic Awareness skills
students should learn
1. Sound Isolation.
Example: The first sound in sun is /ssss/. Example Instruction: In
sound isolation use conspicuous strategies. a. Show students how
to do all the steps in the task before asking children to do the task.
Example: (Put down 2 pictures that begin with different sounds
and say the names of the pictures.) "My turn to say the first sound
in man, /mmm/. Mmman begins with /mmm/. Everyone, say the
first sound in man, /mmm/." Non-example: "Who can tell me the
first sounds in these pictures?"
b. Use consistent and brief wording.
Example: "The first sound in Mmman is /mmm/. Everyone say the
first sound in man, /mmm/." Non-example: "Man starts with the
same sound as the first sounds in mountain, mop, and Miranda. Does
anyone know other words that begin with the same sound as man?"
c. Correct errors by telling the answer and asking students to repeat
the correct answer.
Example: "The first sound in Man is /mmm/. Say the first sound in
mmman with me, /mmm/. /Mmmm/." Non-example: Asking the
question again or asking more questions. "Look at the picture again.
What is the first sound?"
2. Blending (Example: /sss/ - / uuu/ - /nnn/ is sun). In
blending instruction, use scaffold task difficulty.
a. When students are first learning to blend, use examples
with continuous sounds, because the sounds can be stretched
and held. Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a
broken way. When he says /mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/ he means
mom." Non-example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in
a broken way. When he says /b/ - /e/ - /d/ he means bed."
b. When students are first learning the task, use short words
in teaching and practice examples. Use pictures when
possible.
Example: Put down 3 pictures of CVC words and say: "My
lion puppet wants one of these pictures. Listen to hear which
picture he wants, /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/. Which picture?" Non-
example: ".../p/ - /e/ - /n/ - /c/ - /i/ - /l/. Which picture?" (This
is a more advanced model that should be used later.)
c. When students are first learning the task, use
materials that reduce memory load and to represent
sounds.
Example: Use pictures to help them remember the
words and to focus their attention. Use a 3-square
strip or blocks to represent sounds in a word. Non-
example: Provide only verbal activities.
d. As students become successful during initial learning,
remove scaffolds by using progressively more difficult
examples. As students become successful with more difficult
examples, use fewer scaffolds, such as pictures. Example:
Move from syllable or onset-rime blending to blending with
all sounds in a word (phoneme blending). Remove scaffolds,
such as pictures. "Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/. Which picture?"
"Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/. What word?" Non-example:
Provide instruction and practice at only the easiest levels with
all the scaffolds.
3. Segmenting (Example: The sounds in sun are /sss/ -
/uuu/ - /nnn/) In phoneme segmentation instruction, strategically
integrate familiar and new information.
a. Recycle instructional and practice examples used for blending.
Blending and segmenting are sides of the same coin. The only
difference is whether students hear or produce a segmented word.
Note: A segmenting response is more difficult for children to
reproduce than a blending response. Example: "Listen, my lion
puppet likes to say the sounds in words. The sounds in mom are
/mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/. Say the sounds in mom with us. "
b. Concurrently teach letter-sound correspondences for the
sounds students will be segmenting in words.
Example: Letter sound /s/ and words sun and sit. Put down
letter cards for familiar letter-sounds. Then, have them place
pictures by the letter that begins with the same sound as the
picture. Non-example: Use letter-sounds that have not been
taught when teaching first sound in pictures for phoneme
isolation activities.
Remedial Vocabulary Instruction
Vocabulary is initially acquired in four ways:
• Incidentally, through reading and conversation
• Through direct instruction, as when a teacher or auto-
instructional program is used intentionally build vocabulary
power
• Through self-instruction, as when words are looked up in a
dictionary or their meaning are sought from others in a
conscious manner.
• Through mental manipulation while thinking, speaking ,and
writing
1. Considerations in remedial vocabulary instruction.
Connect vocabulary instruction to the natural processes of
word learning. The literature on vocabulary acquisition
tends to divide the teaching of vocabulary into five phases.
These are:
a. Disposition – opening the student’s mind and will to
engage new words.
b. Integration – establishing ties between the meaning of a
new word and the student’s existing knowledge.
c. Repetition – provisions for practice distributed over
time, as well as opportunities for frequent encounters with
the word in similar and differing contexts.
d. Interaction and meaningful use – social situations
conducive to using new words in interactions with others
and, thus, mentally referencing new words in listening,
reading, writing, and speaking.
e. Self-instruction – maintaining an awareness of new
words outside the classroom.
2. Concept-Based Approach to Vocabulary Building
a. Identify the relevant and irrelevant features of the concept in
question.
b. Provide examples of the concept.
c. Provide examples of irrelevant but loosely related concepts with
which it might be compared.
d. Relate the concept by some possible smaller or subordinating
concepts.
e. Relate or categorize the concept by some possible larger or
subordinating concepts.
f. Relate or categorize the concept alongside equal or coordinating
terms.
3. Subjective Approach to Vocabulary (SAV)
a. Identify two to four words to be taught or pre-taught if
SAV is used as a pre-reading activity. If a word list is used,
be sure to include as many words as possible that impart
concepts and feelings that you would wish students to learn.
b. The teacher tells the student the full meaning of a word,
much as it might be found in a dictionary. It is recorded in a
Word Study Journal as the “objective” or dictionary
meaning.
c. The teacher asks the student, “What does this word remind you
of?” or “What do you picture or think of when you hear this
word?” Explain that discussion of a personal association with a
word can be very helpful in remembering and clarifying its
meaning.
d. The teacher talks to the student through this personal search for
meaning by asking further clarifying questions, and in group
situations by pointing out those images suggested that seem most
vivid. The teacher may add his or her own images. Students are
then directed to write some “subjective” or personal associations for
the new word under the previously written dictionary definition in
their journals. Drawings can be added.
c. The teacher asks the student, “What does this word remind you
of?” or “What do you picture or think of when you hear this
word?” Explain that discussion of a personal association with a
word can be very helpful in remembering and clarifying its
meaning.
d. The teacher talks to the student through this personal search for
meaning by asking further clarifying questions, and in group
situations by pointing out those images suggested that seem most
vivid. The teacher may add his or her own images. Students are
then directed to write some “subjective” or personal associations for
the new word under the previously written dictionary definition in
their journals. Drawings can be added.
e. Silent reading follows next when SAV is used as pre-reading
vocabulary development. When it is being used for general
vocabulary development, students are given 5 to 10 minutes to study
and rehearse the new and previously recorded words.
f. The teacher let the student close the Word Study Journal and asks
him/her the meanings of the words studied that day and a few
others from previous days. This step can be tied to seat exercises in
conventional workbooks such as crossword puzzles, category games,
etc. This manipulation and reinforcement step can be made easier
by selecting the words to be taught from the exercise material.
4. Motor Imaging
It appears that even the highest forms of vocabulary and
concept learning have psychomotor foundations, or
equivalents. Hence, motor movements associated with
certain stimuli can become interiorized as a “symbolic
meaning” (Piaget, 1963 in Manzo and Manzo1993).
There are three considerable advantages to knowing this
where remediation is concerned
a. First, since physical-sensory or proprioceptive learning can be
interiorized, they also can be self-stimulating, and as such, they are
easier to rehearse and recall with the slightest mental reminder, as
well as from external stimulation.
b. Second, proprioceptive learning is so basic to human learning
that it is common to all learners, fast and slow, and hence, ideal for
heterogeneously grouped classes.
c. Third, the act of identifying and acting out a word becomes a life
experience in itself with the word – a value that Frederick
Duffellmeyer (1980) in Manzo and Manzo (1993) demonstrated
when he successfully taught youngsters words via the “experiential”
approach.
PROCEDURE

1. Take a difficult word from the text, write it on the chalkboard,

pronounce it, and tell what it means.

2. Ask students to imagine a simple pantomime for the word meaning

(“How could you show someone what this word means with just your

hands or a gesture?”)
4. Select the most common pantomime observed.
Demonstrate it all to the students, saying the word while
doing the pantomime.
5. Repeat each new word, this time directing the class to do
the pantomime while saying a brief meaning or simple
synonym.
6. Let the students encounter the word in the assigned
reading material.
7. Try to use the pantomime casually whenever the word is
used for a short time thereafter.
Group Activity
(Performance Task)
 Remedial
Instructions in
English
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson/session, students will be
able to:
• Identify Remedial Instruction in Listening and its
other special features.
• Determine Factors Affecting Students’ Listening
Comprehension.
• Classify ways to improve Students’ Listening
Comprehension
Warm Up!
ACTIVITY
(Individual Task)
Direction: Accomplish this activity by gathering related and
similar concepts/ideas in the given term below using the
Semantic Map.

Listening
Unit III
Remedial Instruction in
Listening
A. Factors Affecting Students’ Listening Comprehension
1. Internal factors – refer to the learner characteristics,
language proficiency, memory, age, gender, background
knowledge as well as aptitude, motivation, and
psychological and physiological factors
2. External factors - are mainly related to the type of
language input and tasks and the context in which listening
occurs
A. Factors Affecting Students’ Listening Comprehension
1. Internal factors – refer to the learner characteristics,
language proficiency, memory, age, gender, background
knowledge as well as aptitude, motivation, and
psychological and physiological factors
2. External factors - are mainly related to the type of
language input and tasks and the context in which listening
occurs
Internal Factors
1. Problems in language proficiency (cover problems on phonetics
and phonology like phonetic discrimination, and phonetic
varieties; problems in grammar; and lexicological problems)
2. Poor background knowledge
3. Lack of motivation to listen
4. Psychological factors
5. Other internal factors (age, attention span, memory span,
reaction and sensitivity)
External Factors
1. Speed of delivery and different accents of the speakers
2. The content and task of listening materials
3. Context - refers to the spatial-temporal location of the
utterance, i.e. on the particular time and particular place
at which the speaker makes an utterance and the
particular time and place at which the listener hears or
reads the utterance.
External Factors
4. Co-text - another major factor influencing the interpretation of
meaning. It refers to the linguistic context or the textual
environment provided by the discourse or text in which a
particular utterance occurs. Co-text constrains the way in which
we interpret the response.
Here we can infer that the person is not going to a picnic by
judging from the co-text.
A: Are you coming going to Baguio with us?
B: I have a paper to finish by Monday.
How to Improve Students’
Listening Comprehension
1. Teach pronunciation, stress, and intonation of the critical

sounds of English

2. Practice sound discrimination, and incomplete plosives

3. Recognize stressed and unstressed words

4. Enrich vocabulary

5. Teach grammar

6. Practice inferring information not directly stated

 Remedial
Instructions in
English
Unit IV
Remedial Instruction in
Speaking
Warm Up!
Dictionary Game
What makes speaking difficult?
1. Clustering
2. Redundancy
3. Reduced forms
4. Performance variables
5. Colloquial language
6. Rate of delivery
7. Stress, rhythm, and intonation
8. Interaction
Teaching Pronunciation
Below are techniques and practice, materials in teaching
pronunciation which have been used traditionally and
continues to be utilized in speaking classes.
1. Listen and imitate. Learners listen to a model provided by
the teacher and then repeat or imitate it.
2. Phonetic training. Articulatory descriptions, articulatory
diagrams, and a phonetic alphabet are used.
3. Minimal Pair drills. These provide practice on
problematic sounds in the target language through listening
discrimination and spoken practice. Drills begin with word
level then move to sentence-level.
4. Contextualized minimal pairs. The teacher established the
setting or context then key vocabulary is presented. Students
provide meaningful response to sentence stem.
5. Visual aids. These materials are used to cue production of
focus sounds.
6. Tongue twisters
7. Developmental approximation drills. Second
language speakers take after the steps that English-
speaking children follow in acquiring certain sounds.
8. Practice of vowel shifts and stress shifts related by
affixation
Vowel shift: mime (long i) mimic (short i)
Sentence context: Street mimes often mimic the
gestures of passersby.
Stress shift: PHOtograph phoTOGraphy
Sentence context: I can tell from these photographs
that you are very good at photography.
9. Reading aloud/recitation. Passages and scripts are
used for students to practice and then read aloud
focusing on stress, timing, and intonation.
10. Recording of learners’ production. Playback
allows for giving of feedback and self-evaluation.
 The Use of Accuracy-based Activities Accuracy
precedes fluency. Form-focused activities prepare
students for communicative tasks. These activities
have a high degree of control and focuses on specific
language components. To strike a balance, Hedge
(2000) describes how to make accuracy-based
activities meaningful.
1. Contextualized practice.
This aims to establish the link between form and function.
The activity should highlight the situation where the form is
commonly used.
2. Personalizing language.
Personalized practice encourages learners to express their
ideas, feelings, and opinions. These activities help learners
to use language in interpersonal interactions. A variety of
gambits or useful expressions should be provided.
3. Building awareness of the social use of
language.
This involves understanding social conventions in
interaction. Communication strategies are directly taught
and practiced through contextualized activities.
4. Building confidence.
The key is to create a positive climate in classroom where
learners are encouraged to take risks and engage in
activities
Talking to Second Language Learners in the beginning level
Cary (1997) suggests that teachers need to make speech
modifications as a form of instructional support when teaching
with second language learners.
1. Speak at standard speed. This means providing more and
slightly longer pauses to give students more time to make sense of
the utterances.
2. Use more gestures, movement, and facial expressions. These
provide emphasis on words and give learners extra clues as they
search for meaning.
Talking to Second Language Learners in the beginning level
Cary (1997) suggests that teachers need to make speech
modifications as a form of instructional support when teaching
with second language learners.
1. Speak at standard speed. This means providing more and
slightly longer pauses to give students more time to make sense of
the utterances.
2. Use more gestures, movement, and facial expressions. These
provide emphasis on words and give learners extra clues as they
search for meaning.
3. Be careful with fused forms.
Language compressions or reduces forms can be difficult
for learners. Use these forms without overusing or
eliminating them altogether.
4. Use shorter, simpler, sentences.
5. Use specific names instead of pronouns .
 Remedial
Instructions in
English
Unit V
Remedial Instruction in
Writing
 Areas of Difficulty
for Students with
Writing Problem
1. Knowledge Difficulties

Students with writing problems show:

a. Less awareness of what constitutes good writing and how to

produce it;

b. Restricted knowledge about genre-specific text structures

c. Poor declarative, procedural, and conditional strategy

knowledge (e.g., knowing that one should set goals for

writing, how to set specific goals, and when it is most

beneficial to alter those goals);

d. Limited vocabulary;

e. Underdeveloped knowledge of word and sentence structure

f. Impoverished, fragmented, and poorly organized topic

knowledge;

g. Difficulty accessing existing topic knowledge; and

h. Insensitivity to audience needs and perspectives, and

to the functions their writing is intended to serve.

2. Skill Difficulties

Students with writing problems:

a. Often do not plan before or during writing;

b. Exhibit poor text transcription (e.g., spelling, handwriting,

and punctuation);
d. Do not analyze or reflect on writing;

e. Have limited ability to self regulate thoughts, feelings, and

actions throughout the writing process;

f. Show poor attention and concentration; and

g. Have visual motor integration weaknesses and fine motor

3. Motivation Difficulties

Students with writing problems:

a. Often do not develop writing goals and sub goals or flexibly

alter them to meet audience, task, and personal demands;

b. Fail to balance performance goals, which relate to

documenting performance and achieving success, and mastery

c. Exhibit maladaptive attributions by attributing academic

success to external and uncontrollable factors such as task ease or

teacher assistance, but academic failure to internal yet

uncontrollable factors such as limited aptitude;

d. Have negative self efficacy (competency) beliefs;

e. Lack persistence; and

Qualities of Strong Writing Instruction

In order for teachers to support all students' writing ability

development, certain qualities of the writing classroom must

be present.

Four core components of effective writing instruction

1. Students should have meaningful writing experiences

and be assigned authentic writing tasks that promote personal

and collective expression, reflection, inquiry, discovery, and

social change.

2. Routines should permit students to become comfortable

with the writing process and move through the process over a
3. Lessons should be designed to help students master craft elements

(e.g., text structure, character development), writing skills (e.g.,

spelling, punctuation), and process strategies (e.g., planning and

revising tactics).

4. A common language for shared expectations and feedback

regarding writing quality might include the use of traits (e.g.,

Adaptations for

Struggling Writers
1. Accommodations in the Learning Environment

a. Increase instructional time for writing.

b. Provide quiet and comfortable spaces for students to work.

c. Provide unimpeded access to writing tools.

d. Let students identify and select meaningful reinforcements for achieving

writing goals (e.g., a reinforcement menu).

e. Consult with an occupational therapist to identify specialized adaptations

2. Accommodations in Instructional Materials

a. Simplify language of writing prompts.

b. Highlight (e.g., color code) key words and phrases.

c. Transition from simple to more elaborate graphic organizers and

procedural checklists.

d. Post strategies, graphic organizers, and checklists in classroom and

f. Have students keep a personal dictionary of “demon” words and

frequently used spelling vocabulary.

g. Provide paper positioning marks on students’ desks.

h. Provide pencil grips for students.

i. Provide raised- or colored-lined paper.

j. Provide students with personal copies of alphabet strips.

f. Have students keep a personal dictionary of “demon” words and

frequently used spelling vocabulary.

g. Provide paper positioning marks on students’ desks.

h. Provide pencil grips for students.

i. Provide raised- or colored-lined paper.

j. Provide students with personal copies of alphabet strips.

 Remedial
Instructions in
English
Unit VI
Language Programs and
Policies in Multilingual
Societies
Course Description:
Exploring the relationship between language
and society. In particular, it examines why
people use language differently in different
social situations, and aims to explain how they
convey social meaning and signal aspects of
our social and cultural identity through
language.
Course Description:
We will discuss how language is used in
multilingual and monolingual speech
communities, explore the reasons for language
change, and identify the social and contextual
factors conditioning various linguistic
responses.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the course, you will be familiar
with key sociolinguistic concepts such as
bilingualism, code-switching, language change,
language shift, language death, language
revival, standard and vernacular languages,
national and official languages, regional and
social dialects, politeness.
Learning Outcomes:
You will also develop an understanding of how
language use is affected by solidarity/distance and
power relationships, gender, age, socio economic class
and social networks. You will learn about
sociolinguistic methods through illustrations from a
variety of languages, as well as applications within
your own speech community, and you will develop the
ability to critically think about hard questions in a
disciplined way that will help you in other courses, too.
YOUR FOCUS!
Teaching and Learning Languages and
Multiliteracies responding to MTB-MLE
(Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual
Education)
Chapter 1
Theories and Principles of
MTB-MLE
This Chapter provides the theoretical underpinnings of first
and second language acquisition and learning. It is divided
into 3 lessons which discuss sociological and cultural
perspective of language, first language acquisition (FLA) and
literacy development, and language development and second
language.
Lesson 1
Language Identity:
Sociological and Cultural
Perspectives of Language
Learning Outcomes
The students should be able to:
• Define language.
• Explain the relationship of language and identity.
• Analyze the relevance of society and culture to
language development and communication.
• Show the different western cultural influences on
the various Philippine languages.
Introduction
Language is considered one of the elements of
culture. It is the system of words or signs that a
particular group of people uses to express
thoughts and feelings with each other; hence, if
you do not belong to the same group of culture
you do not speak the same language.
Introduction
Language is considered one of the elements of
culture. It is the system of words or signs that a
particular group of people uses to express
thoughts and feelings with each other; hence, if
you do not belong to the same group of culture
you do not speak the same language.
 e m b e
m
Re As educators, we need to know how
! we process information and therefore be
rhow
language shapes who we are, how we think, and

able to guide our language learners becoming

proficient communicators using their mother
tongues and other desired languages.
What is
Language?
Language is the primary tool used in the
communication process. This connotes sharing
one’s thoughts, emotions, and knowledge with
others using a certain code (culture) and
symbol (language) that must be learned and
shared between communicators.
For example:
A Japanese girl is asking a Filipino boy for
directions. For the two of them to communicate
they must establish commonality and language
first and foremost; otherwise, no
communication will take place between them.
Linguistics
Elements of
Language
Languages in the world share the same
elements, with an exception of a few which
do not have yet a written orthography.
1. Phonology: (fuh-nol-uh-jee) (n.)
- the sound system of a language.
2. Morphology: (mawr-fol-uh-jee) (n.)
- the study of the structure of words
3. Syntax: (sin-taks) (n.)
- the study of the structure of sentences.
4. Semantics: (si-man-tiks) (n.)
- the study of meaning in language.
5. Pragmatics: (prag-mat-iks) (n.)
- the appropriate use of language in different
context.
Why is Language
Culture-Based?
• For a listener to understand what a speaker intends,
the speaker should have something definite in mind. If
an idea or impression is vague in the speaker’s mind, the
resulting message will be confused and ambiguous.
• Understanding is the core of meaning and is a two-way
process; that is, the speaker is responsible for
representing ideas clearly, and the listener is responsible
for trying to understand it accurately.
Why is the
Language
Environment?
• All languages take place within a particular
environment.
• A minister and priest speak in the environment of a
church; two friends have a conversation in the student
centre; an instructor gives a lecture in a classroom.
• Language that is appropriate to one environment might
appear meaningless or foolish in another. The language
you use in a dormitory, for example, might be
completely inappropriate in a classroom.
• According to Neil Postman, who
writes about the
language and education, the
language environment is made
up of four elements;
(1) people,
(2) their purpose,
(3) the rules of communication by which they achieve their
purpose, and
(4) the actual talk used in the situation.
Appropriate Language. For any society to
function it must have some sort of understanding
about which words are inappropriate.
As children grow up, they try out the new words
they hear and from the reactions of the adults
around them, learn the words they should and
shouldn’t use.
Sometimes you have to refer to something
which it would be impolite to use the direct
word. To do this you use a euphemism.
Euphemism is an inoffensive word or phrase
that is substituted for other words that might
be perceived as unpleasant.
1. Garbage man – sanitation engineer
2. Old people – senior citizen
3. Pregnant – in the family way
4. The dead – the deceased/the late
5. Burier – undertaker/mortician
Specialization. Most language environments have
words that are specialized and are used only in those
environment.
Whenever you shift roles, you shift your language
environment and your speech as well. Let’s say that in a
single day you talk to your roommate, you go to class,
and you speak to your mother on the telephone.
Your role has shifted three times; from peer, to student
relating to instructor, to child relating to parent.
Why are the styles,
roles, and group
members in
communication?
Style is the result of the way you select and arrange the
words and sentences. People choose different words to
express thought, and every individual has a unique verbal
styles.
Impressions of personality are often related to verbal
style. When you characterize a person as formal or aloof,
your impression is due in part to the way the person talks.
Style is so important that it can influence people’s opinion
of you, win their friendship, lose their respect, or sway
them to your ideas.
Like language environment, verbal style is often connected with
the roles you play. Let us look at the other factors that contribute
to differences in language.
Gender. Sociolinguist Deborah Tannen (2009) has found out the
men and women have almost completely different styles of
speaking.
According to her, when women have conversations, they use the
language of rapport-talk. This language is designed to establish
relationships.
Men, however, speak report-talk. In this type of speech the
speaker’s goal is to maintain status, to demonstrate knowledge
and skills and to keep the center stage position.
Age. Age is one of the factors that determine difference in
language style. Have you noticed that when adults are
with babies their language style changes? Their pitch becomes
higher and their vocabulary use becomes simpler to mere one-
word utterances.
This is because the brain is the last organ to mature and scholars
believe it to mature at age eight approximately.
Therefore, this is the age where our brain is susceptible to
language and more exposed we are to appropriate use of
language, the better we are using it when we get older.
Social Status. Scholars have identified variations in
language styles of people depending on their social status.
People in the business world will have a more brief and concise
style utilizing a more direct language because to them time is
money and any time wasted is money wasted.
Social status is one of the reason why languages are perceived to
have certain hierarchy. A good example would be English. Here
in the Philippines, people who speak impeccable English have
more career opportunities than those who cannot.
Religion. Language and religion offer an innovative
theory of religion as a class of cultural
representations dependent on language to unify
diverse capacities of the human mind.
Different religions in the world relate modern
cognitive theories of language and communication to
culture and its dissemination.
Remedial Instructions
in English
Lesson 2
First Language Acquisition
(FLA) and Literacy
Development
Learning Outcomes
The students should be able to:
• Define first language, mother tongue, heritage
language, and dialect.
• Explain how children acquire a language and the
processes involved in their literacy development.
• Compare the different theories of language and
literacy development.
Introduction
Language is not biological; therefore regardless of
race and ethnicity, children eventually acquire the
language they are first exposed to in their families
especially from their primary caregiver.
Since the primary caregiver is the mother, this
language input came to be called “motherese” in the
1970 (Crystal, 1987).
The term“motherese” describes the language
adaptation adults make (not necessarily parents, since
some parents do not apply this principle) to give the
child maximum opportunity to interact and learn.
Crystal (1987) notes some of these adaptations such as:
• The utterances are considerably simplified, especially
with respect to their grammar and meaning.
• There are several features whose purpose seems to be
clarified. Extra information is provided that would be
considered unnecessary when talking to an adult.
• There is also an expressive, or affective element in
motherese, shown by the use of special words or
sounds. Diminutive or reduplicative words like wee-
wee, pee-pee, ma-ma are common.
Before we proceed to the various theories that
explain first language acquisition (FLA), let us
first understand the following terms so we will
all be grounded on these definitions as we move
along with the proceeding lessons.
What is a FIRST
LANGUAGE?
First Language
- The language first acquired as a child like
mother tongue and native language, or
preferred language in a multilingual
situation.
What is a SECOND
LANGUAGE?
Second Language
- It is a non-native language that has an
official role in the country. In the
Philippines, English and Filipino are the
two official languages of commerce and
industry stipulated in the 1987 Philippine
Constitution.
What is a FOREIGN
LANGUAGE?
Foreign Language
 It is a non-native language that has no official
status in the country. Spanish used to be a second
language in the Philippines in 60s and 70s but lost
official status and became a foreign language.
 This means that Spanish is no longer officially
spoken in the country nor mandated to be taught in
the elementary and secondary schools just like
French, German, etc.
What is HERITAGE
LANGUAGE?
Heritage Language
 It is used to identify languages other than the dominant
language. In the Philippines there are dominant languages like
Tagalog, Cebuano, and many others but there are some
minority languages are spoken by a few social groups like
Mandarin.
 In the United States, English is the dominant language while
other languages are like Spanish, Korean, Tagalog, etc. spoken
by immigrants in their homes but learn English to primarily
interact in government transactions and public communication.
What is a
DIALECT?
 Dialect
 It is a language variety in which the use of grammar and
vocabulary identifies the regional or social background
of the user.
 The measure for us to know that a language is a
language is its “intelligibility”. Languages in the world
are mutually exclusive meaning they are not mutually
intelligible.
 Dialect
 You will observe certain variations or difference in their
pronunciation, accentuation and even some words but
speakers of these dialects (or variations) of Tagalog can
still understand each other. Let us look at some of these
scenarios:
 A Batangueno will say “ay sadya” while a Bulacano will
say “ay totoo” but will still understand each other.
 A Caviteno will say “Parini ka ngang bat aka!” while a
Manileno will say “Halika nga ditong bat aka!”.
Activate your PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE
(Individual Task)
Get 1 whole sheet of paper
 Note the following questions and think about the answer.
1. What is the difference between acquisition and learning?
2. What is the comparison between speech and language?
3. Is language acquisition true for all children?
4. What is the role of adults in the language and literacy
development of children?
5. What is the relationship between cognition and language?
Through the years, language acquisition has been defined in
various perspectives and in various ways. As language teachers,
we need to understand all of these theories and approaches in order to
combine them and make a more responsive theory-based language
curriculum appropriate to our learners regardless of generation.
Truly, children in the current era are far more advanced and
sophisticated in their mental abilities and intelligences but despite all of
these evolutionary improvements, children still go through predictable
stages of mental, physical, and socioemotional development.
To better understand the complexity of language acquisition, let us
understand the different theories that influence it.
Behaviorist Perspective
The first perspective to shed light to learning and language
acquisition is behaviorism. Behaviorists believe that language like
any other knowledge, skills and values can be taught to children
via repetition, imitation and habituation.
The most influential behaviorist is B.F. Skinner with his Operant
Conditioning Theory which was highly influenced by Edward
Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory also known as the Theory of
Effect (3 laws of education: law of readiness, law of exercise, and
law of effect.)
Burrhus Frederic Skinner, most fondly known as B.F. skinner, is
the father of Operant Conditioning.
He explains that a behaviour that is continuously reinforced tends
to be repeated and becomes deeply rooted in an individual’s
behaviour and a behaviour that is not reinforced dies-out and is
eventually forgotten.
Skinner argued that children learn language based on
reinforcement (positive and negative) principles by associating
words with meanings. This theory is called imitation.
Children learn to speak, in the popular view, by coping
the utterances heard around them, and by having their
responses strengthened by the repetitions, corrections, and
other reactions that adults provide.
Language in the behaviorist perspectives is viewed as
consistent formal pattern and through imitation and
constant practice language is developed just like in habit.
This process is called habituation.
Constructivist Perspective
The two most recognised cognitivists are Jean Piaget
and Lev Vygotzky. Although both are highly
concerned with how children acquire and construct
meaning, their views quite differ but unlike
behaviourists, both do not view children as empty
vessels (tabula rasa) waiting to filled in by an expert
and learned adult.
Let us begin with Jean Piaget who argues that children are
active learners who construct meaning from their
environment. Jean Piaget is the proponent of cognitive
development theory that explains the interconnectedness of
knowledge acquisition and language acquisition through
qualitative changes of their mental processes as they
develop.
He views children as active learners, constructing
knowledge over time, as they interact with their environment
through four developmental steps.
The first stage is the Sensorimotor Stage which extends from
birth to the acquisition of language.
Children actively construct an understanding of the world by
physically interacting with the environment using their various
senses such as seeing, hearing, grasping, sucking and stepping and
progressively learn that they are separated from the environment
and that these objectives in the environment continue to exist with
or without physically interacting with them.
This development is called object permanence that allows children
to create mental pictures of thing they perceive from the
environment.
The second stage is the Preoperational Stage which begins when
children start talking approximately at age two and extends up
to seven years. They do not understand concrete logic and have
difficulty manipulating objects mentally.
Knowledge development and language acquisition in this stage is
primarily centered on pretend play which is form of symbolic play.
Symbolic play is the ability of children to use objects to represent other
objects and will ultimately progress to symbolic function when children
can now mentally understand, represent, remember, and picture objects
in their mind without actually seeing the object.
Children eventually acquire Intuitive Thinking at the end of
this stage. This is where they begin to want to know everything as
evidenced by their series of questions that seem endless and
unquenchable.
The third stage is the concrete operational stage which immediately
following preoperational stage at age seven to 12 years where children
begin to acquire concrete logical thinking like inductive reasoning.
Children begin to solve problems logically and language acquisition
moves to social matters: adolescent’s sense of personal uniqueness and
invincibility. They begin to value justification and word choice.
The fourth and last stage is the formal operational stage
which extends adolescence to adulthood years. Knowledge
development is demonstrated through logical use of symbols
related to abstract concepts.
Children acquire hypothetical and deductive reasoning. In this
stage, individuals learn to use language abstractly without relying
on concrete representation.
Constructivist’s perspective of language acquisition is generally
centered on brain development.
Sociocultural Perspective
Now, that we have thoroughly learned Piaget’s explanation of
how children construct meaning and acquire language from the
environment, let us now understand Vygotsky’s perspective.
If Piaget’s view of learning and language acquisition is centered
on the children’s changes of logical thinking through four stages
based on maturation and experience, Vygotsky’s view is centered
on the role of culture and social interactions of children with
other children and adults in the environment.
Interactionists’ Perspective
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (SLT) explains children
learn from each other and from others through observation,
imitation and modelling.
This theory explains that children imitate the words and language
patterns they hear by watching and listening to the models,
caregivers, and family member in their life.
Interactionists argue that children are social beings and they need
more than adults to observe, imitate, and model from and more than
an innate LAD to create universal grammar from primary linguistic
inputs
They need to socialize because like any individual, children are
social beings and they need language acquisition support system (LASS)
like their families, community, technology and even print and non print
materials to help acquire the language.
Bandura’s analysis of observational learning involves four phases;
attention, retention, reproduction, and motivational.
1. Attention Phase: The first phase in observational learning is paying
attention to a model. This explains why children stop whatever they are
doing whenever they see favourite TV commercial and dance and sing to
it, as if mesmerized, no matter how often it is played throughout the day.
This phase actually explains why teenagers are hooked up with pop
culture; they are visually attracted to this type of stimulus. Teachers
and adults, therefore, must get first understand what interest children and
use this to capture their attention.
2. Retention Phase: Once teachers and adults have students attention, it is
time to model the behaviour they want students to replicate and then give
learners a chance to practice or rehearse.
3. Reproduction: During the reproduction phase, learners attempt to
replicate the model’s behaviour. In the classroom this takes the form of an
assessment of learners’ learning. In homes, this is when children act out
the behaviour as if it is their own.
4. Motivation Phase: The final stage in the observational
learning process is motivation. Children will imitate a
model because they believe that doing so will increase their own
chances to be reinforced.
Another two contributions of Bandura’s SLT are vicarious
learning and self-regulated learning.
Vicarious Learning is the process by which children learn from
the reinforced (negative or positive) learning and/or behaviour
of other people. Al
Self-regulated learning is the process where children
observe and evaluate their own behaviour against their own
standards, and reinforce or punish themselves,
Self-regulated learners are effective because they (a) analyze
the tasks teachers give them and set effective goals for learning,
(b) use appropriate strategies to reach goals, and (c) monitor
their progress and modify learning approaches if necessary.
Language Programs and
Policies in Multilingual
Societies
Lesson 3
Language Development
and Second Language
Learning Outcomes
The students should be able to:
• Explain theories of second language acquisition
(SLA).
• Compare major theories of language acquisition.
• Analyze the MTB-MLE curriculum in the
Philippines against first language and second
language acquisition theories.
Introduction
You will observe that apparently the three languages
are different in three major elements: pronunciation,
vocabulary, and word order (syntax). In spite of all the
differences, however, these languages still have a lot in
common – one may even claim that the similarities are
more striking than the differences.
Introduction
Most or all languages in the world share these and
many other features. This phenomenon is called
linguistic universal.
A linguistic universal is a pattern that occurs
systematically across natural languages, potentially
true for all of them.
In this lesson, we will be learning about second
language acquisition and how proficiency in the
first language can be transitioned and transferred
to proficiency in the target language (second
language).
Affirming or Agreeing Denying or Disagreeing Partially Affirming/Agreeing
I agree. I disagree. That may be so, but…
I accept that… I can’t accept that. Yes, but…
I agree with you that… I won’t accept that. I accept that, but …
That is true. You can’t be serious. Aren’t you forgetting that…
Of course, yes. Of course not. Yes, but…
I couldn’t agree more Impossible. I take your point, but…
You are absolutely right. You can’t mean it. I’m not sure about that.
That is a good point I don’t agree.
There are two major theories that explain second
language acquisition; Cummins’ Interdependence
Hypothesis and Krashen’s Natural Approach.
Cummins’ Interdependence
Hypothesis
Knowledge of how first language or mother tongue is
acquired lends understanding of how second language
is acquired, too.
Jim Cummins in his language interdependence
hypothesis explained that all languages have common
underlying proficiency (CUP).
Languages may appear to have different surface structures but
their deep structures are common; hence, proficiency in the first
language leads to proficiency in second language.
He differentiated ideas about the two principal continua of
second language development in a simple matrix. BICS
describes the development of conversational fluency (Basic
Interpersonal Communicative Skills) in the second language,
whereas CALP describes the use in decontextualized academic
situations (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency).
The implication of Cummins’ Interdependence
hypothesis explains how one language can be
transitioned to another language and another
language.
Teachers must focus on the common underlying
proficiencies of the language in order to successfully
transfer in one language to another.
Krashen’s Natural
Approach to Second
Language Acquisition
Dr. Stephen Krashen is professor emeritus at the
University of Southern California. He is a linguist
and educational researcher.
He is known for his Natural Approach Theory of
second language which he developed with Tracy
Terrell.
His theory is centered on a comprehension-based
approach to foreign and second language teaching.
Krashen & Terrell’s (1998) theory focuses on both oral and
written communication skills. It was developed on the premise
of four principles:
1. Comprehension of language begins before language
production.
2. Language production emerges in stages.
3. Language learning is done using communication and
interaction in the target language.
4. Classroom tasks and activities are centered on student’s
interests, and lower their affective filters.
The goal of The Natural Approach is “the ability to
communicate with native speakers of the target language”.
There are five hypotheses that outline the Natural Approach
theory as defined below.
The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis
Krashen, in his theory of second language acquisition (SLA)
suggested that adults have two different ways of developing
competence in second languages: Acquisition and learning.
They make a distinction between language acquisition and
language learning.
Language acquisition occurs subconsciously. While it is
happening, we are not aware that it is happening. We think
we are having a conversation, reading a book, watching a
movie. Of course, we are, but at the same time, we might be
acquiring language.
Also, once we have something, we are not usually aware that
anything has happened; the knowledge is stored in our
brains subconsciously.
Language acquisition is sometimes referred to as “picking
up” a language.
Language learning, on the other hand, is a conscious
effort. Language learning is a direct and conscious effort
to learn the rules that govern the use of the language.
Error correction is supposed to help in the learning
process.
When a child says “I goed to school” and the teacher
corrects it with “No, you say: I went to school,” the learner
is expected to remember the past form of the irregular verb
‘go’ is ‘went’.
The Natural Order Hypothesis
It explains that we acquire not learn, the parts
of language or grammatical structures in a
predictable progression. There are some
grammatical structures that are acquired early
on while others are acquired later in life.
The Input Hypothesis
It explains that the language learners acquire a
language by receiving comprehensive input that
is an input slightly higher than their current
level of proficiency.
The Monnitor Hypothesis
The monitor is conscious learning process
which learners attend to form, figure out rules
and are generally aware of their own process. It
edits and makes alterations or corrections as
they are consciously perceived.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
This hypothesis reflects the personal attitude of the learner
as well as their attitude about their environment.
A learner who is not comfortable in his/her environment is
more anxious and the hinders him/her to be motivated to
use the target language. Conversely, a learner who is
comfortable and is ate ease with the environment is more
motivated to use the target language
Language teachers, therefore, need to allow learners to
commit mistakes and errors to positively and constructively help
them acquire the necessary language proficiency that will enable
them to expressively the target language.
Correcting the child every time he/she commits a mistake will
most likely make him/her create a wall that will hinder him from
talking or using the target language.
No one is born proficient in a language even in his/her first
language but he/she has the potential to acquire and be proficient
both in the first and second language.
On Mother Tongue-Based
Multilingual Education
(MTB-MLE)
Mother Tongue-Based Instruction is referred to by
Department of Education (DepEd) as Mother Tongue-
Based Multilingual Education (MLE), effective use of two
languages for literacy and instruction.
The lessons and finding of various international studies in
basic education have validated the superiority of the use of
the learner’s mother tongue or first language in improving
learning outcomes and promoting Education for All (EFA
Goals).
On Language
Acquisition and
Learning
All languages are interrelated and interdependent.
Facility in the first language (L1) strengthens and
supports the learning of other languages (L2). Acquisition
sets od skills and implicit metalinguistic knowledge in one
language provides the base for the development of both the
first language and the second language.
This principle explain why it is easier and easier to learn
additional languages.
Language acquisition and learning is an active process that
begins at birth and continues throughout life.
It is continuous and recursive throughout student’s lives. Students
enhance their language abilities by using what they know in new
and more complex contexts and with increasing sophistication
(spiral progression).
Positive experiences in language-rich environments enable
students to leave school with a desire to continue to extend their
knowledge, skills, and interests.
Language requires meaning.
We learn when we use what we know to understand what is
new. Start with the students know; use that to introduce new
concepts. They use language to examine new experiences
and knowledge in relation to their prior knowledge,
experiences, and beliefs.
They make connections, anticipate possibilities,, reflect upon
ideas, and determine courses of action.
Successful language learning involves viewing,
listening, speaking reading and writing activities
and accuracy.
Language learning should include a plethora of
strategies and activities that helps students focus
on both MEANING and ACCURACY.
Language learning involves recognizing, accepting,
valuing and building on students’ existing language
competence, including the use of non-standard forms of the
language, and extending the range of language available to
the students.
Through language learning, learners develop functional and
critical literacy, skills. They learn to control and understand
the conventions of the target language that are valued and
rewarded by society and to reflect on and critically analyze
their own use of language and the language of others.
Language Programs and
Policies in Multilingual
Societies
PLOT
SYNOPSIS
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson/session students
will be able to:
• To define the meaning of PLOT SYNOPSIS and
explain its other special features.
• To determine parts of the PLOT SYNOPSIS.
• To distinguish HOW TO CREATE OR WRITE
PLOT SYNOPSIS.
• Make your own PLOT SYNOPSIS.
What is a
Plot Synopsis?
 Defining Plot Synopsis
• A synopsis is an in-depth summary of a written work
that describes the content of that work from
beginning to end.
• Unlike a summary, which just gives a general
overview of a story, a synopsis contains all of the plot
details, including the end.
• Typically, synopses are submitted to publishers or
agents after you have written a novel, screenplay, or
other long work.
 Defining Plot Synopsis
• A good synopsis will cover the main conflict and the
resolution of the story while describing the emotional
development of the main character.
• It is important to edit your synopsis carefully, as it will
usually be included as part of a larger proposal.
Recap:
5 Parts of a PLOT
1. Exposition: Beginning of the story

The exposition is the beginning of the story and

prepares the way for upcoming events. In the
exposition, the author 
introduces the major characters, establishes the
setting and reveals major conflicts in the story.
2. Rising Action
The rising action occurs when the main problem
or conflict is addressed with a form of action. The
rising action always leads up to the climax. 
During the rising action, the protagonist often
encounters some sort of crisis that creates
tension. 
3. Climax
The climax is the pivotal point in the story when
the protagonist deals with the 
culmination of events. The climax often centers
on the protagonist's most difficult challenge or
bleakest moment, according to Pasadena City
College.
4. Falling Action
The falling action occurs immediately after the
climax and details the consequences -- good or
bad -- that the characters must deal with after the
turning point of events.
It leads up to the resolution and sets the stage for
the final chapter of the story.
 5. Resolution: End of the story
The resolution tells us what happens to the characters after
the conflict is resolved. All the loose ends are tied up, unless
the author plans to write a sequel and purposely leaves room
for further plot developments. 
Some stories have happy endings; others have sad endings. 
The resolution leaves readers with a sense of closure, so they
understand the fate of the protagonists and antagonists.
How to make a Plot
Synopsis?
Outlining
Plot Synopsis
1. Start the synopsis after you have finished the project.  In most
cases, agents and publishers will only be interested in completed
manuscripts. Writing your synopsis after you finish the manuscript
will help you identify the main characters, plot points, and conflict.
Established authors who have published before may be able to get away
with submitting an incomplete book proposal, but most new authors will
need a full manuscript.
You will need to know how the story ends to write the synopsis, as a
synopsis will include the resolution of the story.
2. Make a list of your main characters. 
This may include the protagonist, a love interest, a villain, or a
sidekick. Only the most important characters should be mentioned in
a synopsis. Take a minute to write out who your main characters are.
Make sure each of your characters is dynamic, rather than flat. They
all need to be well-rounded and capable of change. Additionally, each
character should impact the story in a significant way
3. Sketch out the major plot points in your story. 
The synopsis will cover the main narrative arc of your story. This
arc usually does not include subplots, unless the subplot is
important to the overall conclusion of the main arc.
Try to outline the main conflict, rising action, and conclusion of
your story.
If you wrote a novel or memoir, you may want to write down a one
sentence summary of each chapter. For example, you might write,
“Rory looks for his father and meets an old friend.
4. Identify what is unique about your story. 
Publishers and agents read hundreds of synopses a week. To make yours
stand out, highlight what is unique in your own story. Use this angle to make
your synopsis different or interesting.
Does your story have an interesting point of view? If so, be sure to mention it.
You can say, “This story centers around the last dwarf in the underground
kingdom.
”Does your story have a unique twist? You can mention the twist while still
leaving some mystery. For example, you might say, “Jean Paul soon realizes
that the murderer may be closer to him than he thinks.”
5. Research how long the synopsis must be. 
Every publishing house and agent will have different requirements
for synopsis length. Before writing your synopsis, look up a few
publishing houses, film production companies, or agents. They
should list their requirements on their website.
Novel synopses are usually between two and twelve pages long.
Screenplay synopses are usually one page long. Most are no more
than 400 words long.
Drafting
Plot Synopsis
1. Write in third person. 
Even if you are writing a memoir or a book in first-
person, always write the synopsis in third person,
using "he," "she," "it," and "they" as pronouns.
Throughout the synopsis, restate the main characters'
names frequently.
2. Introduce your main characters and
conflict at the beginning. 
The first paragraph should introduce all of the
main characters while giving a general summary
of the entire plot.
The first paragraph should hook your readers
without being too specific.
3. Summarize the main events of the plot. 
Include any obstacles that the character faces and describe
how they overcome these obstacles.
Avoid subplots and any backstories in your synopsis unless
they are crucial to understanding the main plot.
Don't go into too much detail about subplots and minor
actions. You don't want your synopsis to be confusing, so
focus on the main story line.
4. End with resolution of the book. 
Your reader should understand exactly how the plot
resolves. This is not a good time to introduce any new
information about the book.
It is never a good idea to leave out the ending in a synopsis.
A publisher or agent needs to know exactly how it ends.
5. Include only necessary information. 
A good synopsis includes what the character does, feels, and
confronts, but it does not include every detail of the plot.
Leave out side characters whenever possible, and only write
about the major events of the novel.
Don’t include dialogue in your synopsis. Instead, just
summarize what the characters said.
6. Demonstrate character development and emotion. 
As you advance the plot, you should describe what your
character learns and feels throughout the novel.
Explore the mental and emotional state of your protagonist
with every new plot twist or event.
7. Avoid complimenting your own writing. 
While you want to make your synopsis sound interesting, avoid
commenting on the quality of your own work. Instead, let the plot
speak for itself.
Do not use phrases like “in one tear jerking scene” or “in a
stunning flashback.” Simply describe the scenes as they happen. If
you want to describe emotions you're hoping to convey in your
work, focus on how your characters react to certain events, not how
you expect the reader to react.
Don’t assume what readers will feel
7. Avoid complimenting your own writing. 
While you want to make your synopsis sound interesting, avoid
commenting on the quality of your own work. Instead, let the plot
speak for itself.
Do not use phrases like “in one tear jerking scene” or “in a
stunning flashback.” Simply describe the scenes as they happen. If
you want to describe emotions you're hoping to convey in your
work, focus on how your characters react to certain events, not how
you expect the reader to react.
Don’t assume what readers will feel
With your pair,
MAKE A DRAFT OF YOUR
PLOT SYNOPSIS
Language Programs and
Policies in Multilingual
Societies
Chapter 3
Mother Tongue-Based
Multilingual Education
Framework: Its implementation in
the Basic Education Curriculum
 Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson/session students will be able to:
• To explain the basic elements of the Mother-Based Multilingual
Education Curriculum framework.
• To apply the concepts and processes of the MTBMLE
curriculum framework in teaching learning situations.
• Demonstrate understanding of how the fourteen 14 domains of
literacy and their corresponding competencies are highlighted
in the MTBMLE curriculum.
• Discuss the effects of early or late language transfer.
INTRODUCTION
From birth, children are exposed to the language of their
families. They learn the word their families use and develop their
own grammar style to combine and change words in order to
communicate ideas and interact with the world.
Children’s speaking and listening skills lead the way to their
reading and writing skills. These four language skills are the
primary tools of mind for all learning.
For this reason, it is important for the primary teachers to learn all
they can about language and literacy development in the early
years.
MTBMLE is theoretically based, well-planned
educational program that provides a strong
foundation for literacy using the learner’s
developing cognitive skills and comprehension of
academic content from day one.
We learn to read once only. Learning to read in
the L1 develops skills that transfer to reading any
other languages.
The strong foundation in the mother tongue
strengthens cognitive development, acamedic
development, and second language
development – all leading to competent and
confident use of the three languages in a
variety of situations and purposes.
Prior Knowledge. This is essential for
comprehending new information. Engaging
learners in a discussion of what is already
familiar to them using the home language
enables better learning of the curriculum
through integration and application of that
knowledge into current knowledge schemes.
Cognitive Development and Higher Order
Thinking Skills (HOTS).
As learners articulate their thought and expand
ideas, both language and critical thinking are
strengthened.
MTBMLE cultivates critical thinking through
talking about ideas in the familiar language.
Strong Bridge. MTBMLE provides a good
bridge to listening, speaking, reading, and
writing the L2s (L2, L3)of the classroom using
sound educational principles for building
fluency and confidence in using other
languages of lifelong learning.
Scaffolding. In teaching L2, the L1 is used to
support learning when the L2 is not yet sufficiently
developed to be used alone.
The L1 is used for expression and the teacher
facilitates the learners to adequately express ideas in
the L2.
In this way, the L1 strengthens the learning of the
L2 by supporting the L2 development for
communication.
Teaching for MEANING and ACCURACY
The interdependence and interrelationships of the macro skills of
the language such as listening; speaking, reading and writing and
the development of thinking skills (critical, creative, and
metacognitive) allowing the learners to make meaning through
language. Hence the goal learning in both L1 and L2 is to become
confident and proficient in:
1. listening, speaking, reading, and writing for MEANING &
2. listening, speaking, reading, and writing for ACCURACY
Decoding texts requires accuracy, while comprehending texts
requires decoding skills within a meaningful context. Although
both meaning and accuracy are important in second language
classrooms, there is often primary focus on accuracy until
sufficiently learned. This delays actual meaningful learning
until L2 can support that learning.
Confidence building and proficiency development for two or
more languages long these macro-skills: listening speaking,
reading, viewing are essential for both meaning and accuracy.
 Guiding Principles for
Teaching and Learning in
MTBMLE
Below are guiding principles for teaching and
learning in the MTB-MLE which are lifted verbatim
from the K to 12 Curriculum Guide.
Principle 1. Known the Unknown
Learning requires meaning. The most important
single factor that influences learning is what the
learner already knows.
Principle 2. Language and academic
development
Students with well-developed skills in their first
language have been shown to acquire additional
languages more easily and fully and that, in turn,
has a positive impact on academic achievement.
Principle 3. Cognitive Development
Students who use their multilingual skills have been
shown to develop both cognitive flexibility and
divergent thinking.
Principle 4. Discovery learning
We learn when someone who already understands the
new idea or task helps us to “discover” the new idea
and thenuse it immediately.
Principle 5. Active Learning
Peer interaction. Children learn best through peer
interactions in which they work together creatively to
solve problems.
Principle 6. Meaning and accuracy.
Successful language learning involves hearing
speaking, reading, and writing activities that focus on
both meaning and accuracy.
Principle 7. Language Learning/language transfer. We
learn a new language best when the learning process is non-
threatening and meaningful and when we can take “small
steps” that help gain confidence in our ability to use the
language meaningfully.
Principle 8. Affective Component.
Valuing students with talents in their home language more
powerfully enables learning than just valuing the classroom
and their language is irrelevant to academic success.