8 Thermal spraying Objective When you have gone through this chapter you should know the most important methods of thermal spraying know some coating materials and know which are used for anticorrosion protection know the requirements for cleanliness and roughness Introduction Thermal spraying is the designation which best covers those spraying processes used for applying melted droplets of pure metals, alloys, plastics, carbides and various oxides to a surface. Metallization is sometimes used as a synonym for the processes, however, this gives the impression that only metals are sprayed. In fact metals and metal alloys constitute only a minor part of the more than 250 different coating materials that can be thermally sprayed. Before spraying, the substrate must be cleaned completely. Steel surfaces must be abrasive blast cleaned by sharp-edged abrasives to a degree of cleanliness of Sa 3. In some cases a cleanliness degree of Sa 2¥2-3 can be accepted. The surface must be free of grease. The specified cleanliness must be maintained up to the moment when spraying takes place. In many cases it is a requirement that the surface not only has a certain cleanli- ness but also a certain roughness, for example R,, = 50-100 ym. In principle, thermal spraying has the following areas of use: anticorrosive coatings restoration and enhancing of surfaces against wear and heat stress, and of elec- trically conductive or insulating coatings. Thermal spraying is also used for other substrates than metal, for example con- crete, wood, textiles and plastic. Thermal spraying methods The following methods for thermal spraying will be discussed: flame spraying are spraying 236 CorROosion PROTECTIONplasma spraying high velocity flame spraying detonation spraying ‘The spraying methods can be grouped according to the form of the material to be applied and the source of heating: form of material to be applied: powder, wire heat source: fuel gas and oxygen, electric arc, plasma, and detonating gas mix- ture The most common combinations are flame spraying: wire and powder electric arc spraying: wire plasma spraying: powder In the case of flame and plasma spraying wear-resistant coatings can be applied to restore surfaces which have become slightly underdimensioned as a result of abra- sion or corrosion. The lifetime of new machine components, equipment and tools can also be extended by applying a wear-resistant coating before they are taken into use. ; The coatings have various properties suited for the types of wear encountered within industry, such as impact, pressure, abrasion, heat, erosion, oxidation, corro- sion and cavitation. Powder flame spraying The coating material, in the form of powder, is fed into a gas flame, either from a small cup mounted‘6n the nozzle, or from a larger, stand-alone container. If the cup is placed on the nozzle, the powder is carried (fed) to the gas flame by its own gravity and a suction effect in the nozzle. It is not necessary to use compressed air, which has a negative, cooling effect, but it can be used as a carrier gas or to concen- trate the flame. However, if the powder feeding takes place from a separate con- tainer, the powder must be transported by means of carrier gas to the nozzle. Flame temperature: approximately 3100°C Particle velocity: 40.70 m/s Carter ga: Lan Coating porosity: 7-15% (volume) a Oxide content: 7-40% (volume) Fuel gas Adhesion: 10-20 MPa Figure 8.1 Powder flame spraying 8 THERMAL SPRAYING 237 esWire flame spraying The heat required for melting the material to be applied is supplied by combusting gas. The most widely used fuel gases are acetylene and propane, but also hydrogen, MAP-gas (stabilized methyl acetylene), natural gas and other industrial fuel gases are used. All fuel gases are mixed with oxygen. The oxygen propagates the com- bustion - Flame temperature: eo air approximately 3100°C Feeding wire Particle velocity: 120-140 m/s —— i Coating porosity: §-10% (volume) Fuel gas 2nd ON Ovige content: 5-10% (volume) N Compressed air Adhesion: 10-30 MPa Figure 8.2. Wire flame spraying Gas flow meter Spray cabinet, Fine adjustment valves Turntable for the workpiece it re degoiligg unit “ stomization ai Si / fwater sep: ‘ for du ‘Acetylene oe mpressar wth : L ‘Safety controls Compressed ai ‘control unit jh compressed air sank | Figure 8.3 Schematic diagram of a wire flame spraying unit Flame temperature The temperature in the flame is usually from 2700°C to 3100°C, depending on the type of fuel gas used. Acetylene produces a temperature in the flame which is suf- ficiently high for melting steel and the other metals and alloys in wire form. Pro- { pane can be used for spraying of materials with a relatively low melting point, for example zinc, aluminium and lead. In order to ensure that the temperature is the same all around the wire, the wire is fed through the nozzle at the centre of the gas flame. i Atomization 4 The fuel gases alone are not sufficient for atomizing and transporting the molten | material to the workpiece. Consequently, it is necessary to add compressed air. ! Compressed air streaming from the gap between the nozzle and an outer cap i surrounds, confines and focuses the flame in such a way that the end of the wire is | 238 CORROSION PROTECTION : eemolten. The molten material is then atomized by the compressed air and propelled onto the surface of the workpiece. In advance the surface has been cleaned and prepared in such a way that the adhesion between coating and substrate is optimized. Wire feed rate The wire is fed through the gun by a driving mechanism. It consists of a com- pressed-air turbine and driving rollers. The feed rate can be regulated and thereby the time the wire is in the flame can be varied. Normally dense coatings with as fine a structure as possible are required. How- ever, the effort to achieve this may easily be exaggerated. Modern thermal sprayi equipment has been designed for high efficiency. Consequently, the wire feed rate must be relatively high. The tip of the wire must melt as far from the air cap as possible. The equipment manufacturer's guidelines and recommendations must be followed. When the wire is fed too slowly through the flame, the atomization is extremely fine, and the oxide content of the coating is heavily increased as oxide is formed on the surface of the particles. If the atomization is doubled, i.e. the particle size is reduced to half the normal size, the total surface of the particles is increased four- fold. The same applies to the amounts of oxides. Large amounts of oxide weaken the coating. To a larger or smaller extent, most metals will be transformed into vapour and emit fumes as a result of the heat in the flame. At normal wire rates this is of litle consequence, but if the wire rate is too low, the amount of coating deposited on the workpiece will be considerably reduced. An unnecessarily low wire feed rate, especially when spraying metals with low melting point, may frequently cause the wire to get stuck in the nozzle. Conse- quently, a too low wire rate may result in inferior coating quality, reduced sprayi speed, more frequent replacements of nozzles, increased consumption of coating material, fuel gas, oxygen and compressed air. Labour costs will also increase considerably. The wire may also be fed too rapidly through the flame. The higher the feed rate. the less the material is molten. Nor will the compressed air be able to provide satisfactory atomization. The gun will “spit” out the material. The coating becomes coarse and porous, and the adhesion to the substrate will be reduced. Spraying distance The distance from the forward end of the air cap to the surface to be coated is the spraying distance. It varies with the type of coating material (wire) used, the thick- ness of the wire, gas/air pressure and nozzle types etc. The commonly recommended spraying distance is between 13-20.cm. Spraying parameters Spraying parameters include information provided by the manufacturer of the ther- mal spraying equipment concerning correct adjustment of the air, gas and oxygen pressures. Spraying parameters like wire feed rate and spraying distance have been mentioned above. Table 8.1 is an example of a spraying table for flame spraying of, zinc and aluminium with propane as fuel gas. 8 THERMAL sPRavinc §=239 ee eeeTable 8.1 Spraying table - metric system for propane gas | tention pressure in bar | Flow meter / volume meter | Wire Wire diameter | Aircap | Oxygen | Propane | Air ae Propane | Air ‘om i Aluminium | 4.76 a 3.10 | 2.76 | 4.83 66 34 57 _ | 318 | 4 | 2.76 | 2.41 | 4.83 | 66 | 33 | 57 Zine 476 | 2 3.45 | 3.45 | 4.83 70 36 | 53 3.18 4 | 2.76 | 2.41 | 4.83 66 33 57 Coating material and wire types Wire for flame spraying is available in various diameters. It may be given in inches or millimetres. ] inch = 25.4 mm. Common dimensions are 1/8” (3.175 mm) and 3/ 16” (4.763 mm) delivered in coiled bunches of up to 20-25 kg or in containers of approx. 250 kg. For protection against corrosion on large constructions pure zinc or aluminium, alloys of zinc or aluminium or alloys of aluminium and magnesium, so-called sea water-resistant aluminium, are used. Rollers, shafts, pump housings, etc. are protected against corrosion with stain- less and acid-resistant steel or Monel. Against heat oxidation and erosion various types of chromium steel are often used. Molybdenum, aluminium bronze, white metal, chromium steel, acid-resistant steel, stainless steel, etc. are used against many types of wear. ‘The jobs are carried out on new incorrectly machined, or worn components. Wire for thermal spraying must be drawn in such a way that it has the right dimension over the entire length. It is better if it is slightly underdimensioned than if it is too thick. Cheap wires are often of poor quality. The thickness is uneven and the wire easily gets stuck in the nozzle where it also solidifies. An attempt must then be made to dislodge the wire by pushing it through the nozzle. In most cases this is not possible. We must then cut the wire before the inlet to the gun, loosen the nozzle, and then draw the wire through the gun with the wire stuck in the nozzle. Usually it takes so long time to remove the wire and clean the nozzle that this work has to be postponed until later. Spare nozzles must then be at hand to replace nozzles in case of accident. ‘As the wire is supplied in coils, it may easily get a bend when it is uncoiled. The bend prevents the wire from being drawn smoothly through the gun. The result is that it gets stuck in the nozzle. The same may happen if the wire is contaminated. The wire should pass through a straigthening device on its way to the gun. If the wire is contaminated, it must also be cleaned. Compressed air The compressed air must be clean and dry. Even small amounts of oil, together with the oxygen, will produce an explosive mixture. Moisture and zinc dust build up deposits within the gun and cause malfunction. Furthermore, moisture reaching the workpiece may contaminate the surface and cause adhesion problems. The air should therefore pass through water separators and cleaning filtres on its way to the gun and preferably also through a dehumidifier. 240 —CorROSION PROTECTIONArc spraying This spraying method has become more widely used in recent years. From heavy spraying machines, mainly used in workshops only, portable equipment has been developed with very lightweight handguns. This has made it possible to arc spray constructions on-site. Aluminium and zinc, both in pure and alloyed form, are the most common materials to be applied when steel contructions, pipes and equipment are to be arc sprayed. Requirements for long lifetimes of offshore installations resulted in extensive use of thermally sprayed coatings. As arc spraying equipment is superior to flame spraying equipment as far as capacity is concerned, it quickly became the first choice when large areas were to be thermally sprayed with zinc or aluminium or their alloys. ‘When metal coatings are painted, the whole system is called a duplex system. The objective of painting the metal coating is to protect it against the environment and thereby extend its lifetime. However, recent studies have shown that this is not always the case. Thermally sprayed aluminium applied with a full coat of paint or paint system may in chloride-containing environments (sea water and atmosphere with high salinity) be subject to extensive attacks by acidic compounds formed in the interface between the metal and the paint layer. Paints, on the other hand, which only have a pore-filling function and do not form a continuous film over the aluminium coating do not seem to promote an environment for the formation of acidic compounds in chloride-containing environ- ments. For example, silicone aluminium sealers have proved to be both pore-filling and to provide protection The spraying unit The photo shows the main components of an are spraying unit. 1 dCrectiier 2 Coating material (wire) 3 Gun Figure 8.4 & THERMAL spraYING 241,The spraying process The material to be applied is in the form of two wires fed through the spray gun (spraying machine) in such a way that they intersect when they reach the front of the gun. The wire feed rate must be the same for both wires. As they travel, they pass through contact tubes/blocks supplied with electric current from the DC recti- fier. The electricity is transferred to the wires and they are surrounded by an ionized field. At the intersection point between the wires an electric arc is formed, melting the wire material. The electric arc will last for as long as the wires are supplied with current. The temperature in the electric arc is approximately 5500°C. From a nozzle behind the electric arc (intersection point) a stream of compressed air atomizes the molten metal and carries it onto the blast-cleaned surface. Since the surface is cold, the metal solidifies and bonds to it instantaneously. The individual spraying parameters voltage, amperage, air pressure, spraying distance, spraying angle, wire feed rate and nozzle system contribute towards de- termining the finish and quality of the coating, for example porosity, coarseness, oxide content, adhesion and cohesion. Additionally, the operator’s technical spr: ing skills are to a very great extent decisive for the result, as the spraying is carried out manually. Two nozzle systems are available: closed and open. The closed system produces a finer atomization, but usually has a lower capacity than the open system. Equip- ment accessories include wide nozzles for wider spray patterns and angle adaptors for spraying of areas with difficult access. It is claimed that coatings sprayed with the open system have better adhesion to the substrate than coatings sprayed with the closed system. Even if the electric arc gun and the supply lines have less weight, the operator will become fatigued after a certain time of spraying. This may result in uneven coatings and holidays, which are bare spots without coating. The best result and the best economy are obtained by use of automatic spraying or robots. Electric arc Figure 8.5 Electric arc spraying Plasma spraying In principle the plasma gun consists of an annular copper anode and a wolfram cathode, which are water cooled. A gas, for example helium, argon, hydrogen, nitrogen or mixtures of these, is fed into the electric arc formed between the anode and the cathode. The gas is heated and dissociates into a mixture of ions and elec- trons, referred to as plasma. The material to be applied is, in powder form, trans- 242 CoRrROSION PROTECTIONported by a carrier gas into the plasma stream formed. The ions and electrons then recombine. The intense generation of heat (10,000-25,000°C) melts the powder at the same time as it is propelled at great velocity towards the workpiece. ‘The material to be applied can be for example wolfram carbide, chromium car- bide, nickel/aluminium, aluminium oxide, chromium oxide, zirconium oxide and nickel/graphite. Plasma spray units are referred to as being of “high” or “low” power (or some- times high or low energy) depending on the power produced by the plasma. Power levels up to 40 kW are designated “low”, whereas power levels between 40 and 80 kW are designated “high”. Plasma spraying produces very dense, high-quality coatings. The method has been used for a long time for coating of components for aircraft engines and gas turbines. Powder Wolfram cathode Copper anode Se Current supply Cooling water Gas Figure 8.6 Plasma spraying High velocity oxy-fuel spraying This method is quite new. In principle, the gun works in such a way that a propane/ oxygen flame with very high energy melts and propels molten material particles against the workpiece. The particle velocity is approximately 1000 m/s, and the flame temperature is approximately 2700°C. The flame is highly concentrated and protected against oxidation. ‘The sprayed coating has strong adhesion to the substrate and is further charac- terized by low porosity and high internal strength. The material to be applied (powder) can be carbides and metals. High velocity flame _(propane + oxygen) Powder in carrier gas ———————“O9> Figure 8.7 High velocity oxy-fuel spraying 8 THERMAL spravING 243,Detonation spraying Powder, by means of a carrier gas, is fed into a flame barrel filled with a mixture of acetylene and oxygen. The acetylene/oxygen mixture is ignited by a spark. The heat and detonation wave produced propels the plasticized particles onto the workpiece. The high particle velocity of 700 m/s produces coatings with low porosity, The coating process is remote-controlled in a sound-isolated chamber due to the high sound level and for other safety reasons. The method finds only very limited use. Restoration and enhancing Thermal spraying for restoration and enhancing of a surface is used on objects such as warehouses, storage shelves, sledges and other sliding surfaces, rollers, pump components, shovels, propellers, etc. The coating material is molten in a flame and propelled against the surface In the case of the cold spray method the maximum temperature of the substrate material must never exceed 250°C in order to avoid structural changes and distor- tion. ‘ Hot spraying takes place in two ways: After cold spraying the coating is molten (sintered) Spraying and melting takes place at the same time at approximately 1050-1100°C. The coating material for hot spraying always contains boron and silicon as flux agents. In both varieties diffusion bonding takes place (soldering) between the parent material and the coating. The coating becomes extremely homogeneous. Protective equipment for thermal spraying The workshops must be equipped with adequate ventilation. A separate spraying booth is to be preferred, Spray dust must be filtered off before the air is released into the atmosphere. The operator must use a full face fresh-air mask. For minor jobs a full mask with an approved type of filter can be used, but a high degree of caution must be exercised. Inhalation of zinc fumes and zinc dust may cause acute zinc fever. The work suit must be flame-retardant. Incase of arc spraying the face must be covered to avoid sunbum and the eyes protected by dark glasses. It is common practice to use a full face mask with a large, green-shaded shield. The green glass provides adequate protection against the arc while being sufficiently transparent for operator to see through it when the arc is switched off. : Other high-energy spraying methods, for example plasma spraying, require the use of completely dark eye protection. Hearing protection must be worn irrespective of the spraying method used. 244 Corrosion PROTECTIONControl questions 1 2 3 4 Which types of thermal spraying are you familiar with? Which are the most common combinations of spraying method and form of material to be applied? In principle, thermal spraying has two areas of use. Which? Which thermal spraying methods are used for spraying pure zinc and pure aluminium? ‘Why must angular abrasives be used for blast cleaning before thermal spray- ing, and which are the requirements to cleanliness and roughness? 8 Thermal spravinc 245 Petre gcrageipser