Chapter 4 – Gramática Inglesa

MODULE13
1. Why is the clause the most significant grammatical unit?
This grammatical means of encoding patterns of experience, a fundamental property of
language, enables us to conceptualise and describe our experience (actions, events, people
and things of the external world; thoughts, feelings and perceptions of our internal world). This
is done through transitivity, which encompasses the verb and the semantic configuration of
situation types. It enables us to organise the wealth of our experience, both semantically
and syntactically, into a manageable number of representational patterns or schemas.

The main patterns are: doing, happening, experiencing and being.

2. What is a process and how many types can be distinguished?

The process is a technical term for the action, state or change of state involved. The process
includes participants, attributes ascribed to them and the circumstances of the process, such as
time, place, manner etc.

Processes can mainly be: dynamic and stative / material, mental and relational.

3. Major types of processes: dynamic and stative/material, mental and relational.

-Dynamic situations and processes involve something that occurs or happens; they can be
tested for by means of the question ‘What happened?’

-Stative situations and processes are conceived of as durative over time, and as existing rather
than happening, so it doesn’t make sense to ask ‘What happened?’ in such cases.
Generally, dynamic processes easily occur in the progressive (Pete is going away) and the imperative
(Go away, Pete!), whereas most stative processes don’t usually accept the progressive or the imperative
(*Pete is seeming kind. *Hear a noise!).

-Material processes are processes of ‘doing’ (e.g. kick, run, eat, give) or ‘happening’ (e.g. fall,
melt, collapse, slip).

-Mental processes are processes of ‘experiencing’ or ‘sensing’ (e.g. see, hear, feel, know, like,
want, regret).

-Relational processes are processes of ‘being’ (e.g. be, seem) or ‘becoming’ (e.g.
become, turn), in which a participant’s circumstances are characterised, identified, or situated.

There are also three subsidiary processes: behavioural, verbal and existential. The presence or
absence of volition and energy are important factors in distinguishing between processes.

4. What types of roles are involved in a situation?

The participant roles (semantic functions) involved in the situation

Usually there is one, two, or at the most three. When one of them is human, it is typically
assigned the primary role (Agent/Subject) in the semantic and syntactic constructions. This is a
consequence of our anthropocentric orientation in conceptualising events.
The term ‘participant’ does not refer exclusively to persons or animals, but includes things and
abstractions. A participant can be the one who carries out the action or the one who is affected
by it; it can be the one who experiences something by seeing or feeling; it can be a person or
thing that simply exists.

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The Attributes ascribed to entities either identify or characterise the entity, or state its
location in space or time. They are realised syntactically by the intensive Complements
(Complement of the Subject and Complement of the Object).

The circumstantial roles associated with the process. Include the well-known
circumstances of time, place, manner and condition, as well as a few others. They are typically
optional in the semantic structure, just as their adjunctive counterparts are in the syntactic
structure. Circumstances can, however, be inherent to the situation: for instance, location is
obligatory with certain senses of ‘be’, as in the ice-cream’s over there, and with ‘put’ in its
sense of ‘placing’ as in let’s put it in the freezer

There is no one-to-one correlation between semantic structures and syntactic structures; rather, the
semantic categories cut across the syntactic ones, although with some correlation. Semantic structures
and syntactic structures do not, therefore, always coincide; rather, they overlap. In both cases, however,
it is the process, expressed by the verb determines the choice of participants in the semantic structure
and of syntactic elements in the syntactic structure.

One obvious problem in the identification of participants and processes is the vastness and variety of the
physical world, and the difficulty involved in reducing this variety to a few prototypical semantic roles and
processes. All we can attempt to do is to specify the paradigm cases, and indicate where more detailed
specification would be necessary in order to account semantically for the varied shades of our
experience.

5. Actualised vs. Unactualisedparticipants.

Most processes are accompanied by one or more inherent participants; the nature of the
process determines how many and what kind of participants are involved.

The material process represented by the verb fall for instance, has only one participant, whereas kick
typically requires two: one participant is the Agent who carries out the action, and must be ‘animate’ and
typically ‘human’; the other is the participant affected by the action of kicking, and is not required to be
human, or even animate.

In the example Ted kicked the ball both the inherent participants are actualised as Ted and the
ball. If we say Ted kicked hard, however, only one participant, the Agent, is actualised. The
second participant, the one affected by the action, is unactualised but understood. Give, for
instance, is typically a three-participant process as in Mary gave the Red Cross a donation.
Only two participants are actualised, however, in Mary gave a donation and only one in Mary
gave generously.

Processes such as meet and kiss can be understood as having implicit reciprocity in, for instance, your
sister and I have never met (each other).Some processes have typically no participants (for example,
statements about the weather, time and distance such as it’s snowing, it’s half past eleven, it’s a long
walk to the beach). In these the pronoun it is merely a surface form required to realise the obligatory
Subject element. It has no corresponding semantic function.

MODULE14
1. The roles of agent and affected involuntary and involuntary processes, which
syntactic functions do they conflate with?
The first main category of processes are material processes (‘doing’, ‘happening’, ‘causing’
and ‘transferring’).

The action of ‘doing’ is carried out by a voluntary and controlling human participant: the Agent.
A non-controlling inanimate agent is called Force, for instance an earthquake. This Agent can
be a subject operating on itself (Answers the question: “What did X do?)

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In processes of doing, the action either extends no further than the Agent itself, as in she
resigned, or it extends to another participant, the Affected (the ball in Pelé kicked the ball).

A special type of ‘doing’ is the process of transfer, in which an Agent transfers an Affected
participant to a Recipient or is intended for a Beneficiary (give someone a present or make
someone a cake, respectively).

Affected Subject in a passive clause – Bill was hit by Ted. In the passive, the Affected conflates
with the Subject of the clause.

In involuntary processes of happening, the Affected undergoes the happening (the roof fell in,
the old man collapsed). Does not answer to ‘what did X do’ or the wh-cleft test but to the
question ‘what happened to X?’

The order of elements in the semantic structures is iconic, that is, the linguistic ordering of the
event reflects our conceptualization of it.

The notion of agency is a complex one, which includes such features as animacy, intention,
motivation, responsibility and the use of one’s own energy to initiate or control a process. In
central instances, all these features will be present. In non-central instances, one or more of
these features may be absent. If we say, for example, that the horse splashed us with mud as it
passed we do not imply that the horse did so deliberately. We do not attribute intentionality or
responsibility or motivation to the horse in this situation. We might call it an ‘unwitting Agent’.

MODULE15
1. What is an ergative pair? What conditions must it fulfil?
When the Affected object of a transitive-causative clause is the same as the Affected subject of
the corresponding intransitive clause, we have an ‘ergative pair’. As in ‘He opened the door’
(transitive)/‘The door opened’ (intransitive), ‘She rang the bell’ (transitive) /‘The bell rang’
(intransitive). In the second clause, the situation does not include an Agent who initiates it and
we encode the process as happening of its own accord. The structure has to be anti-causative.
The key participant is called the Medium (bell/door).

The test for recognizing an ergative pair is that the causative-transitive, two participant structure must
always allow for the corresponding one-participant, anti-causative structure. Compare the previous
examples (e.g. he opened the door/the door opened) with ‘Pele kicked the ball’ & *The ball kicked.

Within this alternation – described here as an ‘ergative pair’ – there is a set of basically
intransitive volitional activities (walk, jump and march) in which the second participant is
involved either willingly or unwillingly. The control exerted by the Agent predominates in the
causative-transitive:
He walked the dogs in the park. The dogs walked.
He jumped the horse over the fence The horse jumped over the fence.
The sergeant marched the soldiers. The soldiers marched.

It is also possible to have an additional agent and an additional causative verb in the transitive
clauses of ergative pairs; for example, The child got his sister to ring the bell, Mary made Peter
boil the water.

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2. What is an analytical causative with a resulting attribute? What syntactic
realization does this have?
One final type of causative we will consider is the analytical type, based on combinations with
verbs such as make and turn. In these an Agent brings about a change of state in the Affected
participant. The resulting state is expressed by an Attribute (Complement of the Object in a
syntactic analysis).
Agent Process Affected Resulting Attribute
They are making the road wider and safer.
This machine will make your tasks simple.
The heat has turned the milk sour.

3. What does a pseudo-intransitive express?

A further type of Affected Subject occurs with certain processes (break, read, translate, wash,
tan, fasten, lock) which are intrinsically transitive, but in this construction are construed as
intransitive, with an Affected subject.

Glass breaks easily. This box doesn’t shut/close/lock/fasten properly.

They express a general property or propensity of the entity to undergo (or not undergo) the
process in question. Compare glass breaks easily with the glass broke, which refers to a specific
event.

MODULE16
1. Which are the participants in a process of transfer?
There are three participants in the processes of transfer: Agent, Affected and Recipient or
Beneficiary.

2. What is the difference between a recipient and a beneficiary?

The Recipient is a central participant in three-participant processes such as give. It encodes the
one who receives the transferred material. Ed gave the cat some tuna
The Beneficiary is the optional, non-central participant in three-participant processes such as
fetch. It represents the one for whom some service is done. This difference is reflected in English
in the syntax of verbs such as fetch, get, make, buy, order and many verbs of preparation such
as cook, bake and mix, which can be replaced by make. These can represent services done for
people rather than actions to people. Nurse, could you fetch me a glass of water?
Semantically, both Recipient and Beneficiary are typically animate and human, while syntactically
both are realized as indirect object

3. Summary of process types.

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MODULE 17
1. What participants are there in a mental process of perception, cognition, affection
and desideration?
The Experiencer, the one who perceives, knows, likes, etc. The Phenomenom perceived,
known, liked or wanted.

2. Four major types of mental processes.

-Cognitive processes: knowing, thinking and believing.
-Perception processes: seeing, hearing and feeling.
-Affective processes: loving and hating.
-Desiderative processes: wanting and wishing.

MODULE 18

1. What is a relational process and what patterns of being are there?

A relational process expresses the notion of being in a broad sense. They cover various ways of
being: being something, being in some place / at some time, or in relation of possession.
There are two main patterns: the attribute, Mont Blanc is a mountain and the identifying, Mont
Blanc is the highest mountain in Europe.

2. Key features of the attributive pattern and the identifying pattern.

There is one participant, the Carrier, which represents an entity. Ascribed to the Carrier is an
Attribute, which characterizes the entity in some way.

Carrier Process Attribute

Their eldest son was a musician
The unemployment figures are alarming

Attributive pattern: the Attribute characterizes the entity in the following ways:
As an instantiation of a class of entities (a mountain, a musician)
A subclass (that of high mountains or quality (popular with climbers, alarming)
By a location (in the Alps, on the third floor)
A type of possession (yours)

There is an intensive relationship between the Carrier and its Attribute. That is to say, the Carrier
is in some way the Attribute. The Attribute is not a participant in the situation, and when realized
by a nominal group the NG is non-referential.

It can’t become the Subject in a clause. Attributive clauses are non-reversible in the sense that
they don’t allow a Subject–Complement switch. They allow thematic fronting as in and a fine
musician he was too, but a fine musician is still the Attribute, and he the Subject.

The process itself, when encoded by be, carries little meaning apart from that of tense (past time
as in was; present as in is, are). Its function is to link the Carrier to the Attribute.

Identifying pattern: The participant roles in an identifying relationship are known as Identified
and Identifier. Identification means that one participant, the Identified, is identified in terms of the
other (the Identifier), in a relation of symbolic correlates. The Identifier is the one that fills the wh-
element in a wh-question corresponding to the identifying clause:

[What/Which is Mont Blanc?]

Mont Blanc (Identified) is the highest mountain in Europe (Identifier).

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Identifying processes are reversible. The previous illustrations can be turned around, with the
Identified/ Identifying roles now represented by the opposite constituent:

[What/Which is the highest mountain in Europe?]

The highest mountain in Europe (Identified) is Mont Blanc (Identifier).
The difference between the two sequences lies in which element we want to identify; for instance,
do we want to identify Mont Blanc or do we want to identify the highest mountain in Europe? In a
discourse context this is a matter of presumed knowledge. Question (a) presumes that the
listener has heard of Mont Blanc but doesn’t know its ranking among mountains. The answer
could be ‘Mont Blanc (Identified) is the highest mountain in Europe (Identifier)’, in which the
highlighted part represents tonic prominence and the new information. Question (c) presumes
that our listener knows there are high mountains in Europe, but not which one is the highest,
receiving the answer ‘The highest mountain in Europe (Identified) is Mont Blanc (Identifier)’.

Alternatively, in answer to the same question Which is the highest mountain in Europe? We could
say ‘Mont Blanc (Identifier) is the highest mountain in Europe (Identified)’. In spoken discourse it
is the Identifier that typically receives the tonic prominence that is associated with new
information, whether this is placed at the end (the usual position) or at the beginning of the
clause.

In each sequence, then, one half is typically something or someone whose existence is already
known (the Identified), whereas the Identifier presents information as unknown or new to the
listener.

A further concept complementary to Identifying processes is that of ‘representation’ or ‘roles

filled’. One participant, the Token, is the entity that ‘represents’ or ‘fills the role of’ the other, the
Value, as in:

Token/Identified Value/Identifier
My father-in-law is (= fulfils the role of) the club’s Secretary
Negotiation is (= represents) the key to resolving the dispute

3. What difference is there between a current attribute and a resulting attribute? And
between a circumstantial relational process and a possessive relational one?
The Attribute that exists at the same time as the process described by the verb is called current
Attribute: We kept quiet; He remained captain for three year, or a transition. With dynamic
verbs of transition, become, get turn, the Attribute exists as a result of the process and is called
the resulting Attribute: We fell silent; He became captain

Circumstantial relational processes are processes of being in which the circumstantial element
is essential to the situation, not peripheral to it. The circumstance is encoded as Attribute in the
following examples and stands in an intensive relationship with the Carrier:

Location in space: The museum is round the corner.

Location in time: Our next meeting will be on June 10.
Means: Entrance to the exhibition is by invitation.
Agent: This symphony is by Mahler.
Beneficiary: These flowers are for you.
Metaphorical meanings: He’s off alcohol. Everyone’s into yoga nowadays.
The circumstance is encoded by the verb in The film script concerns (= is about) a pyschopath
who kidnaps a girl, The desert stretches as far as the eye can see, The carpet measures three
metres by two, The performance lasted three hours.

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Examples such as Tomorrow is Monday; Yesterday was July 1st are reversible and can be
considered as identifying circumstantial processes.

The category of possession covers a wide number of subtypes, of which the most prototypical
are perhaps part-whole (as in your left foot), ownership (as in our house) and kinship relations
(such as Jane’s sister). Other less central types include un-owned possession (as in the dog’s
basket), a mental quality (her sense of humour), a physical quality (his strength), occupancy (his
office) and an association with another person (my friends and colleagues). All these types and
others are grammaticalized at the level of the clause in possessive relational processes. A
relatively small number of verbs occur, principally
be, have, own and possess. The two participants involved are the Possessor and the
Possessed. The notion of possession is expressed either by the Attribute, as in That computer
is mine, or by the process itself, as in I have a new computer.

(A) Possession as Attribute: In this, the verb is be and the Attribute/Possessor is encoded by a
possessive pronoun (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs) or by an ’s phrase such as John’s in
The green Peugeot is John’s. The sequence is similar with belong, although it is then the verb
that conveys the notion of possession:

(B) Possession as process: English has several verbs to express possession. With be, have,
own, possess and the more colloquial have got, the Carrier is the Possessor and the Attribute is
the Possessed.

Also included in the category of ‘possessing’ are the notions of not possessing (lack, need), of
being worthy to possess (deserve), and the abstract relations of inclusion, exclusion and
containment.

MODULE 19
1. What are verbal, behavioural and existential processes and their main structures?
Verbal processes are processes of ‘saying’ or ‘communicating’ and are encoded by such verbs
as say, tell, repeat, ask, answer and report. They have one participant which is typically human,
but not necessarily so (the Sayer) and a second essential participant, which is what is said or
asked or reported (the Said).

A Recipient is required with tell and may be present as an oblique form (e.g. to me) with other
verbal processes. The Sayer can be anything which puts out a communicative signal (that clock,
Jill, our correspondent). What is said is realised by a nominal group or a nominal what-clause
(what she knew).

As these examples show, verbal processes are intermediate between material and mental
processes. From one point of view, communicating is a form of ‘doing’, and in fact the Sayer is
usually agentive or made to appear agentive, as in the case of the clock. Like material
processes, verbal processes readily admit the imperative (Say it again!) and the progressive
(What is he saying?). On the other hand, the action of communicating is close to cognitive
processes such as thinking. Verbs of saying, telling and others can be followed by a clause that
represents either the exact words said (direct report) or a reported version of the meaning
(indirect report). Besides the Sayer and the Said, a further participant, the Target, encodes the
person or thing at which the message is directed, as in: Everyone is acclaiming the new musical
as the event of the year.

A borderline area between mental processes and material processes is represented by

behavioural processes such as cough, sneeze, yawn, blink, laugh and sigh, which are usually
one-participant. They are considered as typically involuntary; but it may be that there is a very
slight agency involved. They can be deliberate; too, as in he coughed discreetly, he yawned

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rudely, in which the adjunct of manner implies volition. Acting excepted, most volitional adjuncts
could not be used with die, collapse and grow, which are typically lacking in agency and volition.
Existential processes are processes of existing or happening. The basic structure consists of
unstressed there + be + a NG (There’s a man at the door; there was a loud bang). There is not a
participant as it has no semantic content, although it fulfils both a syntactic function as Subject
and a textual function as ‘presentative’ element. The single participant is the Existent, which
may refer to a countable entity (There’s a good film on at the Scala), an uncountable entity
(There’s roast lamb for lunch) or an event (There was an explosion).

2. What difference is there between a saying and a communicating verbal process?

The participant who communicates is the Sayer, and is typically human, while what is
communicated is the ‘Said’ and may be a reported statement, a reported question or a reported
directive (order, request, etc.).

MODULE 20
1. Major types of circumstantial elements.
They are place and time, manner, contingency, accompaniment, modality, degree, role, matter
and evidence.

2. What is contingency? What difference is there between circumstance and range?

Contingency is a circumstantial element which covers meanings such as cause, purpose,
reason, concession and behalf.

Rather than a circumstance, Range is a participant: the nominal concept that is implied by the
process as its scope or range: song in sing a song, games in play games, race in run a race.
Some, such as song, are derived from a related verb; others such as game are not.

Perhaps the most common type of Range element today are the deverbal nominals which
complement lexically ‘light’ verbs such as have and give:

Have an argument, a chat, a drink, a fight, a rest, a quarrel, a smoke, a taste, an experience
Give a push, a kick, a nudge, a smile, a laugh, a kiss; a presentation, a lecture
Take a sip, a bath, a nap, a photograph, a shower, a walk
Do a dance, a handstand, a left/ right turn, a sketch, a translation, some work, some cleaning, some
painting

MOCK TEST 4

What two major patterns of “being” (as a relational process) are there in English?:*

Possessive and circumstantial.

Identifying and attributive.

Value and token.

Carrier and Sayer.

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What happens in a causative process?:*

An Agent or Force causes something to happen.

An Agent transfers an Affected Participant to a Recipient.

An Agent causes an action intended for a Beneficiary.

An Agent expresses the facility of a participant to undergo a process.

Which is NOT one of the main types of dependent complement clause?:*

that-clause

wh-clause

to-infinitive clause

-en or past participle clause

Which of the following is NOT a type of transitive complementation?:*

Indirect object + direct object

Prepositional object

Direct object and indirect object

Indirect object

Which of the following is NOT a highly common circumstantial element in English?:*

contingency

degree

matter

mood

Which of the following is NOT a way to consider a clause in Systemic Functional Grammar?*

the linguistic representation of our experience of the world

a communicative exchange between persons

an organised message or text

a structure of syntactic processes and participants

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Which participants take part in a process of transfer?:*

an agent, a process, an affected, a recipient and a beneficiary.

an agent, a process, and a recipient or a beneficiary.

an agent, an affected, and a recipient or a beneficiary.

a process, an affected, and a recipient or a beneficiary.

Which of the following is NOT a material process?:*

doing

happening

causing

making

What do phrasal-prepositional verbs consist of?:*

a lexical verb followed by a prepositional phrase.

a lexical verb followed by a phrase and a preposition.

a lexical verb followed by an adverbial particle and a preposition.

a lexical verb followed by a prepositional object.

What do object complements do?:*

characterise direct objects by a qualitative attribute.

characterise direct objects by a substantive attribute.

characterise direct objects by a complementary attribute.

characterise direct objects by a qualitative or a substantive attribute.

What is necessary in English to ask a question and negate a clause?:*

a predicate

a finite operator

a process

an action

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What is the name for the whole clause in which a subordinate clause is embedded?*

Matrix clause

Main clause

Compound clause

Superordinate clause

Which of the following transitive verbs don’t passivize?:*

some common verbs which take non typical direct objects.

all transitive verbs passivize.

some common verbs with clausal direct objects.

transitive verbs never passivize.

What is the “transitivity hypothesis”?:*

It views transitivity as a matter of gradation.

It argues does transitivity does not exist at a deep level of abstraction.

It considers transitivity the defining element of the verbal group.

It establishes the patterns of the verbal group and its components.

What is the name of the agent type of participant in a mental process?:*

doer

thinker

experiencer

phenomenon

Which of the following is an assertive word?:*

still

yet

ever

any

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What type of clause is “Can you?”:*

an indirect question.

a verbless clause.

an abbreviated clause.

a direct declarative question.

TEMA 5 TEST
A pure intransitive verb:*

does not take any obligatory complements

may take a locative complement

make take or not complements, according to the context

Which of the following sentences is copular?*

The situation got nasty

He appeared at the door

They began to consider the problem

What interpretation is NOT possible in a sentence with an implied object?*

There is valency reduction.

The verb may be transitive or intransitive, according to the context.

This aspect is to be considered on cultural or pragmatic schemas.

The following is NOT a type of ditransitive complementation:*

IO + DO

DO + PO

PO + Cloc

Which factor does NOT favour the omission of ‘that’?*

The presence of a pronoun subject instead of a noun head.

A verb like `say `and `think`.

When the subject of the main clause does not coincide with the subject of the that-clause.

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When is there `recursive embedding’?*

When there is a series of embedded clauses, each within the previous one.

When a clause is deeply embedded in the previous one.

Recursive embedding is not possible in the English language.

Which of the following sentences does NOT contain a nominal relative clause?*

You can do what you like.

She taught me how to swim.

They said that it was too late.

Which of the following sentences does NOT contain a catenative verb?*

He began to try to convince me about the way to go round the problem

He tried to convince me about the way to go round the problem

He convinced me about the way to go round the problem

Which of the following verbs correspond to a material process?*

hope

write

become

What type of process is “The snow covered the path”?*

monovalent

bivalent

trivalent

What’s the role of ‘Torres’ in ‘Da Silva beat Torres at chess’?*

Agent

Affected

Force

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What is the role of ‘The sun’ in ‘The sun warmed the swimming pool’?*

Agent

Affected

Force

What is the name of the type of participant present in only one of the following sentences: “I
slammed the door // The door slammed”?*

Process

Affected

Initiating Agent

Which of the following aspects of pseudo-intransitives is NOT true?*

They tend to occur in the present tense

They express a general propensity of the entity to undergo the corresponding process

An Agent is typically added in a by-phrase

Which of the following is NOT a difference between a Recipient and a Beneficiary?*

A Recipient is a central participant and a Beneficiary is optional

Inanimate Recipients are more common that inanimate Beneficiaries

Recipients are realised by indirect objects and Beneficiaries by prepositional objects

The following is NOT a type of Mental Process:*

Affectivity

Happening

Desideration

What is the difference between “Seville is the prettiest city in Spain” and “The pretty city in Spain
is Seville”?*

None.

The Identifier is the first element and the Identified, the second.

The element which is assumed to be known is different in each case.

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What is the difference between mental processes like “see” and “hear” and others like “watch” and
“listen”?*

The latter are dynamic and volitional

The former are passive and volitional

The former have agentive subjects

Which of the following is NOT a circumstance?*

contingency

choice

matter

What type of meaning is described by the circumstantial element “Despite the current climate” in
“Despite the current climate, we’ll go there for our holidays this year”?*

Concession

Behalf

Matter

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