Ch a pte Nin e

Ecofeminism
cofeminism as aatheory developed in the 1970s, alongside

E environmental and other radical political movements.

lespecially with the publication of Rachel Carson's (1907-64)
The Silent Spring (1962). The term 'ecofeminism' first appeared in
the year 1974, in Françoise d'Eaubonne's (1920-2005) Le fèminisme
ou la mort. According to the tenets of ecofeminisnm, women have
an affirmative and close relationship with nature. This is due to
the female reproductive role and mothering nature, which brings
them closer to the rhythm of nature. However, the role of women
as nurturers renders them more vulnerable to the consequences
of ecological destruction. Ecofeminists believe that there exists a
direct link between the oppression of nature and the oppression
of women; sexism and naturism are are inseparable. To understand
the nature of women's oppression one needs to understand
the oppression of nature. Since patriarchy is based on dualism
privileging the mind over the body. the male over the female,culture
Over nature - it creates and discriminates against the 'other ot the
dyad. Ecofeminism seeks to address this imbalance by
nature with women. Ecofeminism insists that feminist theory conneting
to include the ecological needs
perspective, and solutions to ecological
problems must address the feminist perspective.
Mary Mellor in Feminisn and Ecology defines
ecofeminism thus:
Eco-feminism brings together elements of the feminist and the
green movement, while at the same time
to both. It takes from the offering achallenge
green movement the concern about
the impact of human activities on the non-håman world and
 Ecofeminism 107
feminismthe vicw of humanity as gendered in ways that
from
sulordinate.. exploit and oppress women. (1)
oisl as atheory developed alongside other political and
movements. It }has also
class. Though not uniform,
incorporated concerns about race
and ecofeminism has its
(biological, spiritual, social) and feminism provenance in
Socialist,, Marxist). As Val Plumwood (Liberal, Radical,
points out,
Erom carly and Liberal feminism, it
impulse to integrate women fully as(ecofeminism) takes the
and from socialist feminism, it drawspartan of human culture
theprocesses and structures of understandingFromof
power and domination.
radical feminism, it takes the critiques of
dominant culture and the aspiration to replacethe masculinity of
what has been denigrated. (qtd. in it, to affirm
Deep ecologists', like Mack-Canty 169)
of natureand people. Theyecofeminists, believe in the inseparability
and needs to be believe that nature has an intrinsicvalue
preserved even if it necessitates the
of the human use of
nature. However, according to acurtailmentof
ecofeminists, deep ecologists section
degradation -the
overlook vital issue of environmental
a
by
problem is not anthropocentrism as identified
deep ecologists, but
the problem lies with theandrocentrisnm. Ecofeminists argue that
that causes both sexism and male-centredness of Western culture
Order, summarises the views naturism. LucFerry, in New Ecological
of Ariel Salleh, the
ecologist and ccofeminist, and other like-minded Australian social
in the following manner: 'the
hatred
ecofeminists
of women, which ipso facto
brings about that of nature, is one of the
governing the actions of men (of 'male') and,principal mechanisms
thus, the whole of
Western/patriarchal culture' (118).
Maria Mies, a sociologist and an eminent theorist of
ecofeminism,
points out that since women are more involved than men in dailv
life. they are more engaged with the elements of nature. Both Mies
and Vandana Shiva, another influential ecofeminist, condemn
the capitalist and patriarchal tendency of liding diterences
and imposing sameness. They also expose the consequences of
an alienating capital1st culture. In an essay titled White Man's
 108 Fcminisms

malkes
Dilemma: His Search for What He has Destroyed', Mics
strong case against the capitalist patriarchal tendency of exoticising
getaway or wilderness, which they have mipdlar
nature as a
enterprises, In this
destroyed in their materialist and profit-driven Worll
material of First
context. she refers to the tourist publicity
proximity
cOunries where they sell the `native experiences in close
phenomenon, she
with nature in Third World countries. This
colony or dominion for
insists, is illustrative of treating nature as a
of master-slave form
exploitation and subjugation.A similar kind
operative in nen's behaviour towards women. In the capitalist
is nature as a
patriarchal model, the male tendency of treatingtheir intention
to
commodity to be used and harnessed is extended Shiva and Mies
commodity.
of treating women's bodies as a sexual protesting against
give instances of the resistance offered by women Shiva refers to
existence.
ecological devastationthat endangers their
several women of the Indian
the Chipko movement of 1974 where
to prevent
Himalayan region started an unusual protest movement
the felling of indigenous trees. They physically hugged the trees to
save them ((chipko' means to hug' in Hindi), since they considered
resistance against
these trees integral to the subsistence economy, as a
commnercially lucrative
the project of replacing themn by planting
significant on several levels.
eucalyptus trees. This movement was
was a female-dominated
As Shiva points out, theChipko movement
environmental movement to save trees as well as a politico-soClal
movement against the Western model of development.
The works of Shiva and Mies represent the subsistence model
against a consumerist, profit-driven, technical lifestyle. The
subsistence model emphasises the synthesis/synergy between
technological advancement and traditional wisdom. Natural
resources, according to this formulation. should not be treated
as 'possessions' and exploited beyond human need. Men nd
women need to develop a lifestyle which is attuned to nature, more
communitarian than isolated. This subsistence model is often
accused of being limited in its effectiveness but it surely provides thne
possibility of a radical alternative to the Western forms of modern,
 Ecofeminism 109

capitalist ways of thinking. It underscores the relevance

of traditional wisdom and economic models.
dthe value
and
Orher movements that provided the impetus to ecofeminism
include: Lois Gibbs's efforts to expose the fact that Love Canal
Niagra Falls, New York state, was a toxic waste site (1979):
dhe Green Belt Movement (1977) in Kenya initiated byWangari
Maathai where rural women planted trees to prevent deforestation
and desertification of land; and the Greening of Harlem Coalition
(1989) by Bernadette Cozart to restore the rundown Harlem
into green spaces. Ecofeminism thus also addresses issues such as
deforestation, toxic waste, nuclear weapon policies, agricultural
policies, development, technology and animal rights.
Ecofeminism, in its use of an interdependence model of nature
and human beings, is inspired byCarol Gilligan's ethics of care',
which insistson the necessity of taking into consideration the needs
of not only the human but also the non-human world. Ecofeminism
tries to bring together local activism and a global perspective. There
are several strands to the philosophy of ecofeminism. One strand
another
nsists on the importance of the well-being of the earth; strand
strand emphasises the sacredness of the earth; and a third
underscores the importance of sustainability in using the earth's
resources.

Ecofeminist literary criticism as a genre has emerged to evaluate

Ecofeminist
literature from feminist and ecological perspectives.
Charlene
theologians such as Starhawk (Miriam Simnos),
of the
Spretnak and Carol Christ emphasise the spiritual aspect'spiritual
interconnectedness between women and nature. The
challenge the
ecofeminists' use the concept of the Goddess' to

and spiritual practices.

political
Engish
androcentrism of the Judeo-Christian and Western myths, rituals
As Stephen Lahar points out, 'Ecofeminist
goals include the deconstruction of oppressive social,
economic and political systems and the reconstruction of noe
Drary
viable social and political forms' (qtd.in Warren 35-36),atue1-
ncir