Hii Pd RAgt «AM RATTAN © a] RUCHI TYAG! = og a. qIndian Political Tho to keep in view the social and historical background of the thinker; to keep in view the basic objective of the thinker; q not to allow the clement of pre-judgement come in the process ; of evaluation; not to mix up one's own context with that of the thinkers; and to compare and contrast different interpretations to determine ag to which one seems to be the most appropriate and nearest to the author's own philosophy, before passing any judgement or making sweeping generalisations about the thinker and his thought. We also notice a number of inherent limitations in tlie study of Indian Political Thought, the most notable of which may be cited as follows : (a) Warrant of chronological data: (®) Divergence of opinion about the existence of one or more philosophers like Manu; (©) Identical names of political thinkers, born in different places and at different periods of time; (@) Uncertainty about the schools of thought that succeeded one another: (€) Overlapping and changing connotations of basic concepts like dharma, danda, niti, and varna; (f) Uncertainty caused by the plethora of unfamiliar words; (g) Use of Indian terms in the Western context: (h) Use of ancient Indian terms in the context of our times; (i) Traditional lack of distinction between Society and State; State and Government; and Dharma and politics. aw BASIC CONCEPTS OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT : In the field of political philosophy, Indian thinkers, specially the ancient Indian thinkers, did formulate and develop a number of significant political concepts. Here, it is interesting to note that some of the fundamental concepts and ideas in the realm of Indian political thought were formulated not by political thinkers, but by metaphysicians and philosophers. Once the latter had given these concepts a broad and rich content, the former incorporated them in their own works. Such a process can also be detected in the history of Western political thought, specially with reference to the concepts like virtue, truth, justice, ideal life, rights and liberties.Indian Political Thought ; Substance, Autonomy and Approaches 7 THE CONCEPT OF HUMAN NATURE : A survey of Indian political thought reveals that there is a fundamental spiritual and moral note in the Hindu thought which highlights the sacred character of the individual human personality. The fundamental theme of Indian philosophical speculation is the spiritual nature of man, Man is regarded not only a social and political being, but, above all, essentially divine, the living being who has the spark of God Almighty (Parmatma) in the form of his soul (Atma), who is also conscious of this sacred faculty and is, therefore, able to act accordingly, to improve the quality not only of his own life but also of these who come into contact with him. And, since man is essentially divine (partaking of the characteristics and qualities of God Himself), he is also basically good and benevolent. The underlying, idea is that the human spirit is fundamental and for its realisation all social and political allurements and fears are to be transcended (Atmarthe Prithvin Tyajet) is a basic ingredient of Indian social psychology. And, this emphasis on spirituality and morality in ancient Indian political thought is a great contribution to the universal political thought. And, it is this aspect of ancient Indian thought which has been the focus of attention of thinkers like Dayanand, Vivekanand, Tilak, Gokhale, and Mahatma Gandhi. THE CONCEPT OF BRAHMA : The Vedas have provided us with the notion of Brahma. According to Martin Haug, Brahma signifies prayer. Rudolph Ruth holds that originally Brahma meant the volitional energy directed towards the Gods and, later on, it acquired a religious meaning. Brahma refers to what grows. This term originated from the Sanskrit word Brih which means to grow. To Deussen, the term Brahma denotes human will striving to attain the Absolute. Since the Vedic times, the Indian thinkers have regarded human nature as a remarkable combination of the body and the soul. Man's body signifies his physical powers, while the spirit or soul stands for his spiritual powers. Eversince the age of the Vedas and the Brahmanas, preference has been given not to the materialistic and physical aspects of life, but to the meditative, absorptive and spiritual aspects. Accordingly, it was emphasised that man, being essentially divine, has the spark or ray of divinity which is shrouded by the blinding power -of ignorance. Once this mask or veil of ignorance is lifted. the spirit8 Indian Political Thought Rel) ba in man shines in all its resplendence. This Vedic concept of human nature as essentially divine and good exercised enormous political influence on modern Indian thinkers like Vivekanand, Dayanand, Gokhale, Aurobindo and Mahatma Gandhi. /THE CONCEPT OF DHARMA : Dharma is also one of the most comprehensive concepts in Hindu Philosophy. No befitting rendering of it has, so far, been possible in any modern language. Usually, in modern times, we find it loosely translated as religion. Dharma has always occupied a place of eminence in Indian thought. Moreover, it has been understood and accepted in its purest positive aspect, and not merely in its sectarian or ritualitistic form. The term ‘Dharma’ is derived from the Latin term religare, which means ‘‘to bind’’. The inference is that religion is the bond which unites not only man with God but also man with man. This term also stands for “a way of life’. It has also been derived from the root Dhri which means "to sustain", "to uphold". Hence, it refers to the “ principle or the substance which can sustain an object. The Mahabharata, accordingly, describes it as the principle which bears or maintains society by establishing a moral or spiritual order. Indian scriptures describe it as : “‘Dharmadaharmaityuhu dharmena vidritah prajah : Yahsyad dharmashmyuktah sa dharmah iti nishchayah”’. In the Vedic age, there was yet another term, Rita which, too, had a moral content. Rita stands for order, arrangement and regulation. It meant the fixed or established course of natural objects like the sun and the moon. But, besides signifying the physical order of the universe and the regular order of the ritualistic sacrificialism, the word also received a moral content. Dharma included, in its compass, morality and virtue. Infact, Niti, Aachaar, Sadaachaar (code of noble conduct), along with Dharma were deemed to be mutually complimentary and interdependent. Manu had, accordingly, proclaimed, in unambiguous terms, that ethics is the real dharma, (Aachaarh Parmo Dharmah). To him, the codes of the Vedas, the Smritis, the Sadaachaar and the Atman are the four characteristics of Dharma. The verse proclaim as follows : Vedah Smriti Sadaachaarah Svasya Cha Priyamaatmanah Etachchaturvidham Praahuh Saakshaaddharmasya Lakshaanam. Dharma also generated the following ten ingredients : Dhritih (resolution), Kshamaah (Patience or forgiveness), Damah (self-restraint),Indian Politica ou ce. 01 proact Polit Thought : Substan Autonomy and Ap a aches 9 Asteva (honesty), S/ i ey aaa ). Shaucha (purity), Indriani : ‘otion), I idvaa (knowledge of the and Akrodha (absence of anger) The ancient Indiz i an a i distinguished ber N thinkers and philosophers. thus, hardly ingt ween the spheres of dharma, ethics g Vedic literature, dharma , ethics and laws. In the : . dharma also denoted law and custom. | I this concept was given a qualitatively di vening emt eae Sai ively different meaning by identifying Varnaashrama (el luties of various castes and orders in terms of I ass i lite. Structure of the society and stages of personal ind eae was the basis from which were derived the rules of . iv ; tual behaviour. These were described as his duties towards himself, his c| lan, caste, varna, aashrama and country. These were accordingly described as Desh Dharma, Kul Dharma, Jati Dharma, Varna Dharma, and Aashrama Dharma. In this respect. it was believed that each and every aspect of our life emerges from the rules based on religion. In the Mahabharta, Dharma indicated a network of duties, like the Rajadharma (duties of the ruler), the Prajaadharma (duties of the subjects) and the Mitradharma (duties of the friend). It involved virtue and righteousness and was, thus, an admixture of socio-ethico-religious ideas. gral (restraint of the organs), Vedas). Satya (truthfulness), The rise of Buddhism resulted in a refreshing re-interpretation of the notion of dharma. It was used to denote the three-fold submission to Buddha, i.e. ‘the Buddhist ecclesiastical fraternity’ and the ‘doctrine’ The appropriate verse reads thus : “Buddhim Cha Dharmam Cha Sangham Cha Sharnam gatah*’, In its moral aspect, it stood for Shee! (modesty), Samaadhi (meditation), and Pragyaa (wisdom), the pursuit of which could ultimately lead one to Nirvaana (salvation). In the Arthaashastra of Kautilya, the term dharma has been described variously at various places. Therein, it signifies the sense of social duty towards oneself (swadharma) and one’s society (varnadharma). AS the civil law and the moral law based on Truth, it was elevated to the status of the supreme principle of human life, which preserves the one who maintains it and ruins the one who violates : as “an admixture of socio- religious concept. It was a f conduct and a principle that holds together the Mees, it denotes the Vedic rita, the cthical ordance with the commands of God. In e, in ancient India, dharma wi Henct s and not a purely ethico-religious idea mode of life, a code 0 whole universe. To G.H. duty, virtue. and justice. in acct10 Indi n Political Thought a its comprehensiveness, it also refers to Absolute Truth, a universal law, a code of customs and traditions, rule of common law, inter-tribal or international law, a compromise between the ideal and the actual conditions. These interpretations indicate the predominance of dharma as an over-riding code of conduct. It is, thus, a principle of both individual self-development and communal self-development. As for the individual, it is a principle of | meritorious development (4bhyudaya and Nishreyasa), according to = one’s qualities, conditioned by one’s nature, temperament and potential towards higher existence. And, for the community, it means attainment of self-rule (Swaraj) in terms of its own historical identity. Dharma is a principle which creates a balance among Purushaartha, pursuit of Kama, Artha and Moksha, \t ensure that men do not go astray from the ultimate ideal of self-rule and transcendence in terms of the supremacy of knowledge. In the hands of the medieval saints, emphasis on | knowledge was replaced by devotion and faith. » The short sketch of dharma, in general, denotes simultaneously a moral category equated with truth and a generic term for signifying the social duties of the four castes and the four orders, Buddhism emphasised the moral nature of dharma and its concrete influence can be seen in the political philosophy of Ashoka. The classic example of the defence of ‘‘one’s own dharma’’, meaning one’s social duty is found in the Bhaagwadgita. The word dharma also signified law, specially civil law, as in the Dharmasutras and in Kautilya’s Arthaashastra. In the customary aspect of Dharma, due emphasis on the performance of rituals, appeasement of numerous gods and goddesses, offering of deities altogether find detailed illustrations in Vedic and post-Vedic literature. The term Dharma, according to B.A. Salitore, thus covered the wide range of subjects, stretching from law to piety, practically all matters of public behaviour. The Western notion of freedom of religion has always been respected in India. One could worship God in any form and adopt any form of prayers. In general, every individual was expected to be tolerant, respectful and co-operative towards the followers of other denominations. It was primarily during the medieval period, that dharma was replaced by a bundle of paradoxes emphasising the Karmakanda or adherence to the rituals and sacrifices; which in turn, invited strong reactions, reform movements and renaissance during the 19th century. Relationship between dharma and politics was analysed under[ Indian Political Thought : Substance, Autonomy and Approaches _11 the perception of Raajadharma, where dharma symbolized the autl i of the State, regulated its domain and also defined limits of th Stale power. Ethical code of conduct regulated the personal nae ee personal life of the king and the subjects. Virtue, duties. oblis saa and objectives of the king were defined by dharma. The ‘king on . wield the sceptre of punishment and if there was any miscarriage of ice or if the culprit escaped, the king was not only to compensate s involves the notion lation of the idea of justi for the loss but to perform penance as well. Thi of extra-political sanctions on the king for the viol the protection of the four-fold social order. The Mahabharta also speaks of the dharma of the Kshtriya and comprehends under it self-abnegation, universal compassion, ‘insight into the affairs of the world, security and social betterment by curing the diseased and the affected. It says that the king who practices dharma approximates to the position of a god, while he who does the reverse goes to hell. The king, according to Ma! should also take into nu, cognizance dharmas of castes, countries, guilds and families in placing the dharma peculiar to each section. Manu was a strong advocate of the moral roots of political power. The Raajadharma is definitely monarchical in its orientation. The attempt to comprehend all political things under the dharma of the king shows that dharma is to be equated with the totality of all ividual duties, obligations and functions social and political as well as ind: of the king. Dharma and political ethics represent a totally different picture altogether when Kautilya advises his kshatriya king to protect and expand his territories and conquer the enemies or when Bhishma in Mahaabhaarta marks the transition to the Aapaddharma, the dharma in distress, and accepts the transgressing cannons of dharma. The influence of Dharma, in the political arena, can not be denied. _ The comprehensivengss of the notion of Dharma prevented its identification with mere religious or divine law and it also never meant exactly the positive law in the modern sense. It remained a moral- philosophical norm for action, but was never conceived as the supreme political power. The ethical orientation of political philosophy, indeed, emphasised, 1 hand, moral philosophy of kingship and declared fare) of the subjects as the ultimate objective of the he notion declaring that “happiness of the king lies f the subjects” (Prajah Sukha Sukham Raajah). it on the othe Yogakshema (wel king. Admitting t in the happiness 0!altogether allowed deviation from moral standards when Dharma is in distress (dapaaddharma). It was this tradition of the spiritualization of politics which was revived, revitalized and practiced by Gokhale and Gandhi in the twentieth century. In the medieval ages, however, this system got itself transformed in many places into the one based on the principles, values and traditions of Islam. The term ‘religion’ lost its comprehensiveness and got restricted to ‘karmakaand’ or ‘rituals’, The purpose of social life also got correspondingly delimited to the performance of sectarian obligations. In this process, the balance between the society and the State was lost which, in turn, resulted in a social system which became increasingly sect-oriented. It became restrictive, not quite open to challenge and change. fm { AUTHORITY AND SUBORDINATION : In Indian political thought. both authority and subordination have found a prominent place. Although the whole concept of State was restricted to the knowledge furnished by the religious scriptures, the authority of whose interpretation was confined to the Brahmins, State still evolved as the centre of political authority. Amongst the various features of the State outlined in the scriptures, the Swami or the king was the most prominent feature as the source of authority vis-a-vis the other features which included ‘Amatya’, ‘Janapad’, ‘Kosha’, ‘Durg’, ‘Danda’ and ‘Mitra’, the ally. In this context, the authority of the State surpassed the inter- relationship between the ruler and the ruled. The king was not merely the ruler but also the saviour of his people. He had to make use of the revenues of the State as economically as possibly. He was like a pregnant woman, a prospective mother, whose foremost job was to take care of her child. The authority of the king was not absolute or unlimited. It was further subject to a number of internal organisational limitations. He was thus expected not only to become increasingly prosperous himself but also ensure prosperity of the other elements of the State. If Trayee, Anvikshaki, Vaarta and Dandaniti emerged as the four pillars of the State authority, Dharma Samsthaa (evidence), Vyavhara-Charitra (history and institutional practices) and Raajashaasana (royal edicts) offered the four sources of Kautilyan royal authority. If the king took good care of his subjects, he was considered aIndian Political Thought : Substance, Autonomy and Approaches 13 good king. Otherwise, he was looked upon as people could. in extreme cases, even rebel, for that was the only wa by which they could overthrow him. That is probably why even ia fie absence or la: ity of political authority, social organisations could still remain active. On the other hand, the failure or laxity of the centre of political power attracted foreign aggressors. : The basis of Gandhi’s conviction that centralization of authority was in violation of the ‘self” of the individual, and autonomy of the State was in consonance with the decentralized polity and economy are more compatible with the “self” of the individual and the ‘autonomy” of the State. : CONCEPT OF ARTHA : Although the Upanishadic and Buddhist teachings relegate a subordinate place to the desire for wealth, Kautilya’s made the first systematic and balanced attempt to construct a philosophy exhalting artha, wealth and territory. Kautilya starts from the traditional four-fold classification of the basic goals or aspirations of an individual. First, dharma, for the righteous performance of one’s own duties. Second, artha, economic activities in pursuance of wealth and power. Third, Kaama, sexual desires or activities as such. Fourth, Afoksha or final liberation, sometimes, according to Kathopanished, we have a two-fold classification : shreva (good) and preya (pleasant). Accordingly, artha and kama will be preya and dharma and moksha will be shreva. Buddha distinguished between the two ways of life, one leading to worldly success and the other to final liberation. As a political realist, Kautilya has preached a philosophy of balance and harmonious integration. The king may enjoy in equal degree, the three pursuits of life-charity, wealth and aesthetic desire, which are interdependent on each other. Realising the extreme indulgence in any of these three as injurious. Kautilya, however, considered wealth as a significant means for the realisation of dharma and the aesthetic- emotional aspect of existence. He visualised an all Indian monarchical power & since wealth is needed for power, he is interested in wealth. He explicitly says that all enterprises and actions require economic means for their realization. According to Kautilya. the best treasury is one which has virtually been obtained either by inheritance or through the endeavour of the monarch, without violating righteousness and economy (varia) and 4 usurper against whomIndian Political Thought 14 ji desire (kama). Besides Arthashastra being the name cf Me ernie Kautilyan economic determinism advocates the casua oe ees economic factor both in human motivation and in social ans ae its eventuation. The concept of artha, however, distinguishes ye Th and two meanings. In the narrower sense, it is the equivalent of wes for in its broader sense, it is the equivalent of all the means ee the acquisition and preservation of an all-India imperial oer a emphasises harmony between all the four pursuits of human hi®, © dharma, artha, kama and moksha and wherein artha a ind kama are to be controlled by dharma and moksha. THE CONCEPT OF DANDA : The word danda is quite comprehensive. Primarily, it means a staff or a rod. The Brahamchari and the Sanyasi are expected to have a danda. The king had his danda which symbolises the authority of the king to punish offenders. In the Satapatha Brahmana, the king is” called Adandya, meaning thereby that he was beyond the reach of a staff. In Manusmriti, danda has also been referred to as the emblem of kingly power, implying punishment as a guarantee of the maintenance of peace and order. Kautilya also uses this concept in a broader sense. According to him, danda is concerned with the totality of means for the acquisition, preservance, growth and distribution of things. In such acontext, he thinks of dandaniti as concerning not only with the penal sanctions, but with the totality of social and political interactions and relationships, involving inter alia, the king, his ministers and the army. The notion of danda, which simultaneously designates a staff, an army, physical punishment and legal sanction and which is such a vital element for the preservation of peace and order, shows that according to the Indian thinkers force was a very important element in politics. It is true that the spiritual goal and mundane peace for which this danda is needed are also emphasised, but the very fact that a concept which primarily signifies force is raised to such a pinnacle shows that Indian theoreticians had attached great stress on physical, legal and military power in their political thinking. But, the enormous stress on force and power or danda does not mean the valuational appreciation of the concentration of violence. Kingship is exalted not because it can muster physical and mechanical force but because the physical force is to be placed in the service of dharma, Thus, danda or force is not the essence of politics and is never to be intended for the support of interests of the stronger. but is a necessary adjunct inIndian Political Thought : Substance, Autonomy and Approaches 15 the realisation of co-operative and organic social existence guided by J. monarch. THE CONCEPT OF VARNA : ‘ The term ‘Varna’ indicates the functional division of societ Gaara fanetional io It originated from the Sanskrit rool een Soe ton of duties and obligations and their Pane re one’s virtues and capabilities. According eh a ad ultural, professional or occupational symbolic , thes onceptions have been the basis of Varna system. One finds various references to the source of origin of this social system. _The Varna system was supposed to represent the principle of one in many. The Brahmans were concerned with knowledge. The Kshtriyas were concerned with courage and valour in order to provide protection to the weak. The Vaishyas, in their turn, were the people concerned with the satisfaction of necessities of life, viz. agriculture, crafts and trade. And, the Shudras were looked down as the instruments of service to the other classes. This division was originally meant to be functional. in which each Varna was complimentary to the other Varnas. All the four varnas were compared in Rig Veda to different parts of the Purusha, in which there could be no question of inequality This functional division, based on the principle of complimentarity gave place to a division based on ‘birth’ and ‘heredity’ and destroyed the spontanily of the conceptual scheme. Indian thinkers, however, failed to devise a mechanism whereby they could identify people in terms of their potential and arrange for their transmigration from one class to another. The early Rigveda society represented, more or less, a tribal society. Initial references indicate the division of society on the basis jority and Kshtriya of functions. The king was the symbol of royal auth d Kshtri d Gramani were significant administrative power. Purohita, Senani an t officials. The post-Rig-Veda era denotes clear,classification of society signifying the importance of the four varnas in accordance with their order of Brahmins, Kshtriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmanic scriptures proclaimed the supremacy of the Brahmans. while giving importance to the performance of rituals and indicated the declining status of laishyas and the inferior status of the Shudras., which resulted in the predominance of Brahmans and decline of Rig Veda's popular institutions of Sabha. Samiti and Vidath. owing to the alienation of the _16 Vaishyas @ ‘I Indian Politica ye pe uaa from the political sph = ne ae a eae rvas and Shudras also paved th is SP here. The declining sand the Ksh he way for the dominance these two varn shatriyas. A struggle for th re ae as was reflected in‘ th re ie supremacy between fahabharta ali he Upanishads. Both R Ramayana ack: iso accorded the same ord 5 Ramayana ob Reta nowledged a cordial relationshi rder of priority. While peta rlian under pi ddhoet ack ‘ip amongst all the Varnas, oe professions of others i nowledged the tendency of Epics. Dh ee of the Varna system fe ale s own. Preservance and rere Sutras indicated a cleat, ale oe aes mn the eelien lane ate and in ee Sai ‘as, suspicion for Varna Sankara ai aa aes Poem eo em nc aanieeiat ni punishments in accordance and advocated the supremacy of 2 ures voiced against Brahmanism ae Kautilya’s Arthashastra, = - regal-Kshatriy apoE a system and giving importance: eae Le State. asked the king to protect - to the political interests of the varna system and provided fora > 2 serve and conserve this societal forces) on the basis of Varna. as bi is of law, danda and bala (armed of the Set and issued seed anie a te | us, the Varna system i eae: polity, which resulted in era = ee ae Kshatriyas for the order of supremac\ The othe eae satisfied with reverence and vignificance 7 ii oa ae remained, held the royal authority. This system ooh a engin) a king of checks and balances, whereas the vasigndficant pat eat systems and shudras alienated them from the political pri Boson ot valle towards the decline of the popular ecguians Tenn and contributed varna relationship resulted in rigid-conservative c2 S to curtail inter- varna based on legal-judicial system. All this paved aste system and in and degraded position of the shudras, The Brahm fe oe for inferior was another consequence of this system, which fart Social legislation predominance of spiritual and regal authority sa Provided fo interference in individual’s personal and coe | also for State the administrature and social obligations of ae It, thus, defin: : dlenominational-acclesiastical aspect of Da State fee Brahmanic control and supremacy of royal authori remained und, e separation of denominational religion from Sali Tesulted in, = This system. however. developed certain rigidi the ties. resulted in disparities and differentiations. sen and com » egraded th plexi- Ne Positio nIndian Political Thought : Substance. Autonomy and Approaches 17 of Shudras and the predominance of the first two varnas. This. how- ever. was attacked by the reformers of the 19th and 20th centuries. specially by Ram Mohun Roy, Gandhi and Ambedkar. If the first supported functional division of society the last strongly reacted about the entire system and endeavoured to repatriate the position of shudras. The ‘vote-bank politics’ can better be analysed in this perspective. pf