(

Sources of the Ancient Indian Political

Thought
There is a prevalent notion that it was the Greek political thinkers
who were the pioneers of the political philosophy in the world. Not
withstanding the rationality of the westerner's views in this regard, it is
gainsaying of thefact that the philosophical enquiry in regard to the concepts
of the political ideas and institutions was made by the ancient Indian political
thinkers whose writings were prior to those of Greeks. However, due to the
very ancientness of the Indian culture, the history of which could not be
placed intoa chronological order, it has become very difficult for the student
of the ancient Indian political thought to establish and prove his observations
systematically and logically on the ancient Indian polity. Soletore's remarks
in this context are worth mentioning. He says, "the history of ancient Indian
political thought is the story of great minds that evolved political institutions
and guided Hindu society for nearly three millennium. Its significance lies
also in the fact that it deals with a vast country which has had a civilization
that goes back to at least 5000 years from now and which witnessed the rise
and fall ofmany kingdoms and empire in the course ofits long and eventful
history".
It is afact that there was political philosophy in ancient India.
However, the source material has to be collected from various works of
authors and from the scattered information found in the magna opera like
the Vedas, the Puranas, the Smritis, the Ithisas and many other scriptures.
For this, many historians, eminent writers and archeologists made an
extensive study and research. K.P.Jaiswal, Syam Sastry, A.S.Altekar,
P.N.Benerjee, P.V.Kane, Bhandarkar and Ghosal are a few among them.
Their endeavour in this regard has to be appreciated, in as much as their
 2 B.A. Political1Though.

contributiontothe:study of the ancient Indian polity has dispelled the

of the prejudice of the westerners in regard totothe exis
ideas and institutions in ancient India.
ofthe clouds
existence t politica

It must be noted that the Indian political philosophy is a deep

which gives us greater knowledge as we go deeper and deeper into mithnee
subject. It has already been mentionedthat the Indian political
philcentosophyury
is too old to be dated, as most of the writings were written before:5th
B.C. We do have to extract the information in regard to political ideae
principles and institutions from various sources. Let us know about them
1. The Vedas

The most significant texts of the Indian Philosophy are the Vedas
There are four Vedas namely, Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and
Adharvanaveda. They are regarded as the authentic worksof God. In these
Vedas, there are many references in regard to the concept of political
institutions and the duties of the king and his subjects. They also referred
republican forms of governments and popular bodies like Sabha and Samiti.
2. The Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is the most
important
parvas. Veda Vyasa, the great Rishi of treatise which consists of 18
Sanskrit. Some chapters like Shantiparvaancient India, was its author in
origion of state, duties of the king, theory of and Aranya Parva deal with the
State, Inter-State Relations,
State-Craft,
punishment, concept ofWelfare
the story of cousins War-craft etc. The Mahabharata is
in war at the end. It--Kauravas and
is a long story Pandavas who had to engage themselves
anthropological and philosophical wherein we can trace the mythological,
chapters. Altekar says, "The foundations of political thought in various
student of the science of polity.Mahabharata is an important source to the
devoted to the Rajadharma or theThe Shantiparva has an
V.P.Verma also says, "The variousduties of the king and theextensive section
Mahabharata
branch of
do point out that it
isdesignations
not a
of politicalgovernment."
science in the
knowl edge, but is a purelyspeculative and
institutionalized practical
regulation and successful prescriofbing thetheoretical
science
modes of
governance common affairs."
| Sources of the Ancient Indian PoliticalThought 3

3. The Ramayana
The Ramayana is the oldest and popular epic. It was written by Valmiki
in Sanskrit. It consists of seven kandas. It explains the state - craft, war -
craft and righteous duties of the king. The term "Rama Rajya" has become
popalar, as Rama had ruled his kingdom following right means.
4.The Manusmriti
The Manusmritiis an authentic work of Manu. There are different
versions in regard to 'Who Manuis', whether asaint, ahermit, an ordinary
living human being, adeity, an incarnation of god or god himself. Whatever
it may be, it is Manu who wrote a code which is known as Manusmriti
which, it is said, contains the essence of Vedas. It is a comprehensive and
encyclopedic work covering various topics such as duties of the king, social
responsibilities of the people, theory of punishment, relations among
families, taxation, cosmogony, ritual practices, various means of livelihood
and so on. It regards the king as the divine incarnation, as the Lord Brahma
created him with various powers (shakties) of Indra, Varuna, Kubera and so
on. It deals with the responsibilities of the king as the protector of the
promoting
people by punishing the wicked, catching hold of thieves and council
welfare to the people. The Manusmriti also deals with the of
ministers, administration ofjustice, Saptanga theory, local-self governments
which
and many other aspects. The Smriti consists of tweleve chapters
deal with many aspects of social and political life of people.
Smrithi and the
It is very difficult to ascertain the date of the origin of
However, Manu
period of Manu. The historians differ in these aspects.
200BC to 200 AD. At
and Manusmrithi might have belonged in between
appreciated by the critics
the same time, Manusmrithi in both criticized and
on the various issues like caste and gender.
5.The Arthasasthra
was written by Koutilya, who
It is popularly known that Arthasasthra Historians and critics have
Vishnugupta.
is also known as Chanukya and Arthasasthra and even the
different views on the date of publication of
authorship of the stupendous work. According to a legend, Koutilya was
in the famous University of Takshasila and helped his student
the teacher
Maurya in dislodging the Nanda dynasty and establish
Chandragutpa
advice.
Mouryan dynasty through his tactics and
 B.A. Political Thought
Sanskrit, was
pundit'sKoutilya's
house in Tanjore written in discovered
in a
ein 1904 and was translatedinto English,and many
Arthasasthra,
and others.
like Syam
Syam Sastry, Kangle
other languages by scholars
to opentheir
Koutilya's Arthasasthra madethe
westerners
thinkersonnthe eye-brow,
the philosophical
ancientIndianadministration.
at the master mindedness of the
and pragmatic conception of polity and for the
manual
Kout
administrator
il ya'
than
s
more a
Arthasasthra, as Altekar says, "isconcerned withthe practical problems of
atheoretical work on polity. ItItisis and functions, both in peace and
government and describes its machinerythescientific
treatiseon
on politics and
as
war." The Arthasasthra is regarded
re
liketheelements offstate, taxation,
yaspects
administration. It deals with many aspects
law, justice, crimes, punishments,
diplomacy, state-craft, sovereignty,
finances, war, peace and madela theory.
the period ofbefore Christ, separated ethics
Koutilya, who belonged to Machiavelli of Italy who
religion from the domain of politics like
and
There are many similarities in the views
belonged to 16h century A.D. and Machiavelliin The Prince
Arthasashra"
expressed by Koutilya in "The the rulers to establish unity and
Discourses". Both of them advised
and the maintain that Koutilya is
their kingdoms. So, some scholars
integrity in
Italian Koutilya"
"an Indian Machiavelli" and Machiavelli is an
views
Koutilya's views are regarded as pragmatic and scientific. His
Arthasasthra
are even akin, to some extent, to those ofAristotle too. Thus,
is the masterpiece of the ancient Indian political thought.
6. The Smrithis
Besides Manusmrithi, there are many smrithis written by various
scholars during the second century B.C.,to the second century A.D. These
emrithisdealt with the description of ancient Indian polity. They
thecustoms and conventions of the explained
contemporary times and enjoined the
king to be virtuous and protect the dharma of the society.
7.TheKamadaka Nitisutra
The Kamandaka
500 A.D., during the
Nitisutra was supposed to have been
reign of Gupta dynasty. It written around
Koutilya's Arthasasthra. contains the essence of
Sources of the Ancient Indian Political Thought
8.The Sukra Neetisara
The Sukra Neetisara was supposed to have been written during
1200
-1600 A.D. Though the entire book is not available, the information, that
has been traced out, explains various points in regard to
administration,
monarchy and life of the people.
9.The Manasollasa
The Manasollasa was written by the king, Someswara of Chanukya
dynasty during 1125-1138 A.D. This book is atreatiseon literature. but it
consists of the information in regard topolitics and administration.
10.The Panchatantra
The Panchatantra written by Vishnu Sharma in Sanskrit (translated
into Telugu by Paravastu Chinnaya Suri and into other languages by various
scholars) consists of the stories of animals in a beautiful way. It depicts the
anecdotes of ethical, social and political events among the animals in the
forests. Though he Panchatantra seems to be the stories for children, it
consists great information of politics and administration useful for the rulers
and ruled.

11. The Writings of the Historians

The writings of many historians like Faihein, Huentsang, Megasthanes
and others give us valuable information of the ancient Indian administration.
12. The Research in Modern Period

The research of the modern writers, historians and archeologists

highlight the administrative and political system of the ancient India, credit
goes to Bane Prasad, Mujumdar, Jaiswal, Altekar, Bandarkar, DeviPrasad
and Saletore for their valuable research work in this regard.
13. Inseriptions andCoins
Apart from various books, there are many other sources like
inscriptions on stones and copper plates and coins which describe the
contemporary political lifeof the people and the administrative system of
 B.A. Political Thought
6

For example, we find Vijaya Stupas off Srikrishna D

those days.
Simhachalam, along with some inscriptions
which describe
and administrative life of the people of those days.
Devarayain
the political
14. Many Other Sources
There are many other sources wherein we find the Sources of fthe Indian
polity. There are: Panini's Astadhyayi, Dharmasastras of
Bandhyana, Vasistha, Kathyayana, Puranas, Kadambali, Rajatarangini and Goutama,
also the literature of Budhism and Jainism. In addition to allthese, varione
archeological discoveries and significant places like Ajanta and Ellora caves
Mahabalipuram etc., signify the Indian polity.
Conclusion
Thus, we find several sources of
of literature in regard to the information scattered in may places
ancient Indian polity. So, we can say that the
polity of the ancient India is very much
prior to that of the
western world.
 2

Manu - Varna Dharma and Danda Neeti

In the history of ancient Indian political philosophy, Manu, the author

of Manusmriti, isregarded as the first teacher to reveal the essence of
humanity and is the first legislator to prescribe the norms of social life and
politics. His writing encompasses pragmatic visualization as well as
idealization of life. It is primarily concerned with Dharma which includes
and even transcends the western concept of religion, duty, law, rights and
justice. Sankhudhat eulogizes Manusmriti as the book written for the whole
community.
Manusmriti is also called Manu Dharma Sastra and Manu Dharma
Samhita. It is a comprehensive and encyclopedic text that contains 12
chapters with 2685 verses, written in Sanskrit. It was translated in many
languages of the world and highly appreciated. George Buhler, who
translated it in English under the title "Sacred Books of the East" in 1886
complimented Manu as "he legendary first man, the Adam of the Hindus"
J.M. Derret, in his "Manusastra Vivarana" calls the book as "India's greatest
achievement in the field of Jurisprudence " According to Ghosal,
Manusmriti has not only exceptional significance but also provides
abundance of details on ancient political system."
However, there are different views in regard to 'who Manu was', .in
which period he lived' and 'by whom Manusmriti was written'. According
to some writers like Govindaranga, Manu was a great sage. Some writers
like Medhatithi treat him as a particular perfect individual. Some consider
him as god and some other consider him as the creator of the universe.
According to some writers, Manusmriti is the compendium of several authors
and not the work of one person. In the same way, there are several opinions
in regard to the period of Manu - which ranges from 2nd century B.C. to 2nd
century A.D. Notwithstanding all such interpretations, we can say that
Manusmriti, reflecting the ideas of Manu, is the most important authorative
 B.A. Political
1Thought --
work as it contains the essence of Vedas. Thefollowing table reflects the
various aspects that are dealtin Manusmriti which containstwelve chapters
with 2,685 vrsest(asit is evidentfromthetranslated works ofBuhler,Doniger

and Smith. CHAPTERWISE

TABLE -I(MANUSMRITI -
CONTENT)
Content
Number of
Number of
Versus
Chapter Origin of the universe etc.
1. 119 Sources of law, the first stage
249
2. Of Brahman's life, i.e., the
Studentship
The second stage of life,the
3. 286 Householder and his religious
Studies
Subsistence and private
4. 260
morals
Of the Brahman householder
Food-ceremonial
5. 169
purification,
Duties of women
97 The third and fourth stages of
6.
life
7. 226 The King's duties, the second
Caste, etc.
8 420 Civil and Criminal laws
9. 336 Civil and Criminal laws
continued.
The third and fourth castes.
10. 131 The mixed castes and classes,
Procedure in time of need
11. 266 Penance, expiation etc.
12. 126 Exposition of philosophical
Principles, acquisition of final
Happiness.
Total 12 2685
Source: Indian Political Thought by
Page 3, PHILearning Private Limited,K.S.Padhy; Chapter- I- MANU
New Delhi, 2011.
 Danda Neeti
Manu - Varna Dharma &
universe to
Manusmriti covers many aspects from the origin of
Thus, ourselves to certain aspects of
happiness. Let us confine
acquisition of the
social ideas of Manu which are relevant to our focus on
political and
study ofancient Indian Polity.
1.Origin of State of the origin of state. Manu
find the description
In Manusmriti, we of state. According to him, the
divine origin thecry
was the supporter ofthe very insecure and led the life of with
nature were
people in the state of cooperation among the people
tranquility and
constant fear, as there was no The state of affairs of the people
was
lawlessness.
who were in the state of of Hobbes. In order to be away
from
the Leviathan
more or less like that in Brahma who created the king
approached Lord
such situation, the people Indra, Vayu, Yama, Surya, Agni, Varuna,
of
taking the external particles king had become sovereign to rule
over
which the
Chandra and Kubera by the symbolism ofthe 'powers and
deities stand for
the people. In fact, these on in his administration. It is the duty
to carry
functions' which the king had with equity and equanimity for
Dranda and Dharma
ofthe king to maintain types of emotions. The seventh
welfare of thepeople, byrenouncing all
the with all these aspects.
Manusmriti deals
chapter of of state, namely the
are seven elements
According to Manu, there army, the ally (friends) and the
the
the ministers, the fort, the territory,
king,
treasury.
2. Varna System systematized social order of
conceptualization,Manu He brought
Inhis social differentcastes.
divisionofsocietyinto and
his daysand
analyzed the
entrusted the duty ofmaintaining
concept of Varnadharma and
out the
protecting to the king. created four Varnas,namely
Almighty had
According to Manu, the from different parts ofhis body.
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras have to work in a
Brahmins, allvarnas
specific functionsand
Each Varna has
certain non-interference. (This reminds
manner with the principles of
harmonious
 B.A. Political Thought
III
us Plato's application of the principle of justice in the idcal state of his
Republic).
According to Manu, Brahmins have emerged from the mouth oe
Brahma which represents wisdom. They possess Satwic Character and heno
they have to lead a sacred life and abstain from certain foods and habite
They must have quest for divine knowledge. They have to engage themselves
in performing yagnas for the welfare and prosperity of the people of the
world.They are eligible tolearn Vedas and teach them to Kshatriyas and
Vaisyas. They may be advisors to the king. They may engage themselves in
agriculture. They are regarded as the highest in the hierarchy of Varna system
an'even adored as theBhusuras (gods on earth).
Manu gives the second position to Kshatriyas, who have Rajo
character. He says that they a. born from Brahma's arms which represent
Va vur and courage. So, they have to train themselves with the spirit of
sacrifice ar' De e ver ready to provide security to the people and ensure law
and order in the state. They have to show utmost courage in
engaging
themselves in war. They should also take the responsibility of maintaining
the order in the societ by upholding
varnashrama system without any
breakage.
The third category in the varna system is
Vaisyas, who, it is said,
represunt the mixture of Satwa and Rajo qualities.
they are born from the thighs of Brahma. The According to Manu,
the cattle, produce crops and
Vaisyas are ordained totend
undertake trade and commerce and work for
the financial
empowerment of state.
The last category in the varna
system of Manu is Sudras, who
Tr :o Character. They are
born from represent
entire body, the sudras carry the Brahman's legs. As the legs çarry the
their services to all the entire burden of the society by
rendering
but they have to train communities. They are forbidden to study Vedas,
themselves in their
vocational and professional studies.
 Manu -Vrna Dharma &Danda Neeti
Thus, Manu, in his Varnashrama Dharma' divides the society into
four classes orf their basis of occupation and internal qualities of the soul
and its application into practice. It does not seem that the division was
based on hereditary system anywhere and nowhere it seems to have been
mentioned that one varna is greater than the other varna in particular.
According to Manu, NaliniSinha says, "socialorder can be mentioned only
if all the four varnas perform their respective duties suitably and in
harmonious manner."
The following table gives the summery of the varnashrama system of
Manu.
TABLE -2 (PICTUREQUE OF VARNAS 'STEM)
S.No.Varna (Caste) En.erged from Soui or quality Main Duties Ques
1. Brahmins The mouth of Satwa Perfor. 1ance Knowledge
Brahma of yagnas
and
Karmakan 1 s.
Teaching
Vedas.
2. Kshatriyas The shoulder Rajo
n
tection of Power
of Bra na tue state.
Participa n in
war.
Maintenrnce
of law and
order.
Sacrifice.
The thigh of Satwa and Business aud Profit:
3. Vaisyas agriculture
Brahma Rajo
4. Sudras The feet of Tar o T do labour Service
Brahma for all

3. Monarchy or Kingship
is the
Manu supporteu monarchy or kings1uip as divine one. The 'ing
incarnation of god on earth. AI' 2ople mustobey his orders and spect
as in the
him. However, Manu diu not gi .e absolute authority to the king, and be
Rajadharma
divine origin theory of the west. The kingmust follow He could not be
character.
a yerfect man of itellect, calibre en moral
of
above the established Dharma in the society and breaking any systen
Dharma.
 12
B.A. Political Thought
4. Duties andQualities
Manu says that the king is the embodiment of
Surya. Agni. Varuna, Chandra and Kubera. Though it Indra, Vayu, Yama,
seemsthat
conferred divinity to the king by eulogizing him so, it, in fact.
fact, Manu hadt
represent. In reminds the
king to do certain functions for which the deities
KS.Padhy writes "Let the king imbibe and emulate the this
Sun. Wind, Yama, Varuna. Moon, Fire and qualities context,
Earth. The Lord Indra of Indra,
season. Indra gives us
water by sending rain during the four months of the
Indira, the king should also shower gifts and confer benefits Similarly, like
on his
As the Sun draws the water
during the hot
draw his taxes from his subjects. The siummer, the king peopl
should
e.
wind is all-pervading. Without it.also no
living creature can survive. In the shape of
vital air, it enters into all
Like the wind, the king should also
penetrate
Here, he resembles the wind. Yama, the Lordeverywhere
creatures.
through his spies
of Death, does
not
one, be he is his friend or foe.
Everyone has to die on day. Nospare one
any
can
escape from his jurisdiction. Like Yama, the king
also exercises his power
over everyone living in his
kingdom and the
Yama punishes a sinner by binding him with latter in subject to his laws.
punish the wicked. No crime should go ropes. So also the king should
feel happy to see the moon, so also unpunished in his kingdom. People
they
appears before them. Like fire, he should should feel happy when the king
Endowed with brilliant energy, hé shoulddestroy histheenemies and criminals.
Earth
supports all created beings equallydestroy wicked. The Mother
them. Like, her, the king should also by nurturing them and feeding
discrimination". support all his subjects without any
Manu says that the king must be
prudent. He must worship the aged and pious, pure, honest, truthful and
free from all the the learned
internal evils like Karma (lust), persons. He should be
(misery), moha (illusion), mada Krodha (anger), Lobha
work for the(headstr ongness)
The king must always and Matsrya
welfare the people. He must(jealousy).
of
be ready
ought - II

Manu -Varna Dharma & Danda Neceti

13
1, Yama, to sacrifice even his own family including himself, if
anu had welfare of the people. He must follow Kshatra necessary for the
inds the
Dharma (Duties of the
Kshatriya) protecting the people, punishing the wicked and doing
in
context, everything for the welfare of the people. He has to prevent intermixture of
fIndra, caste and control corruption. He should regulate the social and
nolitical life
ves us of the people. He should encourage trade, commerce and
agriculture.
y, like 5. Council of Ministers and Other Officials
eople. Manu ordains the king to have a council of ministers to aid and advise
dalso
him in discharging his powers and functions. Aking, functioning without
it, no ministers, may be compared to a chariot without wheels. The king should
ures. appoint a Brahmin as his royal priest and seven or eight ministers who hail
pies. from noble families and who are wellversed in the sciences and skilful in
any the use of weapons. The king should consult the ministers both individually
can and collectively everyday on the suojects ofpeace, war, finance and general
wer administration. But, the final decision must lay with him.
WS.
Manu says that the king, though highly learned, must appoint highly
uld qualified and experienced persons as his ministers.
ole
The king should also appoint many officials in discharging his
ng administration of the Secretariat, foreign affairs and development activities
on he basis of experience and expertise.
6. Dandaneeti
In the ancient Indian State Craft, Danda played a significant place.
Manu gave utmost importance to Danda which, according to him, was
created byParameswara. This Danda, which means law, keeps awake
when allare sleeping and directs the people to follow their Dharma (duties).
The Danda is very powerful and so the king must use it sparingly and protect
the weak from the arbitrary activities of tie strong. It is Dharma which
helps the king to preserve and promote Dharma or righteousnesS.
 14 B.A. Political
7. Taxation Thought- th

Manu deals with financial ad1ministration also. He

to collect the taxes to run his administration. For this, he
authorgives
izes the kin
suggestions to the king and advises him to take care of the
imposi tva
iorious
n of
taxes which should not become burdensome to the people. At the
time, the amount, collected, mostly must be used for the welfare ofsarnthee
people.
8. Administration of Justice
Manu was the earliest writer who had emphasized the need of fa:.
justice andproper judicial administration. According to him, the king is the
highest court and arbiter ofjustice. He is the law giver to his subjects. The
king has to investigate the cases with the help of the experienced and wise
Brahmins.

In Manu'sJudicial administration, Brahmins have special treatment.

According to him, Brahmins should be given light treatinent of punishmènt
even for high crimes. But, he suggests severe punishment for other castes
for even small crimes like imputing the fingers for pick-pocketing. His
suggestions on judicial administration are as follows:
i) The criminals must be given severe punishment, so that the
people would be at order.
i) Severepunishment must be given even to those who assist the
criminals and give shelter to them.
iii) Those, who kill Brahmins, women and children must be
hanged.
iv) The fingers of the pick picketers must be
cut-off.
 15
Manu - Varna Dharma & Danda Neeti
punished
the king v) Those, who indulge in sexual crimes, should be
removed.
severely and even their sexual organs should be
various As the Brahmins are like gods,mercy should be
shown them.
tion of vi)
shaving
same However,at exceptional cases, light punishments like
kingdom may be
of the their head and sending them away from the
awarded to them.

Manu was against in punishing the people by one standard.

In fact,
consideration of many factors like moral qualities, intellectual
He sought for respect for law.
f fair physical qualities and their economic level and
qualities, physical
various forms like warning, fine, imprisonment and
sthe Punishment in K.S.Subba
awarded on the basis of the above factors.
The punishment must be Administration has
research articles on 'Manu's ideas on
ise Rao, in one of his
tables in this context.They are as follows.
provided two punishment is to be awarded
administration,
Thus, in Manu's judicial According to Manu, it seems that human
ent. individual cases. who commit
on the basis of inequalities. So, the individuals,individual. It
natural
ent beings are born with punished on the gradation of nature ofthe
the punishment
tes
offences, had to be
that Manu directs the king not to award
giving forgiveness.
may be pointed out be merciful in
even asks the king to
Manu, is to reform the
as vengeance. He the punishment, according to
lis
of committing offences.
The main purpose the people to be afraid of
criminals and warn