Chembio

Chembio
Organic Chem
1. Which of the following is not a characteristic of organic compounds?
A. They usually have low melting points.
B. They usually are only slightly soluble or insoluble in water.
C. If water soluble they seldom conduct an electric current.
D. Bonds which bind the atoms together are nearly always ionic.
2. Which of the following are the basic components of all living things?
A. atom B. matter C. molecules D. organic compounds
3. Backbone of organic molecules is _____.

A. carbon B. hydrogen C. oxygen D. all of the choices
4. Organic compounds having the same molecular formula but different arrangement of atoms bonded together
are called
A. functional groups B. isomers C. hydrocarbons D. polymers
5. Properties and reactions of organic compounds are determined by a particular atom or group of atoms in the
molecule. This group of atoms is called _____.
A. functional group B. class/family C. type formula D. hydrocarbons
6. It refers to hydrocarbon that have double or triple covalent bonds between adjacent carbon atoms.
A. saturated B. unsaturated C. petroleum D. natural gas
7. Compounds that contain benzene as part of their structure.

A. Aldehyde B. ketone C. ester D. aromatic
8. Hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds between carbon atoms.

A. alkane B. alkene C. alkyne D. benzene
9. It refers to a fossil fuel formed when layers of buried plants and animals are exposed to intense heat and
pressure over thousands of years.
A. methane B. natural gas C. saturated hydrocarbons D. unsaturated hydrocarbons
10. It refers to a chemical compound with the chemical formula of CH4 and is the simplest alkane and the main
component of natural gas.
A. methane B. natural gas C. saturated hydrocarbons D. unsaturated hydrocarbons
11. Carbon has four valence electrons that it can share with hydrogen only.
A. TRUE B. FALSE
12. Carbon is unique because it can form multiple bonds and straight, branched, and cyclic or ring structures.
A. TRUE B. FALSE
13. Most fuels are obtained from petroleum and crude oil.
A. TRUE B. FALSE
Numbers 14 to 16 are structures of some organic compounds. Be able to identify the functional group present and
determine the class of organic compound it belongs
14. ester, RCOOH 15. alkyl halide -Br 16. ketone

Numbers 17 to 19 are structures of some organic compounds. Be able to identify the functional group present and
determine the class of organic compound it belongs.
17. amine 18.aldehyde 19. alcohol

20. Methane, CH4, is a product of aerobic respiration.
A. TRUE B. FALSE
21. The hydrocarbon where the four valence electrons are shared with other atoms is called an _____.
A. alkane B. alkene C. alkyne D. aromatic
22. Which 2 statements are true about carbon’s ability to form bonds?
A. Carbon atoms have four valence electrons. Carbon atoms can form stable bonds with each other.
B. Carbon atoms always form three covalent bonds. Carbon atoms can form stable bonds with each other.
C. Carbon atoms always form four covalent bonds. Carbon atoms can form stable single, double or triple
bonds with each other.
D. Carbon atoms always form three covalent bonds. Carbon atoms can form stable bonds with each other.
23. Which molecule co'ntains a carbon-carbon double bond?
A. Ethane B. Ethene C. Ethyne D. Ethyl alcohol
24. By dehydration we mean, the removal of:

A. Halogen B. hydrogen C. hydrogen halide D. water
25. An alkyne with 6 carbons will have how many hydrogen atoms?
A. 8 B. 10 C. 12 D. 14
26. These are organic compounds in which two hydrocarbon groups are bonded to the same atom of oxygen.
A. alcohol B. aldehyde C. ester D. ether
27. Which of the following class of organic compounds contain a carboxyl group?
A. Aldehydes B. carboxylic acids C. esters D. ketones
28. The IUPAC name of this alkane is _____.

A. 3,3-dipropyloctane B. 3,5-dipropylhexane C. 3-propyl-5-methyloctane D. 4-ethyl-6-methylnonane
29. In the addition of HX to a double bond, the hydrogen goes to the carbon that already has more hydrogens is a
statement of
A. Hund's rule B. Markovnikov's rule C. Huckel rule D. Saytzeff rule
30. The reduction of a ketone always gives a _____.

A. primary alcohol B. secondary alcohol C. carboxylic acid D. ketal
Test II. Give one specific example of each of the following class of organic compound, then draw its structure and
name the compound.
1. secondary alcohol 2. amide 3. Aldehyde 4. Carboxylic acid 5. An ester 6. ketone
Organic Chemistry
• study of carbon, the compounds it makes, and the reactions it undergoes
• over 16 million carbon-containing compounds are known
• because the C-C single bond (348 kJ mol-1) and the C- H bond (412 kJ mol-1) are strong,
carbon compounds are stable
• carbon can form chains and rings
Hydrocarbons
• Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen
• Many organic molecules, such as fats, have hydrocarbon components
• Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy
Isomers
• Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties
- Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms
- Cis-trans isomers have the same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arrangements
- Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
• Enantiomers are important in the pharmaceutical industry
• Two enantiomers of a drug may have different effects
• Usually only one isomer is biologically active
• Differing effects of enantiomers demonstrate that organisms are sensitive to even subtle
variations in molecules
A few chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules

• Distinctive properties of organic molecules depend on the carbon skeleton and on the molecular
components attached to it
• A number of characteristic groups can replace the hydrogens attached to skeletons of organic
molecules
The Chemical Groups Most Important in the Processes of Life
• Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved
in chemical reactions
• The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties
• The seven functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life:
- Hydroxyl group
- Carbony group
- Carboxyl group
- Amino group
- Sulfhydryl group
- Phosphate group
- Methyl group
Alkenes
• Alkenes contains a carbon-carbon double bond. This carbon-carbon double bond changes the
physicals properties of alkenes. At room temperatue, alkenes exist in all three phases, solid, liquids, and
gases.
• Alkenes occur widely in nature.
1. Ethene
-Stimulates ripening of fruits
-Starting material for the production of polyethylene.
2. Propylene
-used in the production of polypropylene, cumene, isopropyl and propylene oxide.
Alkynes
• used in welding torches
General Properties of Org Chem
1. Can be isolated from natural sources or can be reared in the laboratory.
2. Contains C,H, O, N, S, X, P
3. Has complex structures and solids have high molecular weight.
4. Non electrolytes and non polar.
5. Properties are determined by functional groups.
6. Insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents.
7. Flammable/combustible.
8. Low melting points and boiling points in comparison to the inorganic compounds.
9. Organic acids and bases are less stronger and thus they have a limited dissociation in an aqueous
medium.
10. They exhibit the phenomenon of isomerism.
11. Volatile in nature.
Importance of Organic compounds

1. All living organisms contain carbon.
2. Components of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, the basic structures of life.
3. basic components of many of the carbon cycle that includes the exchange of carbon between plants
and animals in photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
4. combine with metals to form organometallic compounds. These compounds are important industrially
used as catalysts, promoters, analysers as well as stabilizers.
Sources of Organic Compounds

1. Plants and animals.
2. Natural gas and Petroleum
3. Coal
Organic Fuels
1. Natural gas burns clean used in cooking (CNG, LPG, butane). Can also be used as fuel for some
types of vehicles (CNG).
2. Gasoline/Gasohol
3. Diesel
4. Biodiesel
5. Methanol and ethyl alcohol
6. wood, coal, charcoal
Alkane derivatives: alkyl halides, alcohols, carbony compounds
Halogens (F2, C|2, Br2, 12,) can all add to a hydrocarbon to form an alkyl halide.
• When naming the halogen the -ine ending of the halogen name is replaced by -o
• Fluorine becomes fluoro
• Chlorine becomes chloro
• Bromine becomes bromo
• lodine becomes iodol
Aliphatic Alcohols
An alcohol has a hydrogen replaced by a hydroxyl (-OH) group.
- The name of the hydrocarbon that was substituted determines the name of the alcohol.
- The alcohol is named using the hydrocarbon name and adding the suffix -ol.
• If methane is substituted with an OH group it becomes methanol
• If a pentane group is substituted with an OH group it is pentanol.
• Four different alcohols. The IUPAC name is given above each structural formula, and the common
name is given below.
• The OH group is polar and short chain alcohols are soluble in both nopolar alkanes and water.
- If an alcohol contains two
OH groups it is a diol
(sometimes called a glycol).
- An alcohol with three OH groups is called a triol (sometimes called a glycerol).
Aldehydes and Ketones
-An aldehyde has a carbonyl group (carbon double bonded
to an oxygen) attached to a terminal carbon atom
- A ketone has a carbonyl group attached to an internal
carbon atom.
• The carbonyl group (A) is present in both aldehydes
and ketones, as shown in (B). (C) The simplest example
of each, with the IUPAC name above and the common
name below each formula.
Carboxylic Acids and Esters
Organic acids are those acids that are derived from living organisms, usually from metabolism, but
sometimes as a defense mechanism.
- Long chain organic acids are known as fatty acids
These are also called carboxylic acids as they contain the carboxyl functional group (COOH)
• One oxygen is double bonded to the carbon and the other is bonded to the carbon and to the
hydrogen both with single bonds.
These red ants, like other ants, make the simplest of the organic acids, formic acid. The sting of bees,
ants, and some plants contains formic acid, along with some other irritating materials. Formic acid is
нсоОн.
IUPAC Rules
Rule 1: Replace the alkane suffix -ane with the suffix -ene
Rule 2: Select as the parent carbon chain the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms that contains
both carbon atoms of the double bond.
Rule 3: Number the parent carbon chain beginning at the end nearest to the double bond. If the
double bond is equidistant from both ends of the parent chain, begin numbering from the end closer to
a substituent.
Rule 4: Give the position of the double bond in the chain as a single number, which is the lower-
numbered carbon atom participating in the double bond.
Rule 5: Use the suffixes -diene, -triene, -tetrene, and so on when more than one double bond is
present in the molecule.
Rule 6: A number is not needed to locate the double bond in

unsubstituted cycloalkenes with only one double bond because that bond is assumed to be between
carbons 1 and 2.
Rule 7: In substituted cycloalkenes with only one double bond, the double-bonded carbon atoms are
numbered 1 and 2 in the direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) that gives the first-encountered
substituent the lower number.
Rule 8: In cycloalkenes with more than one double bond within the ring, assign one double with
numbers 1 and 2 and the other double bonds the lowest numbers possible.
pH and Buffers
• pH or power of Hydrogen is a measure of the concentration

of acids and bases in the body and depends on the
concentration of hydrogen ions (H*). The stronger the acid,
the more readily it donates hydrogen ions. The stronger the
base, the more readily it donates a hydroxide ion.
• Physiological pH is maintained between 7.35- 7.45. pH in
the body should be kept within the normal physiological range.
pH lower than 7.35 can result to

• respiratory acidosis
• metabolic acidosis
pH higher than 7.45 may result to:
• respiratory alkalosis
• metabolic alkalosis
Buffers
Biological buffer is a substance that maintains the pH. Most buffers contains a weak acid and its
conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid.
Examples of buffer in the body:
2. Plasma proteins like hemoglobin

3. Phosphate buffer (Na,H,PO, & Na,HPO42-)
4. Antacids
Organs involved:
1. heart
2. lungs
3. kidneys
Carbohydrates
Uses/functions
• Provide energy (spares proteins & fatty acids) and stored energy
• Flavorings, sweetener.
• Dietary fiber
• Biological recognition
• Form part of the structure in living organisms (cellulose & chitin)
•Polyhdroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones
•Hydrates of carbon Cn(H2O)n applicable to simple sugars
•Obtained from plants and animals
•Names end in “ose” except glycogen or generally saccharide
Sources
Plants
6 CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
•Simple sugars
•Polysaccharides (starch)
•Cellulose
•Glycosides
Animals
•Glycogen
Reactions
1. Hemiacetal and acetal formation
2. Oxidation
3. Ester formation (Phosphorylation)
4. Reduction (sugar alcohols)
5. Elongation and degradation
Classifications
A. Based on functional groups
1.Aldose
2. Ketose
B. Based on the number of carbons in the chain

3. Triose
4. Tetrose
5. Pentose
6. Hexose
C. Number of sugar units (saccharide)

1.Monosaccharide
2. Oligosaccharides (includes disaccharides)
3. Polysaccharides
D. Heteroatom and ring structure

1.Glycosides (o-glycosides, n-glycosides
2.Pyranoside & furanoside
3.Glycoconjugates
Water
Properties
• Polar (Universal solvent)
• Adhesion
• Cohesion
• Capillary Action
• Density
• High heat capacity
Importance
• Water is the most important nutrient for survival. (University of Florida's Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences Extension)
• Most chemical reactions inside the body occurs in aqueous environment.
• Losing 1/10 of the water inside the organism can be fatal.
1.Regulation of
b.Body temperature
c.pH
2. Hydrolysis reactions (energy production)
3. Digestion
4. Joint lubrication
5. Waste excretion
6. Homeostasis
• Homeostasis is the process that the body uses to maintain stability. the lungs are involved in
respiration, exchanging carbon dioxide in the bloodstream for oxygen from the air. the pancreas
regulates blood-glucose levels with the release of insulin or glucagon. the hypothalamus detects
how much water is present in the blood, and controls how much water the kidneys hold or excrete
in urine. the skin controls body temperature in two ways. it releases sweat to cool the body when
its temperature is too high, and it flattens or stands up body hairs to release heat or insulate the
body, depending on what the body needs.
Lipids
• Non-polar organic molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen mainly hydrocarbon chain
or fatty acids (heterogeneous)
• Usually fats (animals) and oils (plants)
• Energy rich
• Stored in the adipose tissues
• Mechanical barrier of cells –cell membrane
• Precursor or derived
1. Non-saponifiable lipids are those that can not be broken down into smaller molecules by hydrolysis,
e.g. cholesterol, prostaglandins, etc.
2. Saponifiable lipids are those that can be broken down like waxes, triglycerides (non polar),
sphingolipids, glycerophosphilipids, and phospholipids (polar).
•Basic component are fatty acids
1.Simple Lipids
Fats: esters of fatty acids with glycerol
Waxes: esters of fatty acids with higher MW monohydric alcohols
2. Complex Lipids
Phospholipids
Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids)
Complex lipids (lipoproteins)
Phospolipids
• Phospholipids are the main constituents of cell membranes. They resemble the triglycerides in
being ester or amide derivatives of glycerol or sphingosine with fatty acids and phosphoric acid.
PROTEINS
ENZYMES AND HORMONES
 Proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions like
digestion and metabolism (anabolism and catabolism)
 Enzymes catalyze specific specific reactions and
specific to its substrates. Substrates are the reactants
that undergo chemical reaction.
ENZYMES  Enzymes have an active site where the substrate binds
to or interact to effect chemical reaction (breakdown,
rearrangement, synthesis)
 Enzymes are not changed or used up in the chemical
reaction.
LOCK AND KEY MODEL
 shape of the active site and substrate complement in such a
way that the substrate fits into the binding site perfectly.
Enzyme –
Substrate
interaction
INDUCED FIT
 the enzyme active site forms in response to substrate binding.
Enzyme –
Substrate
interaction
 COMPETETIVE INHIBITION
 NON-COMPETETIVE INHBITION (ALLOSTERIC

INHIBITORS INHIBITION)
 Redox reactions involving the transfer of protons or
electrons between substrates
 Example is Alcohol dehydrogenase
(1)
Oxidoreductases
 Transfer of a functional group from one substrate to
another. The functional groups are methyl, ethyl, amino,
phosphate group, etc.
(2) Transferases  Examples: Transaminase, Nucleoside monophosphate

kinase (NMP Kinase)
 Hydrolysis reaction with water (transfer of functional
group to water.
(3) Hydrolases  Examples: lipase, amylase, peptidase
 Addition of functional groups to double bonds and
formation of double bonds by the removal of groups.
(4) Lyases  Examples: fumarase, decarboxylase
 Transfer of groups within molecules (intra-molecular) to
make isomeric forms.
(5) Isomerases  Examples: triose phosphate isomerase,
phosphoglucomutase
 Condensation of two molecules with energy from ATP
hydrolysis
 Catalyzes the formation of C-C, C-S, C-O, C-N bonds by
(6) Ligases condensation with ATP cleavage
 Examples: Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, DNA ligase

 Movement of ions or molecules across membranes or
their separation within membranes. (TOM and TIM)
(7) Translocases  Example: ATP Translocase, DNA translocase, carnitine-
acylcarnitine translocase
 chemicals the endocrine system uses to send messages
to organs and tissue throughout the body. Once released
into the bloodstream, they travel to their target organ or
tissue, which has receptors that recognize and react to
HORMONES the hormone.

 Proteins/Polypeptides or short-chain peptides
 Regulates metabolism, reproduction, growth, mood,
health, and sexual behavior/tendency.
 Lipid – derived
 Amino-acid derived
HORMONES
 Peptide hormones
https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/18-1-types-of-
hormones/
HORMONES
hormones/
HORMONES
hormones/
HORMONES
hormones/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLdNX5Te1Xo
intro
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8TveCTps_Xw
complete
PROTEINS
COMPOSITION, FUNCTIONS, STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES
PROTEINS
• Makes up 20% of the human body.
• Large complex molecules that are critical for normal functioning of cells.
• Essential for the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and
organs.
• Made up of smaller units called amino acids held together by peptide bonds to
form long chain.
Amino Acid Structure and Classification
Non-Protein Amino acids are alpha amino acids found in cells but not in proteins.
• Citrulline
• Ornithine
• Carnitine
• Selenocysteine
• Pyrrolysine
Building Polypeptides
Building Polypeptides
Protein Structure
• Primary
• Secondary
• Tertiary
• Quaternary
Protein Structure
• Primary structure
Protein Structure
• Secondary structure
Protein Structure
• Tertiary structure
Protein Structure
• Quaternary structure
Protein Structure
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1peFJ_-N7V8
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hok2hyED9go
Protein Structure Classification
• Globular (transport, messaging/signaling, catalysis, immune response)
• Fibrous (structure/protection, joint strength/mobility)
• Membrane (receptors, channels)
• Globular – spherical in shape and dissolves in water. Secondary to quaternary
structures.
Examples:
Blood, enzymes, hormones
• Fibrous are elongated strand-like structures usually in the form of rods or wires.
Insoluble in water and predominantly in secondary structure.
Examples:
Keratin, collagen, elastin, fibroin
Denaturation
When a protein loses its higher-order structure (2o, 3o, 4o)
1. Temperature
2. pH
3. Chemicals
4. Toxins/venom
5. Stirring/agitation
AP*
Chapter 5
Gases
AP Learning Objectives
▪ LO 1.3 The student is able to select and apply mathematical relationships to

mass data in order to justify a claim regarding the identify and/or estimated
purity of a substance. (Sec 5.5, 5.7)
▪ LO 1.4 The student is able to connect the number of particles, moles, mass, and
volume of substances to one another, both qualitatively and quantitatively. (Sec
5.2-5.3)
▪ LO 2.4 The student is able to use KMT and concepts of intermolecular forces to
make predictions about the macroscopic properties of gases, including both
ideal and nonideal behavior. (Sec 5.1-5.3, 5.6)
▪ LO 2.5 The student is able to refine multiple representations of a sample of
matter in the gas phase to accurately represent the effect of changes in
macroscopic properties on the sample. (Sec 5.3)
▪ LO 2.6 The student can apply mathematical relationships or estimation to
determine macroscopic variables for ideal gases. (Sec 5.1-5.5)
AP Learning Objectives
▪ LO 2.12 The student can qualitatively analyze data regarding real gases to
identify deviations from ideal behavior and relate these to molecular
interactions. (Sec 5.8)
▪ LO 2.15 The student is able to explain observations regarding the solubility of
ionic solids and molecules in water and other solvents on the basis of particle
views that include intermolecular interactions and entropic effects. (Sec 5.8-5.9)
▪ LO 3.4 The student is able to relate quantities (measured mass of substances,
volumes of solutions, or volumes and pressures of gases) to identify
stoichiometric relationships for a reaction, including situations involving limiting
reactants and situations in which the reaction has not gone to completion. (Sec
5.4)
▪ LO 5.2: The student is able to relate temperature to the motions of particles,
either via particulate representations, such as drawings of particles with arrows
indicating velocities, and/or via representations of average kinetic energy and
distribution of kinetic energies of the particles, such as plots of the Maxwell-
Boltzmann distribution. (Sec 5.6)
Section 5.1
Pressure
AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

▪ Learning Objectives
▪ LO 2.4 The student is able to use KMT and concepts of intermolecular forces to make predictions about the
macroscopic properties of gases, including both ideal and nonideal behavior.
▪ LO 2.6 The student can apply mathematical relationships or estimation to determine macroscopic variables for
ideal gases.
Section 5.1
Pressure
Why study gases?
▪ An understanding of real world phenomena.

▪ An understanding of how science “works.”
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 5

Section 5.1
Pressure
A Gas
▪ Uniformly fills any container.
▪ Easily compressed.
▪ Mixes completely with any other gas.
▪ Exerts pressure on its surroundings.

Section 5.1
Pressure
Pressure
force
Pr essure =
area
▪ SI units = Newton/meter2 = 1 Pascal (Pa)

▪ 1 standard atmosphere = 101,325 Pa
▪ 1 standard atmosphere = 1 atm =
760 mm Hg = 760 torr

Section 5.1
Pressure
Barometer
▪ Device used to measure
atmospheric pressure.
▪ Mercury flows out of the tube
until the pressure of the
column of mercury standing
on the surface of the mercury
in the dish is equal to the
pressure of the air on the rest
of the surface of the mercury
in the dish.

Section 5.1
Pressure
Manometer
▪ Device used for
measuring the
pressure of a gas in
a container.

Section 5.1
Pressure
Collapsing Can

Section 5.1
Pressure
Pressure Conversions: An Example

The pressure of a gas is measured as 2.5 atm. Represent
this pressure in both torr and pascals.
 760 torr 
( 2.5 atm ) 
  = 1.9  10 3
torr
 1 atm 
 101,325 Pa 
( 2.5 atm ) 
  = 2.5  10 5
Pa
 1 atm 

Section 5.2
The Gas Laws of Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro

▪ LO 1.4 The student is able to connect the number of particles, moles, mass, and volume of substances to one
another, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
ideal gases.
Section 5.2
Liquid Nitrogen and a Balloon

Section 5.2

▪ What happened to the gas in the balloon?
▪ A decrease in temperature was followed by a decrease
in the pressure and volume of the gas in the balloon.

Section 5.2

▪ This is an observation (a fact).
▪ It does NOT explain “why,” but it does tell us “what
happened.”

Section 5.2
▪ Gas laws can be deduced from observations

like these.
▪ Mathematical relationships among the
properties of a gas (Pressure, Volume,
Temperature and Moles) can be discovered.

Section 5.2
Boyle’s Law
▪ Pressure and volume are inversely related (constant T,
temperature, and n, # of moles of gas).
▪ PV = k (k is a constant for a given sample of air at a
specific temperature)
P1  V1 = P2  V2

Section 5.2
Boyle’s law
To play movie you must be in Slide Show Mode

PC Users: Please wait for content to load, then click to play
Mac Users: CLICK HERE
Section 5.2
EXERCISE!
A sample of helium gas occupies 12.4 L at 23°C and

0.956 atm. What volume will it occupy at 1.20 atm
assuming that the temperature stays constant?
9.88 L

Section 5.2
Charles’s Law
▪ Volume and Temperature (in Kelvin) are directly related
(constant P and n).
▪ V=bT (b is a proportionality constant)
▪ K = °C + 273
▪ 0 K is called absolute zero.
V1 V2
=
T1 T2

Section 5.2
Charles’s Law

Section 5.2
EXERCISE!
Suppose a balloon containing 1.30 L of air at 24.7°C

is placed into a beaker containing liquid nitrogen at
–78.5°C. What will the volume of the sample of air
become (at constant pressure)?
0.849 L

Section 5.2
Avogadro’s Law
▪ Volume and number of moles are directly related
(constant T and P).
▪ V = an (a is a proportionality constant)
n1 n2
=
V1 V2

Section 5.2
EXERCISE!
If 2.45 mol of argon gas occupies a volume of 89.0 L,

what volume will 2.10 mol of argon occupy under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure?
76.3 L

Section 5.3
The Ideal Gas Law

▪ LO 1.4 The student is able to connect the number of particles, moles, mass, and volume of substances to one
another, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
▪ LO 2.5 The student is able to refine multiple representations of a sample of matter in the gas phase to accurately
represent the effect of changes in macroscopic properties on the sample.
ideal gases.
Section 5.3
The Ideal Gas Law
▪ We can bring all of these laws together into one comprehensive

law:
▪V = bT (constant P and n)
▪V = an (constant T and P)
▪V = k (constant T and n)
P
PV = nRT
(where R = 0.08206 L·atm/mol·K, the universal gas constant)

Section 5.3
The Ideal Gas Law
EXERCISE!
An automobile tire at 23°C with an internal

volume of 25.0 L is filled with air to a total
pressure of 3.18 atm. Determine the number of
moles of air in the tire.
3.27 mol

Section 5.3
The Ideal Gas Law
EXERCISE!
What is the pressure in a 304.0 L tank that contains

5.670 kg of helium at 25°C?
114 atm

Section 5.3
The Ideal Gas Law
EXERCISE!
At what temperature (in °C) does 121 mL of CO2

at 27°C and 1.05 atm occupy a volume of 293
mL at a pressure of 1.40 atm?
696°C

Section 5.4
Gas Stoichiometry

ideal gases.
▪ LO 3.4 The student is able to relate quantities (measured mass of substances, volumes of solutions, or volumes
and pressures of gases) to identify stoichiometric relationships for a reaction, including situations involving limiting
reactants and situations in which the reaction has not gone to completion.
Section 5.4
Gas Stoichiometry
Molar Volume of an Ideal Gas

▪ For 1 mole of an ideal gas at 0°C and 1 atm, the volume of the
gas is 22.42 L.
V=
nRT
=
(1.000 mol)( 0.08206 L  atm/K  mol )( 273.2 K ) = 22.42 L
P 1.000 atm
▪ STP = standard temperature and pressure

▪ 0°C and 1 atm
▪ Therefore, the molar volume is 22.42 L at STP.

Section 5.4
Gas Stoichiometry
EXERCISE!
A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 2.50 L at STP.

How many grams of O2 are present?
3.57 g

Section 5.4
Gas Stoichiometry
Molar Mass of a Gas
 g   L  atm 
  
dRT  L   mol  K  ( K)
g
Molar mass = = =
P ( atm ) mol
▪ d = density of gas
▪ T = temperature in Kelvin
▪ P = pressure of gas
▪ R = universal gas constant

Section 5.4
Gas Stoichiometry
EXERCISE!
What is the density of F2 at STP (in g/L)?
1.70 g/L

Section 5.5
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

▪ LO 1.3 The student is able to select and apply mathematical relationships to mass data in order to justify a claim
regarding the identify and/or estimated purity of a substance.
ideal gases.
Section 5.5
▪ For a mixture of gases in a container,

PTotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + . . .
▪ The total pressure exerted is the sum of the pressures
that each gas would exert if it were alone.

Section 5.5

Section 5.5
EXERCISE!
Consider the following apparatus containing helium in

both sides at 45°C. Initially the valve is closed.
▪ After the valve is opened, what is the pressure of
the helium gas?
2.00 atm
3.00 atm
9.00 L
3.00 L

Section 5.5
EXERCISE!
27.4 L of oxygen gas at 25.0°C and 1.30 atm, and 8.50 L of

helium gas at 25.0°C and 2.00 atm were pumped into a tank
with a volume of 5.81 L at 25°C.
▪ Calculate the new partial pressure of oxygen.
6.13 atm
▪ Calculate the new partial pressure of helium.
2.93 atm
▪ Calculate the new total pressure of both gases.
9.06 atm

Section 5.6
The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

▪ LO 5.2: The student is able to relate temperature to the motions of particles, either via particulate
representations, such as drawings of particles with arrows indicating velocities, and/or via representations of
average kinetic energy and distribution of kinetic energies of the particles, such as plots of the Maxwell-Boltzmann
distribution.
▪ Additional AP References
▪ LO 5.2 (see Appendix 7.2, “Thermal Equilibrium, the Kinetic Molecular Theory, and the Process of Heat”)
Section 5.6
▪ So far we have considered “what happens,” but

not “why.”
▪ In science, “what” always comes before “why.”

Section 5.6
Postulates of the Kinetic Molecular Theory

1) The particles are so small compared with the distances between
them that the volume of the individual particles can be assumed
to be negligible (zero).

Section 5.6

2) The particles are in constant motion. The collisions of
the particles with the walls of the container are the
cause of the pressure exerted by the gas.

Section 5.6

3) The particles are assumed to exert no forces on each
other; they are assumed neither to attract nor to repel
each other.

Section 5.6

4) The average kinetic energy of a collection of gas
particles is assumed to be directly proportional to the
Kelvin temperature of the gas.

Section 5.6
Kinetic Molecular Theory

Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
You are holding two balloons of

the same volume. One contains
helium, and one contains
He
hydrogen. Complete each of the
following statements with H2
“different” or “the same” and be
prepared to justify your answer.

Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
▪ The pressures of the gas in

the two balloons are He
__________.
H2

Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
▪ The temperatures of the

gas in the two balloons are He
__________.
H2

Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
▪ The numbers of moles of

the gas in the two balloons He
are __________.
H2

Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
▪ The densities of the gas in

the two balloons are He
__________.
H2

Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
Sketch a graph of:
I. Pressure versus volume at constant

temperature and moles.

Section 5.6
Molecular View of Boyle’s Law

Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
Sketch a graph of:
II. Volume vs. temperature (°C) at constant

pressure and moles.

Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
Sketch a graph of:
III. Volume vs. temperature (K) at constant

pressure and moles.

Section 5.6
Molecular View of Charles’s Law

Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
Sketch a graph of:
IV. Volume vs. moles at constant temperature

and pressure.

Section 5.6
Molecular View of the Ideal Gas Law

Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
Ne
VNe = 2VAr
Which of the following best
represents the mass ratio of Ar
Ne:Ar in the balloons?
1:1
1:2
2:1
1:3
3:1
Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
• You have a sample of

nitrogen gas (N2) in a
container fitted with a
piston that maintains a
pressure of 6.00 atm.
Initially, the gas is at 45°C
in a volume of 6.00 L.
• You then cool the gas
sample.

Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
Which best explains the final result that occurs once

the gas sample has cooled?
a) The pressure of the gas increases.

b) The volume of the gas increases.
c) The pressure of the gas decreases.
d) The volume of the gas decreases.
e) Both volume and pressure change.

Section 5.6
CONCEPT CHECK!
The gas sample is then cooled to a temperature of

15°C. Solve for the new condition. (Hint: A
moveable piston keeps the pressure constant overall,
so what condition will change?)
5.43 L

Section 5.6
Root Mean Square Velocity
3RT
urms =
M
R = 8.3145 J/K·mol
(J = joule = kg·m2/s2)
T = temperature of gas (in K)
M = mass of a mole of gas in kg
▪ Final units are in m/s.

Section 5.7
Effusion and Diffusion

▪ LO 1.3 The student is able to select and apply mathematical relationships to mass data in order to justify a claim
regarding the identify and/or estimated purity of a substance.
Section 5.7
▪ Diffusion – the mixing of gases.

▪ Effusion – describes the passage of a gas through a tiny
orifice into an evacuated chamber.
▪ Rate of effusion measures the speed at which the gas is
transferred into the chamber.

Section 5.7
Effusion

Section 5.7
Diffusion

Section 5.7

Section 5.7
Graham’s Law of Effusion
Rate of effusion for gas 1 M2

=
Rate of effusion for gas 2 M1
▪ M1 and M2 represent the molar masses of the gases.

Section 5.8
Real Gases

▪ LO 2.12 The student can qualitatively analyze data regarding real gases to identify deviations from ideal behavior
and relate these to molecular interactions.
▪ LO 2.15 The student is able to explain observations regarding the solubility of ionic solids and molecules in water
and other solvents on the basis of particle views that include intermolecular interactions and entropic effects.
Section 5.8
Real Gases
▪ An ideal gas is a hypothetical concept. No gas exactly

follows the ideal gas law.
▪ We must correct for non-ideal gas behavior when:
▪ Pressure of the gas is high.
▪ Temperature is low.
▪ Under these conditions:
▪ Concentration of gas particles is high.
▪ Attractive forces become important.

Section 5.8
Real Gases
Plots of PV/nRT Versus P for Several Gases (200 K)

Section 5.8
Real Gases
Plots of PV/nRT Versus P for Nitrogen Gas at Three
Temperatures

Section 5.8
Real Gases
Real Gases (van der Waals Equation)
2
[ Pobs + a (n / V ) ]  (V − nb) = nRT
corrected pressure corrected volume
Pideal Videal

Section 5.9
Characteristics of Several Real Gases

▪ LO 2.15 The student is able to explain observations regarding the solubility of ionic solids and molecules in water
and other solvents on the basis of particle views that include intermolecular interactions and entropic effects.
Section 5.9
▪ For a real gas, the actual observed pressure is lower

than the pressure expected for an ideal gas due to the
intermolecular attractions that occur in real gases.

Section 5.9
Values of the van der Waals Constants for Some Gases

▪ The value of a reflects how
much of a correction must be
made to adjust the observed
pressure up to the expected
ideal pressure.
▪ A low value for a reflects weak
intermolecular forces among
the gas molecules.

Section 5.10
Chemistry in the Atmosphere
Air Pollution
▪ Two main sources:
▪ Transportation
▪ Production of electricity
▪ Combustion of petroleum produces CO, CO2, NO, and
NO2, along with unburned molecules from petroleum.

Section 5.10
Nitrogen Oxides (Due to Cars and Trucks)

▪ At high temperatures, N2 and O2 react to form NO,
which oxidizes to NO2.
▪ The NO2 breaks up into nitric oxide and free oxygen
atoms.
▪ Oxygen atoms combine with O2 to form ozone (O3).
Radiant
energy
NO2 (g ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯
→ NO(g ) + O(g )
O(g ) + O2 (g ) ⎯⎯
→ O3 ( g )

Section 5.10
Concentration for Some Smog Components vs. Time of Day

Section 5.10
Sulfur Oxides (Due to Burning Coal for Electricity)

▪ Sulfur produces SO2 when burned.
▪ SO2 oxidizes into SO3, which combines with water
droplets in the air to form sulfuric acid.
S(in coal) + O2 ( g ) ⎯⎯
→ SO2 ( g )
2SO2 (g ) + O2 ( g ) ⎯⎯
→ 2SO3 ( g )
SO3 (g ) + H2O( l ) ⎯⎯
→ H2SO 4 (aq )

Section 5.10
Sulfur Oxides (Due to Burning Coal for Electricity)

▪ Sulfuric acid is very corrosive and produces acid rain.
▪ Use of a scrubber removes SO2 from the exhaust gas
when burning coal.

Section 5.10
A Schematic Diagram of a Scrubber

Chembio

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chembio

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chembio

3. Backbone of organic molecules is _____.

7. Compounds that contain benzene as part of their structure.

8. Hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds between carbon atoms.

14. ester, RCOOH 15. alkyl halide -Br 16. ketone

17. amine 18.aldehyde 19. alcohol

24. By dehydration we mean, the removal of:

28. The IUPAC name of this alkane is _____.

30. The reduction of a ketone always gives a _____.

A few chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules

Importance of Organic compounds

Sources of Organic Compounds

Alkane derivatives: alkyl halides, alcohols, carbony compounds

Rule 6: A number is not needed to locate the double bond in

• pH or power of Hydrogen is a measure of the concentration

pH lower than 7.35 can result to

2. Plasma proteins like hemoglobin

B. Based on the number of carbons in the chain

C. Number of sugar units (saccharide)

D. Heteroatom and ring structure

 NON-COMPETETIVE INHBITION (ALLOSTERIC

(2) Transferases  Examples: Transaminase, Nucleoside monophosphate

 Examples: Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, DNA ligase

HORMONES the hormone.

▪ LO 1.3 The student is able to select and apply mathematical relationships to

AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

▪ An understanding of real world phenomena.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 5

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 6

▪ SI units = Newton/meter2 = 1 Pascal (Pa)

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 7

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 8

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 9

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 10

Pressure Conversions: An Example

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 11

AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

Liquid Nitrogen and a Balloon

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 13

Liquid Nitrogen and a Balloon

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 14

Liquid Nitrogen and a Balloon

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 15

▪ Gas laws can be deduced from observations

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 16

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 17

To play movie you must be in Slide Show Mode

A sample of helium gas occupies 12.4 L at 23°C and

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 19

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 20

To play movie you must be in Slide Show Mode

Suppose a balloon containing 1.30 L of air at 24.7°C

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 22

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 23

If 2.45 mol of argon gas occupies a volume of 89.0 L,

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 24

AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

▪ We can bring all of these laws together into one comprehensive

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 26

An automobile tire at 23°C with an internal

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 27

What is the pressure in a 304.0 L tank that contains

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 28

At what temperature (in °C) does 121 mL of CO2