12.2.

1 Comparison between organic and inorganic compounds

Characteristics Organic compound Inorganic compound
1. Presence of Carbon is a necessary element in every organic Carbon is not an essential element in
carbon compound. inorganic compounds.
2. Solubility in water They generally do not dissolve in water. They generally dissolve in water.
3. Solubility in the They dissolve in organic solvents like alcohol, All inorganic compounds do not dissolve in
organic solvents benzene and chloroform. organic solvents.
4. Melting and They have low m.p. and b.p. and easily They have high m.p. and b.p. and usually do
boiling point decompose on heating. not decompose on heating.
5. Combustibility They are inflammable, ie., they catch fire They do not burn easily.
easily.
6. Bonding They form covalent bonds. Most of them forn ionic bonds.
1. Conductivity They are non-electrolytes. Only those that form ionic bonds are good
clectrolytes.
8. Isomerism They show the phenomenon of isomerism No such phenomenon is shown by inorganic
compounds.
9. Colour and smell Organic compounds have characteristic colour Most of them are colourless and odourless.
and odour.
10. Reactions Molecular reactions are slow, due to the lonic reactions are fast and covalent reactions
presence of linkages. These reactions never are slow.
proceed to completion.

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Application of Organic Chemistry
Organic compounds are extremely useful to us
in our daily life.
The soaps and shampoos we use while taking
bath, the powders, perfumes, etc., we apply on the
body, the clothes we wear, food we eat i.e.,
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, etc., fuels we
use, natural gas, petroleum products, medicines,
explosives, dyes, insecticides, etc., are all organic
compounds. There is hardly any walk of life where
we do not need organic compounds.
12.3 UNIQUE NATURE OF CARBON ATOMS
Carbon shows some unique properties like
tetravalency and catenation, which are discussed
below.
) Tetravalency of the carbonatom:Carbon has
four valence electrons (At. no. of C = 6; Elec.
Config. = 2, 4). Since it can neither lose nor
gain electrons to attain octet, it forms covalent
bonds by sharing its four electrons with other
atoms. This characteristic of the carbon atom,
by virtue ofwhich it forms fourcovalent bonds,
is called the tetravalency of carbon.
-C-C-c-C -C-C-C
(Straight chain) (Branched chain)
(Cyclic or closed chain)
The carbon-carbon chain can be very long.
Organic molecules containing as many as seventy
carbon atoms joined together, one after the other,
are known to exist.
(b) Formation of single, double and triple
covalent bonds: The valency of carbon is four,
i.e. it is tetravalent. In order to satisfy its
valency, it forms single, double and triple
covalent bonds by sharing one, two or three
pairs of eleçtrons respectively between two
carbon atoms as well as with other atoms like
Oxygen, nitrogen etc.

xCx -c-c C=C -C= C

(iü) Catenation :Carbon atom possesses an unique
property to link together (self linking) to form
very long chains. This property is referred to as
catenation.
The property of self-linking of atoms of an
element through covalent bonds in order to form
straight chains, branched chains and cyclic
chains of different sizes is known as catenation.
The property of catenation is shown by other
elements also but carbon exhibits this property to
maximum extent. This is due to greater strength of
carbon-carbon bond and due to tetra-covalency of
carbon. In this process of catenation carbon atoms
fom straight, branch and cyclic chains of atoms, and
can involve single (-), double (=) or triple (=)
covalent bonds.
(a) Formation of straight, branched and cyclic
chains of carbon atoms : The combination of
carbon atoms with one another gives rise to
straight or branched or cyclic chains.
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(single bond) (double bond) (triple bond)
-C-c -C N
(double bond with oxygen atom) (triple bond with nitrogen atom)
This unigque nature of carbon atom (catenation
and tetravalency) gives rise to the formation of a
large number of compounds. More than 5 million
organic compounds are known today and
thousands of new compounds are added every
year to the existing lot.
All this demands a separate branch of chemistry,
ie., organic chemistry.
Organic chemistry may be defined as the
chemistry of khydrocarbons and their derivatives.
Features of covalent bonding involving carbon
" Carbon atoms can join to each other to form long
chains. Atoms of other elements can then attach to
the chain.
" The carbon atoms in a chain can be linked by single, The open chain compounds or aliphatic
double triple covalent bonds. compounds are further sub-divided into saturated
" Carbon atoms can also arranged themselves in compounds and unsaturated compounds.
rings. Saturated Compounds
12.4 TYPES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS The simplest open chain hydrocarbon is alkane.
The organic compounds have been classified It is represented by the formula C,H)a+2 where n
represents natural number.
as hydrocarbons whereas their derivatives are
classified as alcohol, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, It is a saturated hydrocarbon, as all the four
ethers, halides, etc. These compounds may contain valencies of carbon are satisfied by a single covalent
any number of other elements, including hydrogen, bond. (For further details refer section 12B).
nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as well as Unsaturated Compounds
phosphorus, silicon and sulphur. Open chain compounds where all the four
Table 12.1l : Organic Compounds valencies are not satisfied by single covalent bonds,
Types of ldentified by the
double or triple bonds are required to satisfy the
compound presence of Erample valencies. These compounds are known as
unsaturated compounds e.g., Alkenes are the
1. Hydrocarbon
(a) alkane - C - bond Ethane H,C CH, hydrocarbons with double bond and Alkynes are the
(b) alkene -C=C bond Ethene H,C= CH, hydrocarbons with triple bond between two carbon
(c) alkyne C a C bond Ethyne HC= CH atoms. (For further details refer sections 12C & 12D).
2. Alcohol OH group Methanol CH,OH Comparison of Saturated and Unsaturated
Hydrocarbons
3. Aldehyde CHO group Ethanal CH,CHO
Saturated organic Unsaturated organie
4. Ketone >C=0 Propanone CH,COCH, compounds compounds
5. Carboxylic acid COOH group Ethanoic acid 1. All the four valencies of 1. The valencies of
CH,COOH each carbon atom are at least two carbon
6. Ether C0 Cgroup Dimethyl ether satisfied by forming atoms are not fully
single covalent bonds satisfied by the
H,C 0CH, with carbon and with hydrogen atoms.
Halide X (F CI, Br, I) Chloroethane C,H,Cl hydrogen atoms.
2. Carbon atoms are 2. Carbon atoms are
12.5 HYDROCARBONS
joined only by a single joined by double
Hydrocarbons are compounds that are made up covalent bond. covalent bonds
>C=C<
only of carbon and hydrogen atoms. -C-c or by triple covalent
Classification of Hydrocarbons bonds.
-C=C
Hydrocarbons are sub-divided into two main They are less reactive 3. They are more reactive
groups, the aliphatic (open) and cyclic (closed) chain due to the non due to the presence of
compounds. availability of electrons in the double
electrons in the single or the triple bond, and
Hydrocarbons covalent bond, and therefore undergo
therefore they undergo addition reaction*.
Aliphatic or open Cyclic or closed substitution reaction.
chain compounds chain compounds
Substitution reaction : A reaction in which one atom of a
Saturated Unsaturated molecule is replaced by another atom (or group of atons) is
alkanes (paraffins) called a substitution reaction. e.g. CH, + Cl, ’ CH,Cl + HCL.
C,Ha+2 Alkencs (Olefins) Alkynes
* Addition reaction : A reaction involving addition of atom(s)
or molecule(s) to the double or the triple bond of an
unsaturated compound so as to yield a saturated product is
C,H2n CH.2 known as an addition reaction, e.g. C,H, + Br C,H,Br.

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Cyclic or closed chain hydrocarbons contain carbon atoms having carbon-carbon single
three or more carbon atoms in their molecules. and carbon-carbon double bonds in alternate
These have properties similar to open chain positions.
hydrocarbons. They are also called carbocyclic Most of these compounds have pleasant smell.
compounds.
They are also known as aromatic compounds.
Examples : () Cyclic compounds containing single Few other members of this class are :
bond are called cycloalkanes. OH
CH, CH,
CH, H,C CH,
H,C- CH, H,C
Toluene Phenol
Cyclopropane Cyclopentane
(C,H) (C,H,)
12.6 ALKYL GROUP
(ü) Cyclic compounds containing double bond are
called cycloalkenes. An alkyl group is obtained by removing one
CH, atom of hydrogen from an alkane molecule.
H,c CH cHa+2 -H, -cHn+l
Alkane Alkyl
H,C\ H,
CH, CH, Table 12.2 : Alkyl radicals
Name Molecular Abbreviated Structural
Cyclopentene Cyclohexene formula formula formula
(C,H,) (C,H,) Methyl -CH, -CH, H

(ii) Cyclic compounds containing triple bond are -c-H

called cycloalkynes. H
CH,
Ethyl CH -CH, CH, HH
H,C
CH
H,C H,C H H

CH, CH, Propyl CH, CH, CH, H HH

-C-C-c-H
Cyclopentyne Cyclohexyne
(C,H) (C,H) H H H

Some hydrocarbons contain at least one

Butyl CH CH, CH, CH,CH, HHH H
C-C-C-H
benzene ring in their molecules. The benzene
H H H
ring is a specific type of ring structure of six
H Thus general formula of alkyl is - C,Hl:
CH, -H, - CH,
Methane Methyi
An alkyl group is named by replacing the
suffix ane of the alkane with the suffix - yl. AII
members of the alkyl group have an unpaired
Benzene H Benzene electron, which is indicated by a line with no symbol
attached.
107
 Table 12.3: Some common functional groups
R represents the alkyl group (-C, Hn +)
Functional group General formulae Types of Organic compounds Suffix Examples with common names and IUPAC names
Halide X R-X Haloalkanes ane CHCI
Methyl chloride
C,HCl
Ethyl chloride
F. C, B, I)
Chloromethane Chloroethane
Hydroxyl - OH R-OH Alcohols CH,OH C,HOH
Methyl alcohol Ethyl alcohol
Methanol Ethanol
Aldehyde -CHO Aldehydes al HCHO CH,CHO
Formaldehyde Acetaldehyde
Methanal Ethanal
Carboxyl- COOH Carboxylic acids oic acid CH,COOH CH,CH,COOH
Acetic acid Propionic acid
Ethanoic acid Propanoic acid
Keto RER Ketones one CH,COCH,
Acetone
C,H,COC,H,
Diethyl ketone
Propanone Pentanone
Ethers -c-oc RO-R Ethers OXy CH 0 CH, CH, 0C,H,
Dimethyl ether Ethyl methyl ether
Methoxy methane Methoxy ethane
12.7 FUNCTIONAL GROUP For example : Butane (CH) can be represented in
the following way:
A functional group is an atom or a group of
HHH H
atoms that defines the structure (or the properties Structural
of a particular family) of organic compounds. formula CCC-CH
Alkanes do not contain any functional group.
The functional group of alkenes is considered as
HII H'H H H
A molecule having the bigger structural formula
double bond > C=C < while in alkynes it is is often cumbersome. We represent it by abbreviated
triple bond C=C-. For other examples refer formula.
table 12.3. Abbreviated or Condensed formula of butane
CH, CH, CH, CH,
12.7.1Characteristics of functionalgroups: Astructure that shows only the linking of carbon
(i) The chemical properties of the compounds atoms in a molecule is called the carbon skeleton.
containing the same functional group are Carbon skeleton of batane
similar. Therefore, the compounds of the same CC C C
functional groups are identified using the same 12.9 ISOMERS
type of tests.
Compounds having the same molecular formula
(i) The physical and chemical properties of the but different structural formula are known as
compounds of different functional groups are ISOMERS and the phenomenon as ISOMERISM
different. (ISO = same, meros = parts).
(iii) There exists a homologous series ofcompounds Isomers differ in physical properties or chemical
containing a particular type of functional group. properties or both.
For example, the homologous series of alcohols We can illustrate isomerism by referring to two
is CH,OH, C,H,OH and C,H,OH. different compounds, butane and isobutane both of
12.8. STRUCTURE which have the molecular formula CHyo:
H H H
Hydrocarbons are usually represented by their
structural formula. H H H H H C-H
H H
The formula that shows how atoms of different H
H H
elements are linked together in a molecule is known HH H H
as structural formula. Butane Isobutane
(iqueffes at 0°C) (Bquefies at -12°C)
198|
 The following flow chart shows different types (ii) Position isomerism : When two or more
of isomerism : compounds with the same molecular formula
differ in the position of substituent atom or
ISOMERISM functional group on the carbon atom, they are
Structural Isomerism Stereo isomerism
called position isomers and this phenomenon
or space isomerism is termed position isomerism.
(Geometrical isomerism) For example
(Ö) CHy CH,C =C H and CHy C= C CH,
Chain Position Functional Metamerism but-1-yne but-2-yne
There are two main causes of isomerism
1. Difference in the mode of linking of atoms :
(i) CH,CH, C CH,CH, and CH C CH,CH,CH,
pentan-3-one pentan-2-one
For example : CH0 shows different types *(iii) Functional isomerism : Two or more
of linkages and thus it stands for three different compounds with the same molecular formula
types of ether. but different functional groups are called
This type of isomerism is structural isomerism. functional isomers and this phenomenon is
termed as functional isomerism
C,H-0-C,H CH,-0-CGH, CH,-0-CH(CH),
Dlethyl ether Methyl propyl ether Methyl iso-propyl ether
For example :
2. Difference in the arrangement of atoms or CH,CH,OH and CH 0 CH,
ethanol dimethyl ether
groups in space
*(iv) Metamerism- : It arises due to unequal
This type of isomerism is stereo isomerism. distribution of alkyl groups on either side of
For example : 1, 2-dichloro ethene the functional groups in the molecules.
H For example:
"c-c
a' a H CH,0C,H, and C,H,0C,H,
methoxy propane ethoxyethane
methyl propyl ether Diethyl ether
Different types of structural isomerism are :
() Chain Isomerism : When two or more Note : The number of isomers increases with the
compounds have a similar molecular formula number of carbon atoms; butane with 4 carbon
but are differentthe arrangement of carbon atoms has 2 isomers, hexane has 5 isomers. An
atoms in straight or branched chains the organic compound having formula Cz,Hg has
compounds are referred to as chain isomers about a million isomers and so on.
and the phenomenon is termed as chain
isomerism. 12.10 HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
For example : Pentane CoHË2 A homologous series is a group of organic
compounds having a similar structure and similar
chemical properties in which the successive
CH,CH,CH,CH,CH CH,CHCH,CH, compounds differ by a CH, group.
Pentane iso-pentane
(2-methyl butane) By adding CH, group (known as methylene
group) in a given hydrocarbon, another hydrocarbon
CH with a higher number of carbon atoms is obtained,
e.g.,
CH, +CH, ’ C,H
CH, Methane Ethane
neo-pentane
(2, 2-dimethyl propane) "Not in syllabus
100
 Similarly, by removing CH, group from a C,H,Br + KOH boil, C,H,OH + KBr.
hydrocarbon, another hydrocarbon with a lesser (aqueous)
number of carbon atoms is obtained, e.g., Examples of Homologous Series.
CHo ’ CH, + CH,
1. ALKANE:
Butane Propane
Gen. formula [C,H,a2 Molecular formula
12.10.1 Characteristics of a homologous series Methane CH,
1. Each member of the series differs from the Ethane C,H
preceding one by the addition of CH, group and Propane C,H,
by molecular mass of 14 a.m.u. Butane C,H0
Pentane CHi2
2. All members of a homologous series share Hexane CH4
the general formula. (Same elements and same
Heptane C,H6
functional group). Octane CHs
For example, the general formula for alkane is Nonane
C, H2 alkene is C, H,a Decane Cio
3. The physical properties of the members change 2. ALKENE:
gradually ie. show gradation in properties as the Molecular formula
Gen. formula (C,H,,]
number of carbon atoms per molecule increases, Ethene CH,
Le., as molecular mass increases. Propene C,H,
For example, melting point, boiling point and the Butene CH,
density of the successive members of the Pentene CHo
homologous series increase with the increase in Hexene CHi2
molecular mass. Heptene C,H4
iDctene CH6
Examples : Nonene CoHs
Alkane Molar mass Boiling pout Plysical state Decene CioHo
(i) Methane 16 -161.4°C gas
-88.3°C
3. ALKYNE:
(ii) Ethane 30 gas
Gen. formula [C,H,-l Molecular formula
(iü) Propane 44 44.5°C gas
(iv) Butane 58 0°C gas Ethyne C,H,
72 36.2°C liquid Propyne CH,
(v) Pentane
Butyne CH
4. Members of a homologous series have similar Pentyne CH_
chemical properties. For example : Methane Hexyne
reacts with chlorine to form methyl chloride. Heptyne C,H2
CH, + CI, ’CH,CI + HCI. Octyne CH4
Similarly, ethane reacts to form ethyl chloride 4. ALCOHOLS:
Gen. formula (CHnOH) Molecular formula
C,H, +Cl, ’ CH,Cl + HCI. Methanol CH,OH
5. All the members of a homologous series can be Ethanol C,H,OH
prepared by using the same general method of Propanol GH,OH
preparation. Butanol C,H,OH
For example : Alcohols are prepared by alkyl Pentanol CH,OH
halides. Hexanol cH,OH
CH,Br + KOH boil CH,OH + KBr. Heptanol CH,OH
(aqueous) Octanol CH,OH

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12.10.2 Significance of the homologous series 12. Give the name of one member of each of the folowing:
(i) The nature of any member of that family of (a) saturated hydrocarbons,
compounds can be ascertained, if the properties (b) unsaturated hydrocarbons.
of the first few members of that series are 13. Define substitution and addition reaction. Give an
known. example for each.
(ii) It helps to predict the properties of even those 14. Define or explain chain isomerism and position isomerism
with examples in each case.
members of the series that are yet to be
prepared. 15. (a) Define the term isomerism. State two main causes
of isomerism.
(ii) Knowledge of homologous series is useful for (b) Draw the chain isomers of hexane (CH).
the systematic study of organic chemistry, since (c) Draw position isomers of butene (C,H).
it saves learning time. 16. Define a functional group and give the structural formula
Note : In an organic compound the alkyl group of the following functional groups:
(a) ketone, (b) alcohols, (c) aldehydes.
determines mainly the physical properties,
17. Write the name and formula of fourth member of the
whereas the functional group is responsible for following homologous series :
the chemical properties or reactivity of the
compounds. Alkyne (b) Alcohol
18. Which part of an organic compound determines
0 physical properties () chemical properties?
Intext Questions 19. Name the alkyl radical and the functional group of the
following organic compounds:
1. (a) What are organic compounds? (a) CH,OH, (b) CH,OH,
(b) What is vital force theory? Why was it discarded? (c) C,H,CHO, (d) CH,COOH,
2. (a) Name a few sources of organic compounds. (e) CH,COOH () HCHO.
(b) Give the various applications of organic chemistry. 20. (a) What is an alkyl group ?
3. Organic chemistry plays a key role in all walks of life. (b) Give the names of any three alkyl radicals. How are
Discuss. they formed ?
4. Carbon shows some unique properties, name them. 21. Give the names and the structural formula of

5. Explain the following: the first three members of the homologous series of
alkanes.
(a) tetravalency,
22. (a) What is a homologous series
(b) catenation.
(b) What is the diference in the molecular formula of
6. Write any four properties of organic compounds that any two adjacent homologues :
distinguish them from inorganic compounds. (0 in terms of molecular mass,
7. Why are organic compounds studied as a separate () in terms of number and kind of atoms per molecule?
branch of chemistry?
8. What are hydrocarbons? Compare saturated and 12.11 NOMENCLATURE
unsaturated hydrocarbons?
Nomenclature is the system of assignment of
9. Give reason for the existence of the large number of
organic compounds. names to organic compounds.
10. Give at least one example in each case to show structure System of nomenclature are Trivial system and
of isomers of : IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied
(a) single bond compound, Chemistry) system.
double bond compound, In the early days, the name of a compound
(c) triple bond compound. depended on the source from which it was obtained.
11. Name a compound of each type and draw the figure. For example, CH4 was named marsh gas, since it
(a) Cyclic compound with single bond. was obtained from marshy places. Acetic acid
(b) Cyclic compound with triple bond. (Latin : acetum = vinegar) was obtained from

201.
vinegar, methyl alcohol (methus = spirit, hule =
wood) was obtained from wood, and citric acid from
the botanical source citrus. Such names are called
common names or trivial names.
However, the nomenclature was systematized
by the chemists of IUPAC in 1957.
According to this system, the name of an
organic compound consists of three parts:
(i) root word, (ii) suffix, (ii) prefix.
() Root word : It depends upon the number of
carbon atoms present in the longest carbon
chain selected (Table 12.4).
Prefix also indicates additional substituent or
functional group. Di, tri, tetra-, are usedfor
wo, three and four groups of the same type
respectively.
In naming an organic compound, the
following simple rulles are followed :
1. Selection of carbon chains: The longest
continuous chain of 'C" atoms, known as parent
chain, selected. The longest chain need not
be straight. For example :
CC

Table 12.4 The longest chain is of 5 carbon atoms so root

Number of carbon atoms Root Word (Greek name) word is 'pent'.
One carbon atom C Meth (ii) I 2 3
Two carbon atoms CCcCc
C Eth
Three carbon atoms C Prop
Four carbon atoms But 4 5 6 7
Five carbon atoms C Pent
Six carbon atoms Hex Here the longest chain is of 7 carbon atoms so
Seven carbon atoms C Hept root word is hept'. The remaining two carbon
Eight carbon atoms C Oct atoms (unnumbered) are for substituent.
Nine carbon atoms Co Non 2. The branch chains are considered to be
Ten carbon atoms Dec
substituents, and their positions are indicated by
(ii) Suffix : The root word is followed by an the number of carbon atoms to which they are
appropriate suffix, which represents the nature attached. For example :
of the bond in a carbon-carbon atom ie.
C-C [single bond] -ane
C=C (double bond] -ene
CH,
CC (triple bond]yne 2-Methyl (because methyl is attached to second C)
Table 12.5 3. The carbon atoms of the longest chain are
Nature of bond Suffix General General numbered in such a way that the alkyl groups
name formula (substituents) get the smallest possible number.
For example :
Single bond (C C) ane Alkane
CHa+2
Double bond (C=C) ene Alkene CH2n
Triple bond (C=C) Alkyne
Group (R -)
-yne
yl Alkyl
cHza-2
CHzn+1
ccc

CH, CH,
(iüi) Prefix : It denotes the substituent, alkyl or 2-Methyl 4-Methyl
functional group and its position in the carbon Right Wrong
chain.
4. In case, any functional group is also present in
CC the chain, then the carbon atoms are numbered
in such a way that the functional group gets the
CH, smallest possible number.
2-Methyl (because methyl is attached to second C)
For example : Example 2: Word Root : But
Sutix: -ane
Prefix : 2, 3-dimethyl
IUPAC name : 2, 3-dimethyl
CH, OH CH, CH, butane
4-methylpentan-2-ol Right
Example 3:
3 4
CI CI
Word Root : Eth
Suftix : -ane
CH, OH
H-C-C H Prefix : 1, 1, 2, 2-tetrachloro
2-methylpentan-4-ol Wrong IUPAC Dame : 1, 1, 2, 2-tetrachloro ethane
1CH,OH CI CI
Example 4:
CH CH, CH
2
CH CH4 CH,
3
H O H Word Root : Prop
2-ethylpentan -1-ol Sutix : -ane
Note : In nomenclature, 'e' of alkane is replaced by H-C-C CH
Prefix 2-one
IUPAC name : Propan-2-one
suffix of functional group indicating the position. Common name : Acetone
5. In case, different types of substituents are H
attached to the chain, they are arranged and Example 5:
H
named alphabetically.
2 3 4 5 6
CH, CH- CH CH-CH,CH,
Br C
Word Root : But
H
-H

2-Bromo 4-chloro hexane Suftx : -yne

Prefix 2
6. The position(s) of alkyl group(s) are indicated by IUPAC ame : But-2-yne
writing the position and name of the alkyl group Example 6:
just before the name of parent hydrocarbon. CH,CH,CH-CH,-CH,
3
CH,
The longest chain is of 5 carbon atoms so root
CH 5CH 6cH CH, word is Pent. The nature of carbon chain is
3-ethylbeptane C -C (single bond] - Suffix -ane and the
7. Multiple alkyl groups are labelled with the Greek substituent is an (alkyl) methyl - CH, group. Thus
numerical prefixes such as 'di' for two, 'tri' for name of compound is:3-methyl pentane.
three, 'tetra' for four, 'penta' for five. Example 7:
CH,
If two alkyl groups are on the same carbon atom,
the numeral is repeated.
3-methyl hexane
Example 8:
CH cCH, CH, 6 5 4 31 2l 1
CH, CH, CH, CH, 2, CH, CH CH CH,
3-dimethyl heptane
2, 2-dimethyl butane
Examples of IUPAC names
Example 9:
Example 1: 6 4
Word Root : Prop
Suftx : -ane
Prefx : 2 methyl
CH,
IUPAC name : 2-methyl propane 3, 3-dimethyl hexane
CH,
Example 10: Example 17 :

CH, ÞH=CH CH, CH,C CH, CH, CH,

4
But-2-ene
pentan-2-one.
Example 11 : Example 18 :
2
CH,- CH- CH, CH, 4 3
CH, CH, CH
I2 1
COOH
CH, 2-ethyl butan-1-oic acid
3-methylpent-2-ene
12.12 WRITING STRUCTURAL FORMULA FROM
Example 12 : IUPAC NAME
H H H O H
Following steps to be followed :
s4l 3l 2l! 1. Write the number of carbon atoms according to
the word root (carbon skeleton).
CI H H H
2. Number the carbon atoms from any end.
-a
5-chloropentan-2-one
Example 13 : 3. According to the suffix ane, ene or yne, the
position of the bond is specified in the parent
1
chain.
CH,H,"¢CH,OH 4. Atach the substituent or functional group at the
mentioned carbon atom.
CH,
2-chloro-2-methyi butan-1-ol. 5. Satisfy the four valencies of carbon atom by
attaching hydrogen atoms.
Example 14 : For example :
CH, 2-Bromo4-methyl pent-2-ene
2 1
CH, CH- CH,OH Step 1 : Write the carbon atoms of the parent chain,
2-methyl propan-1-ol. C-C-C-C-C
Step 2 : Number it,
Example 15 : 1 2 3 5
C-C-C-C-C
Step 3 : Locate the suffix,
1 2 3 4 5
C-C=C-C-c
CH,
2-ethyl 4, 4dimethyl pentan-1-ol. Step 4: Attach substituents,
1 2 3 4 5
Example 16 : C-C=C-C-C
2 1
Br CH,
CH,CHO4
Step 5: Satisfy valencies by adding hydrogen atoms,
CH CH CHO CH, -C = CH - CH-CH,
Pentan-1, 5-dial
Br CH,
 12B HYDROCARBONS : ALKANES
12.13 ALKANES
Alkanes are hydrocarbons in which all the
linkages between the carbon atoms are single
covalent bonds.
These compounds are known as saturated
hydrocarbons since all the four valencies of carbon
are fully satisfied in the formula CHn2 by a single
bond (saturated by C-C and C - H single
bonds) (refer to Table 12.6).
The simple alkanes share many properties in
common. All enter into combustion reactions with
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water vapour.
In other words, many alkanes are flammable. This
makes them good fuels. For example, methane is
the principle component of natural gas, and butane
is common lighter fluid.
CH, + 20h ’ C0, + 2H,0
The combustion of methane
These hydrocarbons are relatively unreactive
under ordinary conditions and so, they are also
known as paraffins (parun-ittle, attinis-affinity).

Table 12.6 Homologous series of alkanes (General formula CH2n+2)

Name Molecular Structural formula Abbreviated formula
formula (Condensed formula)
Methane H CH,
CH¡sti0U
H C- H

H
Ethane C,H H H CH, CH,
dish
H- C- CH

H H

Propane C,H_ H H H CH, CH, CH,

H-C-C C H
-

H H H
Normal butane C,H0 H H CH, CH, CH; CH;
H

H H H H

Isobutane C4 Hio H H H CH, CH CH

(common name) or
2-methyl propane H CC C H CH,
(TUPAC name)
H
H- C H

H
Note : Since a number of organic compounds have the same molecular formula but diferent properties, it is appropriate to
represent them by structural formula or by condensed (abbreviated) formula.
12.13.1 Sources of alkanes
The principal sources of alkanes are natural gas methane, with smaller amounts of ethane, propane
and petroleum. Natural gas contains mainly and butane.
207
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12.13.2 Isomerism in alkanes, i.e., single CH,
bond hydrocarbons CH, -C-CH,
Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms
form isomers. The various isomers differ in the CH,
framework of the carbon chains. Therefore, they IUPAC Name : 2, 2-dimethyl propane
Common name : neo-pentane
show chain isomerism.
['neo', i.e., at least one carbon atom is attached
Examples : to 'four' other carbon atoms].
Isomers of butane (C,H)
12.14 METHANE AND ETHANE
Butane has four carbon atoms. These four
carbon atoms can be arranged in two distinct ways. 12.14.1Occurrence of methane and ethane
Therefore, there are two isomers of butane. Methane (Marsh gas)
H H H H
i) Marsh gas is formed at the bottom of marshes
H C-C-C- C-H due to the fermentation of cellulose by a special
type of bacteria.
H H H H
n-butane (CHo), where n' stands for normal
(i) It is also present in the air exhaled by animals
whose food contains cellulose.
IUPAC Name : Butane
H H H (ii) It is contained in intestinal gases and in the
blood of animals and human beings.
H - C - C-C-H (iv) Cavities in coal contain 90% methane. It is
H H
called fire-damp'.
H -C-H
(v) Methane is produced also by dry distillation of
wood, peat (coal).
H Ethane : t occurs the extent of 10-20
Iso-butane (C,H,) percent alongwith methane.
IUPAC Name : 2 Methyl propane
('iso", ie., at least one carbon atom is attached Methane (Green house gas)
to three other carbon atoms]. Methane is a primary constituent of natural gas. It
Isomers of pentane (C,H,) absorb outgoing heat radiation from the earth, and
Pentane has five carbon atoms, which can be thus contribute to the green house effect and so
arranged in three different ways. Therefore, pentane considered as a green house gas. Methane remains
can form three isomers. in the atmosphere for approximately 10 years. ft is
H H H H twenty times more effective in trapping heat in
comparison to carbondioxide.
H C-C-C-C-C-H
Methane is emitted from variety of natural and
H H H H human influenced sources like landfills, natural gas
IUPAC Name : Pentane and petroleum systems, agricultural activities, coal
Common name : -pentane mining, stationary and mobile combustion, waste
['n', means normal Le. carbon atom is attached water treatment and certain industrial process.
to maximum two carbon atoms]. Methane is an important energy source so
CH, efforts to prevent or utilize methane emissions can
CH, CH CH, - CH, provide significant economical and environmental
IUPAC Name : 2-methyl buiane benefits.
Common name : iso-pentane

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 12C HYDROCARBONS : ALKENES
12.16 ALKENES

Alkenes are also called olefins (oil-foming) because the lower members of alkenes form oily products
when they are treated with chlorine or bromine. Alkenes form a homologous series having the general
formula C,H,, (refer to Table 12.7).
Table 12.7 : Homologous series of alkenes, general formula C,H
Molecular Condensed Structural Trivial name IUPAC name
formula formula formula (Common name)
C,H, CH, = CH, H H Ethylene Ethene

H C=C H
a HH H
CjH, CH, - CH= CH,
H CC= C-H Propylene Propene
H

HH H H
CH, CH,-CH,-CH = CH,
HCCC-C H Butylene, Butene

H H

(ii) Position isomerism :

Alkenes are unsaturated aliphatic hydro Example
carbons that contain one double bond. CH,CH,CH = CH, CH,CH = CHCH,
Occurrence : Since alkenes are reactive, they 1-butene 2-butene
seldom occur free in nature. Lower alkenes occur 12.16.1 Ethene (Ethylene) C,H
in minute quantities in coal gas. They are produced It is the first member of the alkene series. It is
on a large scale by the cracking of petroleum. present natural gas. In small amounts, it occurs
Isomers in alkenes as a plant hormone and is responsible for the
Alkenes with 4 or more than 4 carbon atoms ripening of fruits.
can formn isomers.
12.16.2 Structure of ethene
For example : Butene has three isomers: Each carbon atom of ethene is attached to two
(i) CH,CH,CH = CH, hydrogen atoms by single covalent bonds and to
But-1-ene
another carbon atom by a double covalent bond.
(iü) CHCH = CHCH,
But-2-ene There are four C-H single covalent bonds and one
C=C double covalent bond. It is a planar (flat)
(ii) CH, =C- CH,
molecule. All bond angles (H-C-H and H-C-C)
CH, are of 120°, as shown in Fig. 13.3.
2-methyl propene
Types of isomerism shown by Alkenes H 120
(i) Chain Isomerism CH,
Example H H
CH,CH,CH = CH, CH,-C= CH,
1-butene 2-methyl propene Fig. 12.3 Structure of ethylene
213.
 12D HYDROCARBONS : ALKYNES
12.17 ALKYNES
The aliphatic hydrocarbons that contain a triple bond (-C=C-), ie., acetylenic bond, between two
carbon atoms are known as alkynes. They are unsaturated compounds, due to the triple bond between two
carbon atoms. They form a homologous series, with the general formula CH2-2 (Refer to Table 12.8).
Table 12.8 : Homologous series of alkynes (General formula :CH-)
Molecular Condensed Structural Trivial name IUPAC name of
formula formula formula the compound

CH, CH = CH H-C= C-H Acetylene Ethyne

CH,-C CH H
C,H,
H-CC=C H Allylene Propyne

HH
CH CH,-CH,C= CH
H-C C CaC H Crotonylene Butyne

HH

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-THISTLE FUNNEL
Sources of alkynes: Natural gas and
petroleum. WATER PINCH ACETYLENE
COCK
Isomers in alkynes
Alkynes with four or more than four carbon
atoms can form isomers. Alkynes show position CALCIUM
isomerism as well as chain isomerism. For example, CARBIDE

Butyne
It shows position isomerism.
Ö) CH, - CH, -C= CH
IUPAC Name :But-1-yne
(ü) CH, -CuC-CH,
IUPAC Name : But---yne
12.17.1 Ethyne
(Common name : acetylene)
Molecular formula : CH,
Ethyne (Acetylene) is the first member of the
alkyne series. Ethyne being an unsaturated
hydrocarbon, is not found in free state.
Sources : Traces of ethyne are present in coal
gas and in gases obtained by the decomposition of
certain complex organic compounds. It is obtained
by cracking of alkanes from various fractions of
petroleum.
12.17.2 Structure of ethyne (acetylene)
Each carbon atom acetylene is attached to
one hydrogen atom by single covalent bond and to
another carbon atom by a triple covalent bond.
H-C=C- H
Electron dot formula Structural formula
The shape of ethyne molecule is linear.
12.17.3 Laboratory preparation of ethyne
(acetylene)
Reactants : Water and calcium carbide.
Procedure : Arrange the apparatus as shown
in Fig. 12.5. Take a few pieces of calcium carbide
in a conical flask. Add a few drops of water through
the thistle funnel. Calcium carbide reacts with water
to produce colourless gas with ether like odour
(acetylene gas). The reaction is exothernic.
Fig. 125 Lab. preparation of (acetylene) ethyne.
Reaction :
CaC, + 2H,0 ’ Ca(OH), + CH,‘
Calcium Calcium acetylene
carbide hydroxide
Collection: The gas is collected by downward
displacement of water, since it is insoluble in water.
Purification : Impurities like phosphine,
hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and arsenic are formed
along with acetylene due to the contamination of
calcium sulphide and calcium phosphide in calcium
carbide. On passing through water, all impurities
except phosphine are absorbed. Phosphine is
absorbed by passing through acidified copper
sulphate solution or acidified potassium dichromate.
Note : Flask should not contain air as acetylene
forms explosive mixture with air. The air of the
flask is displaced with oil gas.
Preparation from 1, 2-dibromoethane (ethylene
dibromide).
When 1, 2-dibromoethane (ethylene dibromide)
is boiled with alcoholic potassium hydroxide, ethyne
is formed.
200°C
CH,Br + 2KOH boiling
CH + 2KBr + 2HL,0
(alcoholic)
CH,Br CH
(Ethyne)
12.17.4 Properties of acetylene (ethyne)
A. Physical properties
(i) Acetylene is a colourless gas with an ether
like odour when it is pure (the one prepared
from calciun carbide has garlic odour due
to the presence of traces of phosphine and
hydrogen sulphide).

2171
 12E ALLCOHOLS

12.18 ALCOHOLS
Alcohols are the hydroxyl derivatives of alkanes. They are formed by replacing one more hydrogen
atoms of the alkane with OH group.
Homologous series of alcohols and structural formula are given in Table 12.9.
TABLE 12.9: HOMOLOGOUS SERIES OF ALCOHOLS (General formula : C,H,.OH)
Common Molecular Abbreviated formula Structural formula IUPAC Name
Name formula
Methyl CH,OH CH,-OH H Methanol
alcohol
H-C-0-H

H
Ethyl C,H,OH CH, - CH,-OH H H Ethanol
alcohol
H-C-C-0-H

H H

Propyl C,H,OH CH,-CH,-CH, -OH HH H' Propanol

alcohol
H CC-C-0H

H H H
H H H H Butanol
Butyl
alcohol
C,H,OH CH,-CH,- CH, -CH, - OH H-C-C-C-c-0-H

H H H H

Alcohols can be monohydric, i.e., with one OH 12.19 ETHANOL

group attached to the carbon atom. 12.19.1 Occurence
Example :
Since alcohols are not found naturally in the
Methyl alcohol (CH;OH) and ethyl alcobol earth's atmosphere, so they are obtained by
(C,H,OH). synthesis.
They can be dihydric, ie., with two OH groups For example, methanol (wood spirit) is
attached to the carbon atom.
obtained from destructive distillation of wood, while
Example : Glycol C,H(OH); ethanol is obtained from fermentation* of sugar.
They can be trihydric, i.e., with three OH CcH,0, (aq.) enzymes
2C,H,OH + 2C0,
groups attached to the carbon atom. 37°c
Example : Glycerol Cracking of petroleum is a source of ethane,
CH, -CH- CH, which is used for preparing ethanol.
OH OH OH
" Fermentation is an anacrobic process. It takes place under
IUPAC nAme : 1, ,3propane triol. conditions where there is no air or oxygen available.
220
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 12F. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

12.20 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS group are called monocarboxylic acid.

An organic compound containing the carboxyl For example : HCOOH CH,COOH
group (-COOH) is known as carboxylic acid. These Formic acid Acetic acid
compounds possess acidic properties.
Those which contain two COOH groups are
General formula CHza+COOH (or RCOOH) called dicarboxylic acid.
For example : COOH
OR (COOH);
Functional group -C-OH COOH
Oxalic acid
An organic compound may contain one or more IUPAC Name : Bthane-di-oic acid
of these groups. Those which contain one COOH
T2231

Table 12. Homologoerit ups:// W

monocarboxylic acid

Formula Common name IUPAC name

H-C-OH Formic acid Methanoic acid

CH,-C-OH Acetic acid Ethanoic acid

CH,CH,-C-OH Propionic acid Propanoic acid

CH,CH,CHC-OHButyric acid Butanoic acid

IUPAC name : IUPAC name is given by

replacing e' of the coresponding alkane by ic
acid', because they are derived from alkanes
by replacing one hydrogen atom with the carboxyl
(-COOH) group. Thus they are also known as
Alkanoic acid.
12.21 ACETIC ACID CH,COOH
Structural formula :

H-c
OH
H
The name acetic acid comes from latin word
'ACETUM. Acetic acid (IUPAC name ethanoic
acid) occurs in free state in many fruits and as esters
in a number of essential oils.
Dilute (4-S percent) solution of acetic acid is
also called vineger. The presence of a colouring
matter gives vinegar a greyish colour while the
presence of some other organic compound imparts
the usual taste and flavour. Vinegar is used for
flavouring and preserving foods.
12 Lab preparaticon