4 Hydraulic Machines

4.1 Introduction
The subject ‘Hydraulic Machines’ may be defined as that branch of Engineering-science which deals with the
machines run by water under some head or raising the water to higher levels.

4.2 Impact of Jets

The following relations are important: V
(a) Force exerted by a jet of water impinging normally on a fixed plate (Fig. 4.1),

w aV 2 Fig. 4.1
F = (in newton)
g
where w = Specific weight of water in N / m3,
a = Cross-sectional area of jet in m2, and
V = Velocity of jet in m / s.
The above equation may be written as
F = raV 2
w
where r = Mass density of water in kg / m3 =
g
(b) Force exerted by a jet of water impinging normally (i.e. perpendicular) on a fixed plate inclined at an angle θ (as
shown in Fig. 4.2) is
w aV 2
F = × sin θ
g
Fixed plate
F
Pipe Jet

FX = F sin 
V

 FY = F cos 

F

Fig. 4.2
Force exerted by the jet in the direction of flow,

waV 2
sin θ
FX = F = × sin 2 θ
g
and force exerted by the jet in a direction normal to flow,
w aV 2
FY = F=
cos θ × sin θ cos θ
g
waV 2
= × sin 2 θ  …( 2 sin q cos q = sin 2 q)
2g
145
 146 Civil Engineering
(c) Force exerted by a jet of water impinging normally on a plate which due to the impact of jet, moves in the direction
of jet with a velocity v (Fig. 4.3) is
wa
= (V – v )2
g

Fig. 4.3
( ) When a jet of water of cross-sectional area (a) impinges as a series of vanes, mounted on the circumference
of a large wheel as shown in Fig. 4.4, the force exerted by the jet is given by
waV (V − v) V v
F=
g
2v (V − v)
and efficiency, η= Fig. 4.4
V2
(e) When a jet of water enters and leaves the curved fixed vane tangentially, then the force of the jet along normal to
the vane (Fig. 4.5)
waV 2
= (cos α + cos β)
g
and force of the jet along perpendicular to the normal to the vane
waV 2
=
(sin α − sin β)
g
where a and b = Inlet and outlet angles of the jet respectively.
(f) When a jet of water enters and leaves a moving curved vane, then the force of jet in the direction of motion of the
vane (Fig. 4.6) is
w aV
= (Vw – Vw1 )
g
where Vw and Vw1 = Velocity of whirl at inlet and outlet respectively.
V v1
H v w1 v1
F  
 G
vf1
Outlet triangle
E

v = v1

v C
vr vf
 Jet A   Inlet triangle
D
V v B
vw

Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6

4.3 Hydraulic Turbines

A hydraulic turbine is a machine which converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. The hydraulic
turbines are also known as water turbines. Following two types of hydraulic turbines are important:
1. Impulse turbine ; and 2. Reaction turbine
 Hydraulic Machines 147
In an impulse turbine, the total energy at the inlet of a turbine is only kinetic energy. The pressure of water both
at entering and leaving the vanes is atmospheric. It is used for high head of water. A Pelton wheel is a tangential
flow impulse turbine.
In a reaction turbine, the total energy at the inlet of a turbine is kinetic energy as well as pressure energy. It is used
for low head of water. The Francis and Kaplan turbines are inward flow and axial flow reaction turbines respectively.

4.4 Impulse Turbines

The following important points may be noted for impulse turbines:
(a) The hydraulic efficiency of an impulse turbine is the ratio of the workdone on the wheel to the energy of the jet.
(b) The hydraulic efficiency of an impulse turbine is maximum when the velocity of wheel is one-half the velocity of
jet of water at inlet.
(c) The maximum hydraulic efficiency of an impulse turbine is given by
1 + cos φ
hmax =
2
where f = Angle of blade tip at outlet.
(d) The mechanical efficiency of an impulse turbine is the ratio of the actual work available at the turbine to the energy
imparted to the wheel.
(e) The overall efficiency of an impulse turbine is the ratio of the actual power produced by the turbine to the energy
actually supplied by the turbine.
( f) The width of the bucket for a Pelton wheel is generally five times the diameter of jet.
(g) The depth of the bucket for a Pelton wheel is generally 1.2 times the diameter of jet.
 D 
(h) The number of buckets on the periphery of a Pelton wheel is given by  + 15  , where D is the pitch diameter
 2d 
of the wheel and d is the diameter of the jet.
(i) The ratio of D / d is called jet ratio.
(j) The maximum number of jets, generally, employed on Pelton wheel are six.

4.5 Reaction Turbines

The following important points may be noted for reaction turbines:
(a) In a reaction turbine, the water enters the wheel under pressure and flows over the vanes.
(b) The hydraulic efficiency of a reaction turbine is the ratio of the workdone on the wheel to the energy (or head of
water) actually supplied to the turbine.
(c) The overall efficiency of a reaction turbine is the ratio of the power produced by the turbine to the energy actually
supplied by the turbine.
(d) A Kaplan turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine. The number of blades are generally 4 to 8 in a Kaplan turbine
runner.
(e) A Francis turbine is an outward flow reaction turbine. The number of blades are generally 16 to 24 in a Francis
turbine runner.

4.6 Draft Tube

The draft tube is a pipe of gradually increasing area used for discharging water from the exit of a reaction turbine.
It is an integral part of mixed and axial flow turbines. Because of the draft tube, it is possible to have the pressure
at runner outlet much below the atmospheric pressure.
The efficiency of a draft tube is defined as the ratio of net gain in pressure head to the velocity head at entrance
of draft tube.
 148 Civil Engineering
4.7 Specific Speed
The specific speed of a turbine is defined as the speed of an imaginary turbine, identical with the given turbine,
which develops unit power under unit head. Mathematically, specific speed,
N P
NS =
H5 / 4
where P = Power, and H = Net head on turbine.
The specific speed plays an important role in the selection of a type of turbine. By knowing the specific speed
of a turbine, the performance of the turbine can also be predicted.

4.8 Unit Speed, Unit Discharge and Unit Power

The unit speed is the speed of the turbine operating under one metre head. Mathematically, unit speed,
Nu = N / H
The unit discharge is the discharge through a turbine when the head on the turbine is unity. Mathematically, unit
discharge,
Qu = Q / H
The unit power is the power developed by a turbine when the head on the turbine is unity. Mathematically, unit
power,
Pu = P / H3 / 2

4.9 Significance of Unit Speed, Unit Discharge and Unit Power

If a turbine is working under different heads, the behaviour of the turbine can be easily known from the valves
of unit quantities as follows:
Let H1, H2 = Heads under which the turbine works,
N1, N2 = Corresponding speeds,
Q1, Q2 = Corresponding discharge, and
P1, P2 = Corresponding power developed
In the similar way as discussed above, we obtain
1/ 2
N1 N2 H 
Nu
= = or=
N 2 N1  2 
H1 H2  H1 
1/ 2 3/ 2
H  H 
Similarly, Q2 = Q1  2  ; and P2 = P1  2 
 H1   H1 
4.10 Cavitation
The formation, growth and collapse of vapour filled cavities or bubbles in a flowing liquid due to local fall in
fluid pressure is called cavitation. The cavitation in a hydraulic machine affects in the following ways:
(a) It causes noise and vibration of various parts.
(b) It makes surface rough.
(c) It reduces the discharge of a turbine.
(d) It causes sudden drop in power output and efficiency.
The cavitation in reaction turbines can be avoided to a great extent by using the following methods:
(a) By installing the turbine below the tail race level.
(b) By using stainless steel runner of the turbine.
(c) By providing highly polished blades to the runner.
(d) By running the turbine runner to the designed speed.
 Hydraulic Machines 149
4.11 Centrifugal Pumps
A centrifugal pump is a machine which converts the kinetic energy of the water into pressure energy before the
water leaves its casing. The flow of water leaving the impeller is free vortex. The impeller of a centrifugal pump may
have volute casing, vortex casing and volute casing with guide blades.
The following important points may be noted for centrifugal pumps:
(a) The manometric head is the actual head of water against which a centrifugal pump has to work. It may be obtained
by using the following relations, i.e.
Manometric head = Workdone per kg of water – Losses within the impeller
= Energy per kg at outlet of impeller – Energy per kg at inlet of impeller
= Suction lift + Loss of head in suction pipe due to friction + Delivery lift + Loss
of head in delivery pipe due to friction + Velocity head in the delivery pipe.
(b) The discharge (Q) of a centrifugal pump is given by
Q = π D. b. Vf
where D = Diameter of impeller at inlet,
b = Width of impeller at inlet, and
Vf = Velocity of flow at inlet.
(c) The manometric efficiency of a centrifugal pump is defined as the ratio of the manometric head to the energy
supplied by the impeller.
(d) The mechanical efficiency of a centrifugal pump is defined as the ratio of energy available at the impeller to the
energy supplied to the pump by the prime mover.
(e) The overall efficiency of a centrifugal pump is defined as the energy supplied to the pump to the energy available
at the impeller.
( f) The efficiency of a centrifugal pump will the maximum when the blades are bent backward.
(g) The power required to drive a centrifugal pump is given by
w. Q. H m
P = (in kW)
ηo
where w = Specific weight of water in kN/m3,
Q = Discharge of the pump in m3/s,
Hm = Manometric head in metres, and
ηo = Overall efficiency of the pump.

4.12 Multistage Centrifugal Pumps

The multistage centrifugal pumps are those which have two or more identical impellers mounted on the same
shaft or on different shafts. They are used to produce high heads or to discharge a large quantity of liquid. In order
to obtain a high head, a number of impellers are mounted in series or on the same shaft while to discharge a large
quantity of liquid, the impellers are connected in parallel.

4.13 Specific Speed of Centrifugal Pump

The specific speed of a centrifugal pump is defined as the speed of an imaginary pump, identical with the given
pump, which will discharge 1 litre of water, while it is being raised through a head of one metre. Mathematically,
specific speed,
N Q
NS =
H m3 / 4
 150 Civil Engineering
The ranges of specific speeds for different types of pumps are given in the following table.

Slow speed Medium speed High speed High speed High speed
Type of pump with radial flow with radial flow with radial flow with mixed flow with axial flow
at outlet at outlet at outlet at outlet at outlet
Specific speed in
10 – 30 30 – 50 50 – 80 80 – 160 160 – 500
r.p.m.

4.14 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

The net positive suction head (NPSH) is defined as the difference between the net inlet head and the head
corresponding to the vapour pressure of the liquid. It may be noted that when the pressure at the suction falls below
the vapour pressure of the liquid, then cavitation will be formed.

4.15 Model Testing and Similarity of Pumps

In order to know the performance of the prototypes, the models of centrifugal pumps are tested.
When the ratio of all the corresponding linear dimensions of the model and the prototype are equal, then they
are said to have geometric similarity. In other words, geometric similarity is said to exist between the model and the
prototype, if both of them are identical in shape, but differ only in size.
When the ratio of corresponding velocities at corresponding points are equal, then the model and the prototype
are said to have kinematic similarity.
When the ratio of corresponding forces acting at corresponding points are equal, then the model and the prototype
are said to have dynamic similarity.

4.16 Reciprocating Pump

The reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump as it discharges a definite quantity of liquid during the
displacement of its piston or plunger which executes a reciprocating motion in a closely fitting cylinder. It is best
suited for less discharge and higher heads.
The following important points may be noted for the reciprocating pump:
(a) Discharge through a reciprocating pump,
Q = LAN / 60 (in m3 / s) …(For single acting)
= 2 LAN / 60 …(For double acting)
where L = Length of the stroke in metres,
A = Cross-sectional area of the piston in m2, and
N = Speed of the crank in r.p.m.
(b) Power required to drive a reciprocating pump
= w Q (Hs + Hd) (in watts) …(For single acting)
= 2 w Q (Hs + Hd) (in watts) …(For double acting)
where w = Weight density or specific weight of the liquid in N / m3,
Hs = Suction head of the pump in metres, and
Hd = Delivery head of the pump in metres.
(c) The difference between the theoretical discharge and the actual discharge is called the slip of the pump.
(d) The slip of a reciprocating pump is negative when the suction pipe is long and delivery pipe is short and the pump
is running at high speeds.

4.17 Air Vessels

The air vessel, in a reciprocating pump, is a cast iron closed chamber having an opening at its base. These are fitted
to the suction pipe and delivery pipe close to the cylinder of the pump. The vessels are used for the following purposes:
(a) To get continuous supply of liquid at a uniform rate.
(b) To save the power required to drive the pump. This is due to the fact that by using air vessels, the acceleration and
friction heads are reduced. Thus, the work is also reduced.
 Hydraulic Machines 151
It may be noted that by fitting an air vessel to the reciprocating pump, the saving of work and subsequently the power
is about 84.8 % in case of a single acting reciprocating pump and 39.2 % in case of double acting reciprocating pump.

4.18 Miscellaneous Hydraulic Machines

The following are the miscellaneous hydraulic machines:
(a) Hydraulic press. It is a device used to lift larger load by the application of a comparatively much smaller force. It
is based on Pascal’s law.
The efficiency of a hydraulic press is given by
W a
h = ×
P A
where W = Weight lifted by ram,
P = Force applied on plunger,
A = Area of ram, and
a = Area of plunger.
(b) Hydraulic ram. It is a device used to lift small quantity of water to a greater height when a large quantity of water
is available at a smaller height. It works on the principle of water hammer.
(c) Hydraulic accumulator. It is a device used to store pressure energy which may be supplied to hydraulic machines
such as presses, lifts and cranes.
(d) Hydraulic intensifier. It is a device used to increase the intensity of pressure of water by means of energy available
from a large quantity of water at a low pressure.
(e) Hydraulic crane. It is a device used to lift heavy loads. It is widely used in docks for loading and unloading ships,
ware houses, foundry workshops and heavy industries.
( f ) Hydraulic lift. It is a device used for carrying persons and loads from one floor to another, in a multistoreyed
building.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. The force exerted (in newton) by a jet of water waV waV
impinging normally on a fixed plate is (a) × sin θ (b) × sin θ
2g g
waV waV
(a) (b) waV 2 waV 2
2g g (c) × sin 2 θ (d) × sin 2 θ
2g g
waV 2 waV 2
(c) (d) 4. The force exerted by a jet of water (in the direction of
2g g
flow) impinging on a fixed plate inclined at an angle
where w = Specific weight of water in N / m3, θ with the jet is
a = Cross-sectional area of jet in m2, and waV waV
(a) × sin θ (b) × sin 2 θ
V = Velocity of jet in m / s. 2g g
2. The force exerted by a jet of water (in a direction waV 2 waV 2
normal i.e. perpendicular to the plate) impinging on (c) × sin θ (d) × cos θ
g 2g
a fixed plate inclined at an angle θ with the jet is
waV waV 5. The force exerted by a jet of water impinging normally
(a) sin θ (b) sin 2 θ on a plate which due to the impact of jet, moves in the
2g g
direction of jet with a velocity v is
waV 2 waV 2
(c) sin θ (d) cos θ wa (V – v ) wa (V – v )
g 2g (a) (b)
2g g
3. The force exerted by a jet of water (in a direction
2 2
normal to flow) impinging on a fixed plate inclined wa (V – v ) wa (V – v )
at an angle θ with the jet is (c) (d)
2g g
152 Civil Engineering
6. A jet of water enters and leaves a fixed curved vane where Vw and Vw1 = Velocities of whirl at inlet and
tangentially. The force of jet along perpendicular to outlet respectively.
the vane is zero. 12. The ratio of the normal force of jet of water on a plate
(a) True (b) False inclined at an angle of 30° as compared to that when
7. The efficiency of the jet of water having velocity the plate is normal to jet, is
V and striking on a series of vanes mounted on the (a) 1/ 2 (b) 1 / 2
circumference of a large wheel is
(c) 1 (d) 2
2v(V − v) 2V (V − v)
(a) (b) 13. A jet of water is striking at the centre of a curved vane
V2 v2 moving with a uniform velocity in the direction of
2v 2 jet. For the maximum efficiency, the vane velocity
(c) (d) none of these is ............... of the jet velocity
V (V − v)
(a) one-half (b) one-third
8. A jet of water issues from a nozzle with a velocity of
(c) two-third (d) three-fourth
20 m/s and it impinges normally on a flat plate
moving away from it at 10 m/s. If cross-sectional area 14. The principle of jet propulsion is used in driving the
of the jet is 0.02 m2 and the specific weight of water ships and aeroplanes.
is taken as 9810 N/m3, then the force developed on (a) Correct (b) Incorrect
the plate will be 15. A ship with jet propulsion draws water through inlet
(a) 10 N (b) 100 N orifices at right angles to the direction of its motion.
(c) 1000 N (d) 2000 N The propelling force of the jet is
9. A jet of water strikes with a velocity of 30 m/s a flat waVr waVr
plate inclined at 30° with the axis of the jet. If the
(a) (Vr + v ) (b) (Vr – v )
g g
cross-sectional area of the jet is 0.002 m2, then the
waVr waVr
force exerted by the jet on the plane is (c) (Vr + v )2 (d) (Vr – v )2
g g
( ) 9N (b) 90 N
(c) 900 N (d) 9000 N where a = Area of the jet,
10. A jet of water enters and leaves a fixed curved vane Vr = Relative velocity of the jet and ship
tangentially. The force of the jet along normal to the = V + v,
vane is v = Velocity of the ship, and
2
waV V = Velocity of the jet issuing from the
(a) ( cos α + cos β ) ship.
g
16. The efficiency of jet propulsion for a ship with inlet
waV 2
(b) ( cos α – cos β ) orifices at right angles to the direction of motion of
g ship is given by
waV 2 2 (Vr – v ) v 2 (Vr + v ) v
(c) ( sin α + sin β ) (a) (b)
g Vr2 Vr2
waV 2 (Vr − v ) v (Vr + v ) v
(d) ( sin α – sin β ) (c) (d)
g Vr Vr
where a and b = Inlet and outlet angles of the jet 17. The efficiency of jet propulsion for a ship with inlet
respectively. orifices at right angles to the direction of motion of ship,
11. A jet of water enters and leaves a moving curved will be maximum when the relative velocity of the jet
vane. The force of jet in the direction of motion of and ship is equal to twice the velocity of the ship.
the vane is (a) Yes (b) No
waV waV 18. The maximum efficiency of jet propulsion of a ship
(a) (Vw + Vw1 ) (b) (Vw – Vwl ) with inlet orifices at right angles to the direction of
g g
motion of ship, is
waV 2 waV 2
(c) (Vw + Vwl ) (d) (Vw – Vwl ) (a) 40% (b) 50%
g g
(c) 60% (d) 80%
 Hydraulic Machines 153
19. The water in a jet propelled boat is drawn through the 28. In an impulse turbine, the jet of water impinges on
openings facing the direction of motion of the boat. the bucket with a low velocity and after flowing over
The efficiency of propulsion is given by the vanes, leaves with a high velocity.
2v 2v (a) True (b) False
(a) (b)
Vr – v Vr + v 29. An impulse turbine is used for
V V (a) low head of water (b) high head of water
(c) (d) (c) medium head of water
Vr − v Vr + v
(d) high discharge
20. The undershot water wheels are those in which
30. In an impulse turbine, the pressure of water both at
(a) the wheel runs entirely by the weight of water
entering and leaving the vanes, is atmospheric.
(b) the wheel runs entirely by the impulse of water
(a) Agree (b) Disagree
(c) the wheel runs partly by the weight of water and
31. The head available at the inlet of the turbine is known
partly by the impulse of water
as net or effective head.
(d) none of the above
(a) Correct (b) Incorrect
21. The breast water wheels are those in which the wheel 32. The gross or total head of the turbine is the ..............
runs partly by the weight of water and partly by the of the water levels at the head race and tail race.
impulse of water.
(a) sum (b) difference
(a) True (b) False
(c) product
22. The overshot water wheels are those in which the
33. If Hg is the gross or total head and hf is the head lost
wheel runs entirely by the .......... of water.
due to friction, then net or effective head (H) is given
(a) weight (b) impulse by
23. Which of the following statement is correct as regard (a) H = Hg / hf (b) H = Hg × hf
to water wheels?
(c) H = Hg + hf (d) H = Hg – hf
(a) They have slow speeds.
34. The hydraulic efficiency of an impulse turbine is the
(b) They are suitable even for low water heads.
(a) ratio of the actual power produced by the turbine
(c) They give constant efficiency, even if the to the energy actually supplied by the turbine
discharge is not constant.
(b) ratio of the actual work available at the turbine
(d) all of the above to the energy imparted to the wheel
24. Braking jet in an impulse turbine is used (c) ratio of the work done on the wheel to the energy
(a) to break the jet of water of the jet
(b) to bring the runner to rest in a short time (d) none of the above
(c) to change the direction of runner 35. The mechanical efficiency of an impulse turbine is
(d) none of the above (a) ratio of the actual power produced by the turbine
25. Work done by a turbine ................. upon the weight to the energy actually supplied by the turbine
of water flowing per second. (b) ratio of the actual work available at the turbine
(a) depends (b) does not depend to the energy imparted to the wheel
26. A Pelton wheel is (c) ratio of the work done on the wheel to the energy
of the jet
(a) tangential flow impulse turbine
(d) none of the above
(b) inward flow impulse turbine
36. The overall efficiency of an impulse turbine is the
(c) outward flow impulse turbine ratio of the actual power produced by the turbine to
(d) inward flow reaction turbine the energy actually supplied by the turbine.
27. A turbine is called impulse if at the inlet of the turbine (a) Yes (b) No
(a) total energy is only kinetic energy 37. The hydraulic efficiency of an impulse turbine is
(b) total energy is only pressure energy maximum when velocity of wheel is ............. of the
(c) total energy is the sum of kinetic energy and jet velocity,
pressure energy (a) one-fourth (b) one-half
(d) none of the above (c) three-fourth (d) double
154 Civil Engineering
38. The maximum hydraulic efficiency of an impulse 48. The maximum number of jets, generally, employed
turbine is in an impulse turbine without jet interference are
1 + cos φ 1 − cos φ (a) two (b) four
(a) (b)
2 2 (c) six (d) eight
1 + sin φ 1 − sin φ 49. A turbine is called reaction turbine if at the inlet of
(c) (d) the turbine, the total energy is
2 2
( ) kinetic energy only
where f = Angle of blade tip at outlet.
(b) kinetic energy and pressure energy
39. Which of the following statement is correct?
(c) pressure energy only
(a) Pelton wheel is a reaction turbine
(d) none of the above
(b) Pelton wheel is a radial flow turbine
50. Kaplan turbine is
(c) Pelton wheel is an impulse turbine
(a) an impulse turbine
(d) none of the above (b) a radial flow impulse turbine
40. The relation between hydraulic efficiency (ηh), (c) an axial flow reaction turbine
mechanical efficiency (ηm) and overall efficiency
(d) a radial flow reaction turbine
(ηo) is
51. Francis turbine is
(a) ηh = ηo × ηm (b) ηm = ηo × ηh
(a) an impulse turbine
(c) ηo = ηh × ηm (d) none of these (b) a radial flow impulse turbine
41. The overall efficiency for a Pelton wheel lies between (c) an axial flow reaction turbine
(a) 0.50 to 0.65 (b) 0.65 to 0.75 (d) a radial flow reaction turbine
(c) 0.75 to 0.85 (d) 0.85 to 0.90 52. In a reaction turbine, the water enters the wheel under
pressure and flows over the vanes.
42. A double overhung Pelton wheel has
(a) Correct (b) Incorrect
(a) two jets (b) two runners
53. In a reaction turbine, the pressure head of water, while
(c) four jets (d) four runners flowing over the vanes, is converted into kinetic head
43. The width of the bucket for a Pelton wheel is before leaving the wheel.
generally................ the diameter of jet. (a) Agree (b) Disagree
(a) double (b) three times 54. The function of guide vanes in a reaction turbine is
(c) four times (d) five times to
44. The depth of the bucket for a Pelton wheel is (a) allow the water to enter the runner without shock
generally................ the diameter of jet. (b) allow the water to flow over them, without
(a) equal to (b) 1.2 times forming eddies
(c) allow the required quantity of water to enter the
(c) 1.8 times (d) double
turbine
45. The jet ratio is defined as the ratio of the
(d) all of the above
(a) diameter of jet to the diameter of Pelton wheel 55. In a reaction turbine, the draft tube is used
(b) velocity of jet to the velocity of Pelton wheel (a) to run the turbine full
(c) diameter of Pelton wheel to the diameter of jet (b) to prevent air to enter the turbine
(d) velocity of Pelton wheel to the velocity of jet (c) to increase the head of water by an amount equal
46. Which of the following is not an impulse turbine? to the height of the runner outlet above the tail
(a) Girard turbine (b) Turgo turbine race
(c) Pelton wheel (d) Kaplan turbine (d) to transport water to downstream
47. The number of buckets on the periphery of a Pelton 56. If V1 and V2 are the velocities of water at inlet
wheel is given by and outlet of the draft tube respectively, then the
efficiency of a draft tube is
D D
(a) +5 (b) + 10 V1 – V2 V12 – V22
2d 2d (a) (b)
D D
V1 V12
(c) + 15 (d) + 20
2d 2d V1 V12
(c) (d)
V1 – V2 V12 – V22
 Hydraulic Machines 155
57. Which of the following statement is correct? (b) actual work available at the turbine to the energy
(a) In an impulse turbine, the water impinges on the imparted to the wheel
buckets with pressure energy. (c) workdone on the wheel to the energy (or head of
(b) In a reaction turbine, the water glides over the water) actually supplied to the turbine
moving vanes with kinetic energy. (d) none of the above
(c) In an impulse turbine, the pressure of the 66. A Kaplan turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine.
flowing water remains unchanged and is equal (a) Correct (b) Incorrect
to atmospheric pressure. 67. In a Francis turbine runner, the number of blades are
(d) In a reaction turbine, the pressure of the flowing generally between
water increases after gliding over the vanes. (a) 2 to 4 (b) 4 to 8
58. In an inward flow reaction turbine
(c) 8 to 16 (d) 16 to 24
(a) the water flows parallel to the axis of the wheel
68. In a Kaplan turbine runner, the number of blades are
(b) the water enters at the centre of the wheel and generally between
then flows towards the outer periphery of the
(a) 2 to 4 (b) 4 to 8
wheel
(c) 8 to 16 (d) 16 to 24
(c) the water enters the wheel at the outer periphery
and then flows towards the centre of the wheel 69. Which of the following is not a reaction turbine?
(d) the flow of water is partly radial and partly axial (a) Furneyron turbine (b) Jonval turbine
59. In an axial flow reaction turbine, the water (c) Thomson’s turbine (d) Pelton wheel
flows............. to the axis of the wheel. 70. The Furneyron turbine is ............... reaction turbine.
(a) parallel (b) perpendicular (a) an axial flow (b) an inward flow
60. In an outward flow reaction turbine (c) an outward flow (d) a mixed flow
(a) the water flows parallel to the axis of the wheel 71. The Thomson’s turbine is ............. reaction turbine.
(b) the water enters at the centre of the wheel and
(a) an axial flow (b) an inward flow
then flows towards the outer periphery of the
wheel (c) an outward flow (d) a mixed flow
(c) the water enters the wheel at the outer periphery 72. In a Francis turbine, the pressure at inlet is .............
and then flows towards the centre of the wheel that at outlet.
(d) the flow of water is partly radial and partly axial (a) less than (b) more than
61. In a mixed flow reaction turbine, the flow of water 73. The flow ratio of Francis turbine is defined as the
is partly radial and partly axial. ratio of the
(a) Correct (b) Incorrect (a) velocity of flow at inlet to the theoretical jet
62. The hydraulic efficiency of a reaction turbine, is the velocity
ratio of (b) theoretical velocity of jet to the velocity of flow
(a) power produced by the turbine to the energy at inlet
actually supplied by the turbine
(c) velocity of runner at inlet to the velocity of flow
(b) actual work available at the turbine to energy
at inlet
imparted to the wheel
(c) workdone on the wheel to the energy (or head of (d) none of the above
water) actually supplied to the turbine 74. The flow ratio in case of Francis turbine varies from
(d) none of the above (a) 0.15 to 0.3 (b) 0.4 to 0.5
63. The ratio of actual work available at the turbine to the
(c) 0.6 to 0.9 (d) 1 to 1.5
energy imparted to the wheel is known as ................
efficiency. 75. The speed ratio of a Francis turbine is defined as the
(a) hydraulic (b) mechanical ratio of the theoretical jet velocity to the peripheral
(c) overall speed at inlet.
64. A Francis turbine is an outward flow reaction turbine. (a) Yes (b) No
(a) True (b) False 76. The power produced by the reaction turbine is
65. The overall efficiency of a reaction turbine is the ratio ................ to the head of water.
of (a) directly proportional
(a) power produced by the turbine to the energy
(b) inversely proportional
actually supplied by the turbine
156 Civil Engineering
77. The speed ratio in case of Francis turbine varies from 86. The unit speed of the turbine runner is
(a) 0.15 to 0.3 (b) 0.4 to 0.5 N N
(a) (b)
(c) 0.6 to 0.9 (d) 1 to 1.5 H H
78. If the Francis turbine is run below 50 percent head for N N
a long period, it will not only lose its efficiency but (c) 3/2
(d)
H H2
also the cavitation danger will become more serious.
87. The unit discharge through the turbine is
(a) Agree (b) Disagree
Q Q
79. The jet ratio is defined as the ratio of (a) (b)
H H
(a) diameter of jet of water to the diameter of Pelton
wheel Q Q
(c) 3/2
(d)
(b) diameter of Pelton wheel to the diameter of the H H2
jet of water 88. The specific speed of a turbine is given by the
(c) velocity of flow to the velocity of jet of water equation
(d) velocity of vane to the velocity of jet of water N P N P
(a) 3/2
(b)
80. The speed ratio for Pelton wheel varies from H H2
(a) 0.3 to 0.4 (b) 0.45 to 0.50 N P N P
(c) (d)
(c) 0.6 to 0.7 (d) 0.8 to 0.9 H5 / 4 H3
81. The runaway speed of a hydraulic turbine is the speed 89. A Pelton wheel with one nozzle is preferred for a
(a) at full load specific speed between 35 to 60 r.p.m.
(b) at which there will be no damage to the runner (a) True (b) False
(c) corresponding to maximum overload permissible 90. A Pelton wheel develops 1750 kW under a head
of 100 metres while running at 200 r.p.m. and
(d) at which the turbine will run freely without load
discharging 2500 litres of water per second. The unit
82. The power developed by a turbine is power of the wheel is
(a) directly proportional to H1 / 2 (a) 0.25 kW (b) 0.75 kW
(b) inversely proportional to H1 / 2 (c) 1.75 kW (d) 3.75 kW
(c) directly proportional to H3 / 2 91. In the above question, the unit speed of the wheel is
(d) inversely proportional to H3 / 2 (a) 10 r.p.m. (b) 20 r.p.m.
where H = Head of water under which the (c) 40 r.p.m. (d) 80 r.p.m.
turbine is working.
92. In Q. No. 90, the unit discharge of wheel is
83. The unit power developed by a turbine is
(a) 0.25 m3 /s (b) 0.5 m3/s
P P
(a) (b) (c) 1.5 m3/s (d) 2.5 m3/s
H H
93. A turbine runs at 240 r.p.m under a head of 9 m. If
P P the operating head is 16 m, the speed of the turbine
(c) (d)
H 3/2 H2 will be
where P = Power developed by the turbine (a) 230 r.p.m (b) 320 r.p.m
under a head of water (H). (c) 364 r.p.m (d) 426 r.p.m
84. The speed of a turbine runner is 94. A turbine working under a head of 9 m utilises
(a) directly proportional to H1 / 2 1.2 m3/s. If the operating head is 16 m, the discharge
(b) inversely proportional to H1 / 2 of the turbine will be
(c) directly proportional to H3 / 2 (a) 1.6 m3/s (b) 6.1 m3/s
(d) inversely proportional to H3 / 2 (c) 16 m3/s (d) 61 m3/s
85. The discharge through a turbine is 95. A turbine working under a head of 9 m develops
(a) directly proportional to H1 / 2 100 kW of power. The power developed at an
operating head of 16 m will be
(b) inversely proportional to H1 / 2
(a) 2.37 kW (b) 23.7 kW
(c) directly proportional to H3 / 2
(c) 237 kW (d) 273 kW
(d) inversely proportional to H3 / 2
 Hydraulic Machines 157
96. The speed of an imaginary turbine, identical with the 107. The discharge through a reaction turbine ................
given turbine, which will develop a unit power under with the increase in unit speed.
a unit head, is known as (a) remains same (b) increases
(a) normal speed (b) unit speed (c) decreases
(c) specific speed (d) none of these
108. The efficiency of a reaction turbine for a given head
97. A turbine develops 10 000 kW under a head of 25 ................ with the increase in speed.
metres at 135 r.p.m. Its specific speed is
(a) decreases (b) increases
(a) 175.4 r.p.m. (b) 215.5 r.p.m.
109. The cavitation in a hydraulic machine is mainly due
(c) 241.5 r.p.m. (d) 275.4 r.p.m. to
98. Which of the following turbine is preferred for a (a) low velocity (b) high velocity
specific speed of 60 to 300 r.p.m.?
(c) low pressure (d) high pressure
(a) Pelton wheel (b) Francis turbine
110. The cavitation in a hydraulic machine
(c) Kaplan turbine (d) none of these
(a) causes noise and vibration of various parts
99. A Kaplan turbine is preferred for a specific speed of
300 to 1000 r.p.m. (b) reduces the discharge of a turbine
(a) Yes (b) No (c) causes sudden drop in power output and
100. Which of the following turbine is preferred for 0 to efficiency
25 m head of water? (d) all of the above
(a) Pelton wheel (b) Kaplan turbine 111. The cavitation in reaction turbines is avoided, to a
(c) Francis turbine (d) none of these great extent by
101. A Francis turbine is used when the available head of (a) installing the turbine below the tail race level
water is (b) using stainless steel runner of the turbine
(a) 0 to 25 m (b) 25 m to 250 m (c) providing highly polished blades to the runner
(c) above 250 m (d) none of these (d) all of the above
102. For 450 m head of water, .............. shall be used. 112. The specific speed of a hydraulic turbine depends
(a) Pelton wheel (b) Kaplan turbine upon
(c) Francis turbine (d) none of these (a) speed and power developed
103. A turbine is required to develop 1500 kW at 300 (b) discharge and power developed
r.p.m. under a head of 150 m. Which of the following
(c) speed and head of water
turbine should be used ?
(d) speed, power developed and head of water
(a) Pelton wheel with one nozzle
113. Which of the following statement is wrong?
(b) Pelton wheel with two or more nozzles
(c) Kaplan turbine (a) The reaction turbines are used for low head and
high discharge.
(d) Francis turbine
(b) The angle of taper on draft tube is less than 8º.
104. A draft tube is used with impulse turbines.
(c) An impulse turbine is generally fitted slightly
(a) Yes (b) No
above the tail race.
105. A Pelton wheel working under a constant head and
(d) A Francis turbine is an impulse turbine.
discharge, has maximum efficiency when the speed
ratio is 114. The specific speed of a turbine is the speed of an
(a) 0.26 (b) 0.36 imaginary turbine, identical with the given turbine,
which
(c) 0.46 (d) 0.56
(a) delivers unit discharge under unit head
106. The efficiency of a Pelton wheel working under
constant head ............... with the increase in power. (b) delivers unit discharge under unit speed
(a) remains same (b) increases (c) develops unit power under unit head
(c) decreases (d) develops unit power under unit speed
 158 Civil Engineering
115. Match the correct answer from Group B for the given (a) product (b) difference
statements in Group A. (c) sum
124. Mechanical efficiency of a centrifugal pump is the
Group A Group B
ratio of
waV 2 (a) energy available at the impeller to the energy
(a) Velocity of sound in a fluid is (A)
g supplied to the pump by the prime mover
(b) When Mach number is 4, the (B) K /ρ (b) actual workdone by the pump to the energy
flow is supplied to the pump by the prime mover
(c) Thickness of boundary layer 5x (c) energy supplied to the pump to the energy
(C) available at the impeller
in a laminar flow is RNX
(d) manometric head to the energy supplied by the
(d) Force exerted by a jet of (D) super-sonic impeller per kN of water
water impinging normally on
125. Overall efficiency of a centrifugal pump is the ratio
a fixed plate is
of
116. In a centrifugal pump, the water enters the impeller (a) energy available at the impeller to the energy
............... and leaves the vanes axially. supplied to the pump by the prime mover
(a) axially (b) radially (b) actual workdone by the pump to the energy
supplied to the pump by the prime mover
117. The action of a centrifugal pump is that of a reversed
reaction turbine. (c) energy supplied to the pump to the energy
available at the impeller
(a) Correct (b) Incorrect
(d) manometric head to the energy supplied by the
118. The impeller of a centrifugal pump may have
impeller per kN of water
(a) volute casing
126. The ratio of quantity of liquid discharged per second
(b) volute casing with guide blades from the pump to the quantity of liquid passing per
(c) vortex casing second through the impeller is known as
(d) any one of these (a) manometric efficiency
119. In the casing of a centrifugal pump, the kinetic energy (b) mechanical efficiency
of the water is converted into pressure energy before (c) overall efficiency
the water leaves the casing. (d) volumetric efficiency
(a) True (b) False 127. Discharge (Q) of a centrifugal pump is given by
120. Manometric head, in case of a centrifugal pump, is (a) Q = π.D.V f (b) Q = π.bV. f
equal to
(a) Suction lift + Loss of head in suction pipe due (c) Q = π.D.bV
. f (d) Q = D.bV
. f
to friction + Delivery lift + Loss of head in where D = Diameter of impeller at inlet,
delivery pipe due to friction + Velocity head in b = Width of impeller at inlet, and
the delivery pipe
Vf = Velocity of flow at inlet.
(b) Workdone per kN of water – Losses within the
128. Power required (in watts) to drive a centrifugal pump
impeller
is
(c) Energy per kN at outlet of impeller – Energy per
w.H m w.Q.H m
kN at inlet of impeller (a) (b)
Q × ηo ηo
(d) all of the above
121. In a centrifugal pump, the regulating valve is provided w.Q w.Q × ηo
(c) (d)
on the H m × ηo Hm
(a) casing (b) delivery pipe where Hm = Manometric head in metres,
(c) suction pipe (d) impeller w = Specific weight in N / m3,
122. Manometric head is the actual head of water against Q = Discharge of the pump in m3 / s, and
which a centrifugal pump has to work. ho = Overall efficiency of the pump.
(a) Right (b) Wrong 129. The efficiency of a centrifugal pump will be
123. The static head of a centrifugal pump is equal to the maximum when the blades are bent backward.
.............. of suction head and delivery head. (a) Yes (b) No
 Hydraulic Machines 159
130. Multi-stage centrifugal pumps are used to 138. Head developed by a centrifugal pump is
(a) give high discharge (b) produce high heads (a) proportional to diameter of impeller
(c) pump viscous fluids (d) all of these (b) proportional to speed of impeller
131. Which of the following statement is correct ? (c) proportional to diameter and speed of impeller
(a) The centrifugal pump is suitable for large (d) none of the above
discharge and smaller heads. 139. Theoretical power required (in watts) to drive a
(b) The centrifugal pump requires less floor area and reciprocating pump is
simple foundation as compared to reciprocating (a) wQHs (b) wQHd
pump. (c) wQ (Hs – Hd) (d) wQ (Hs + Hd)
(c) The efficiency of centrifugal pump is less as where w = Specific weight of liquid to be pumped
compared to reciprocating pump. in N / m3,
(d) all of the above Q = Discharge of the pump in m3 / s,
132. A centrifugal pump will start delivering liquid only Hs = Suction head in metres, and
when the pressure rise in the impeller is equal to the
Hd = Delivery head in metres.
(a) kinetic head (b) velocity head
140. In a mixed flow centrifugal pump, the flow through
(c) manometric head (d) static head the impeller is a combination of radial and axial flows.
133. A reciprocating pump is suitable for less discharge (a) Correct (b) Incorrect
and higher heads.
141. The air vessel, in a reciprocating pump, is a cast iron
(a) True (b) False closed chamber having an opening at its base.
134. A reciprocating pump is also called a .....................
(a) Agree (b) Disagree
displacement pump.
142. In a reciprocating pump, air vessels are fitted to the
(a) positive (b) negative
suction pipe and delivery pipe close to the cylinder
135. The discharge of a double acting reciprocating pump of the pump.
is
(a) True (b) False
(a) L. A. N (b) 2 L. A. N
143. In a reciprocating pump, air vessels are used to
L. A.N 2 L. A.N
(c) (d) (a) smoothen the flow
60 60
(b) reduce suction head
where L = Length of stroke,
(c) increase delivery head
A = Cross-sectional area of piston, and
N = Speed of crank in r.p.m. (d) reduce acceleration head
144. By fitting an air vessel to the reciprocating
136. Slip of a reciprocating pump is defined as the
pump, there is always a saving of work done and
(a) ratio of actual discharge to the theoretical subsequently saving of power. This saving in case
discharge of a single acting reciprocating pump is
(b) sum of actual discharge and the theoretical (a) 39.2 % (b) 48.8 %
discharge (c) 84.8 % (d) 88.4 %
(c) difference of theoretical discharge and the actual 145. In the above question, the saving in case of a double
discharge acting reciprocating pump is
(d) product of theoretical discharge and the actual (a) 39.2 % (b) 48.8 %
discharge (c) 84.8 % (d) 88.4 %
137. Slip of a reciprocating pump is negative, when 146. Discharge of a centrifugal pump is
(a) suction pipe is short and pump is running at low (a) directly proportional to N
speeds (b) inversely proportional to N
(b) delivery pipe is long and pump is running at high (c) directly proportional to N2
speeds (d) inversely proportional to N2
(c) suction pipe is short and delivery pipe is long where N = Speed of the pump impeller.
and the pump is running at low speeds
147. Power required to drive a centrifugal pump is
(d) suction pipe is long and delivery pipe is short ................. proportional to N3.
and the pump is running at high speeds
(a) directly (b) inversely
 160 Civil Engineering
148. Delivery head of a centrifugal pump is 157. The specific speed from 160 to 500 r.p.m. of a
(a) directly proportional to N centrifugal pump indicates that the pump is
(a) slow speed with radial flow at outlet
(b) inversely proportional to N
(b) medium speed with radial flow at outlet
(c) directly proportional to N2 (c) high speed with radial flow at outlet
(d) inversely proportional to N2 (d) high speed with axial flow at outlet
149. Discharge of a centrifugal pump is 158. If the net positive suction head (NPSH) requirement
(a) directly proportional to diameter of its impeller for the pump is not satisfied, then
(b) inversely proportional to diameter of its impeller (a) no flow will take place
(c) directly proportional to (diameter)2 of its impeller (b) cavitation will be formed
(d) inversely proportional to (diameter)2 of its (c) efficiency will be low
impeller (d) excessive power will be consumed
150. Delivery head of water of a centrifugal pump is 159. When the speed of the pump increases, its net positive
inversely proportional to diameter of its impeller. suction head (NPSH) requirement decreases.
(a) Yes (b) No (a) Agree (b) Disagree
151. Power required to drive a centrifugal pump is directly 160. Which of the following pump is suitable for small
proportional to ................ of its impeller. discharge and high heads?
(a) diameter (a) Centrifugal pump (b) Axial flow pump
(b) square of diameter (c) Mixed flow pump (d) Reciprocating pump
161. Which of the following pump is preferred for flood
(c) cube of diameter
control and irrigation applications?
(d) fourth power of diameter
(a) Centrifugal pump (b) Axial flow pump
152. The specific speed of a centrifugal pump may be (c) Mixed flow pump (d) Reciprocating pump
defined as the speed of an imaginary pump, identical
162. The centrifugal pump preferred for a specific speed
with the given pump, which will discharge one litre
between 80 to 160 r.p.m. is
of water, while it is being raised through a head of
(a) slow speed with radial flow at outlet
one metre.
(b) medium speed with radial flow at outlet
(a) True (b) False
(c) high speed with radial flow at outlet
153. The specific speed (NS) of a centrifugal pump is given (d) high speed with mixed flow at outlet
by
163. In order to avoid cavitation in centrifugal pumps
N Q N Q (a) the suction pressure should be high
(a) 2 /3
(b)
H H3/ 4 (b) the delivery pressure should be high
N Q N Q (c) the suction pressure should be low
(c) (d) (d) the delivery pressure should be low
H H 5/4
154. The specific speed of a centrifugal pump, delivering 164. The discharge of a centrifugal pump working under
750 litres of water per second against a head of 15 constant head ................ with the speed.
metres at 725 r.p.m., is (a) increases (b) decreases
(a) 24.8 r.p.m. (b) 48.2 r.p.m. 165. The power of a centrifugal pump working under
(c) 82.4 r.p.m. (d) 248 r.p.m. constant head and discharge increases with the speed.
155. The type of centrifugal pump preferred for a specific (a) True (b) False
speed of 20 r.p.m. is 166. Which of the following pump is generally used to
(a) slow speed pump with radial flow at outlet pump highly viscous fluid?
(a) Centrifugal pump (b) Reciprocating pump
(b) medium speed pump with radial flow at outlet
(c) Air lift pump (d) Screw pump
(c) high speed pump with radial flow at outlet
167. If the ratio of all the corresponding linear dimensions
(d) high speed pump with axial flow at outlet
are equal, then the model and the prototype are said
156. For centrifugal pump impeller, the maximum value to have
of the vane exit angle is
(a) geometric similarity (b) kinematic similarity
(a) 10º to 15º (b) 15º to 20º
(c) dynamic similarity (d) none of these
(c) 20º to 25º (d) 25º to 30º
 Hydraulic Machines 161
168. If the ratio of corresponding velocities at corresponding (a) Centrifugal pump (b) Reciprocating pump
points are equal, then the model and the prototype are (c) Jet pump (d) Air lift pump
said to have dynamic similarity. 178. A hydraulic press is a device used
(a) Right (b) Wrong (a) to store pressure energy which may be supplied
169. If the ratios of the corresponding forces acting at to a machine later on
corresponding points are equal, then the model and (b) to increase the intensity of pressure of water by
the prototype are said to have means of energy available from a large quantity
(a) geometric similarity (b) kinematic similarity of water at a low pressure
(c) dynamic similarity (d) none of these (c) to lift larger load by the application of a
170. Geometric similarity is said to exist between the comparatively much smaller force
model and the prototype, if both of them (d) all of the above
(a) have identical velocities 179. The efficiency of a hydraulic press is given by
(b) are equal in size and shape W A P a
(a) × (b) ×
(c) are identical in shape, but differ only in size P a W A
(d) have identical forces
W a P A
171. Dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model (c) × (d) ×
P A W a
and the prototype, if both of them
(a) have identical velocities where W = Weight lifted by ram,
(b) are equal in size and shape P = Force applied on plunger,
(c) are identical in shape, but differ only in size A = Area of ram, and
(d) none of the above a = Area of plunger.
172. Kinematic similarity is said to exist between the 180. The working of which of the following hydraulic
model and the prototype, if both of them units is based on Pascal’s law?
(a) have identical velocities (a) Air lift pump (b) Jet pump
(b) are equal in size and shape
(c) Hydraulic coupling (d) Hydraulic press
(c) are identical in shape, but differ only in size
181. A hydraulic accumulator is a device used to store
(d) have identical forces
................ energy which may be supplied to a machine
173. Which type of the pump is different from others in
later on.
the same group?
(a) strain (b) pressure
(a) Screw pump
(b) Gear pump (c) kinetic
(c) Cam and piston pump 182. The capacity of a hydraulic accumulator is generally
(d) Plunger pump specified as the maximum amount of energy stored.
174. A hydraulic ram is a device used to (a) True (b) False
(a) store the energy of water 183. A hydraulic intensifier is a device used to increase
(b) increase the pressure of water the intensity of pressure of water by means of energy
(c) to lift water from deep wells available from a large quantity of water at a low
(d) to lift small quantity of water to a greater height pressure.
when a large quantity of water is available at a (a) Right (b) Wrong
smaller height 184. Which of the following hydraulic unit is used for
175. Which of the following pump is successfully used transmitting increased or decreased torque to the
for lifting water to the boilers? driven shaft?
(a) Centrifugal pump (a) Hydraulic ram
(b) Reciprocating pump (b) Hydraulic intensifier
(c) Jet pump
(c) Hydraulic torque converter
(d) Air-lift pump
(d) Hydraulic accumulator
176. Which of the following pump is successfully used
for lifting water from deep wells? 185. A hydraulic coupling belongs to the category of
(a) Centrifugal pump (b) Reciprocating pump (a) power absorbing machines
(c) Jet pump (d) Air lift pump (b) power developing machines
177. Which of the following pump is successfully used (c) energy transfer machines
for lifting water to the turbines? (d) energy generating machines
162 Civil Engineering
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (c)
10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (b)
19. (b) 20. (b) 21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (b) 25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (a)
28. (b) 29. (b) 30. (a) 31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (d) 34. (c) 35. (b) 36. (a)
37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (c) 41. (d) 42. (b) 43. (d) 44. (b) 45. (c)
46. (d) 47. (c) 48. (c) 49. (b) 50. (c) 51. (d) 52. (a) 53. (b) 54. (d)
55. (c) 56. (b) 57. (c) 58. (c) 59. (a) 60. (b) 61. (a) 62. (c) 63. (b)
64. (b) 65. (a) 66. (a) 67. (d) 68. (b) 69. (d) 70. (c) 71. (b) 72. (b)
73. (a) 74. (a) 75. (b) 76. (a) 77. (c) 78. (a) 79. (b) 80. (b) 81. (d)
82. (c) 83. (c) 84. (a) 85. (a) 86. (a) 87. (a) 88. (c) 89. (b) 90. (c)
91. (b) 92. (a) 93. (b) 94. (a) 95. (c) 96. (c) 97. (c) 98. (b) 99. (a)
100. (b) 101. (b) 102. (a) 103. (a) 104. (b) 105. (c) 106. (b) 107. (c) 108. (a)
109. (c) 110. (d) 111. (d) 112. (d) 113. (d) 114. (c) 115. (B), (D), (C), (A) 116. (b)
117. (a) 118. (d) 119. (a) 120. (d) 121. (b) 122. (a) 123. (c) 124. (a) 125. (b)
126. (d) 127. (c) 128. (b) 129. (a) 130. (b) 131. (d) 132. (c) 133. (a) 134. (a)
135. (d) 136. (c) 137. (d) 138. (c) 139. (d) 140. (a) 141. (a) 142. (a) 143. (d)
144. (c) 145. (a) 146. (a) 147. (a) 148. (c) 149. (d) 150. (d) 151. (d) 152. (a)
153. (b) 154. (c) 155. (a) 156. (c) 157. (d) 158. (b) 159. (b) 160. (d) 161. (b)
162. (d) 163. (a) 164. (a) 165. (a) 166. (d) 167. (a) 168. (b) 169. (c) 170. (c)
171. (d) 172. (a) 173. (d) 174. (d) 175. (c) 176. (d) 177. (c) 178. (c) 179. (c)
180. (d) 181. (b) 182. (a) 183. (a) 184. (c) 185. (c)