Real and Reactive Power

Exchange among
Interconnected Power System
Introduction
• Active power balance is controlled by the generators.
• Another option - reduce the active power consumption by disconnecting parts
of the load (load shedding), but this is merely an emergency measure and not
common practice.
• Reactive power balance can be controlled by rotating equipment (generators
and motors) and by static components (capacitors and inductors).
• When a generator is supplying a variable load, when suddenly more active or
reactive power is consumed and no control actions are taken (neglecting
losses).
Basics of Power System Control
• Increased active power consumption reduces the frequency

• Increased reactive power consumption reduces the voltage.

• In the steady-state situation, the active power-frequency control and

reactive power-voltage control are approximately independent from
each other.
Basics of Power System Control
• Current flowing from node 1 to node 2 can be expressed as:

• Complex power at node 2 (which is transferred to a load or another

part of the network) is:
Basics of Power System Control
• Accordingly, the active and reactive power component at node 2 are:

• In transmission systems, the following approximations can be made:

• Because the resistance of transmission links is much smaller than the
reactance values, the resistance of the transmission link can be neglected

• Because the difference between the voltage angles is rather small,we can
replace sin(δ1-δ2) by δ1-δ2 and cos (δ1-δ2) by 1.
Basics of Power System Control
• Substitute Approximations

• Voltage depends on the reactive power,

• Angle of transmission depends on the active power.
ACTIVE POWER AND FREQUENCY CONTROL
• Primary Control
• Change in the balance between the generation of active power and the
consumption of active power changes the kinetic energy of the rotating mass
of the generators, and alters the system frequency.
• The active power balance is restored by a so-called speed governor
ACTIVE POWER AND FREQUENCY CONTROL
• Speed governor can be set with a characteristic (frequency-power relation) as is
depicted in Figure
• Rotational speed (and thus the frequency) is independent of the generator loading.
• Such a control becomes problematic when generators are connected to run in parallel:
when a frequency drop occurs, caused by an increased active power consumption in
the system, each speed governor will try to restore the original frequency by increasing
the power to the prime mover.
ACTIVE POWER AND FREQUENCY CONTROL
• The generators equipped with fast
operating controllers will produce more
active power than the generators with
slow operating controllers and after a
number of control actions, the active
power to be produced is distributed more
or less randomly over the generators.
• This is an unwanted situation and this
problem can be resolved by changing the
speed governor characteristic into a one-
to-one relation between frequency and
power
 ACTIVE POWER AND FREQUENCY CONTROL
• Characteristic has a negative slope and a higher
(lower) active power output is established
when the frequency drops (rises).
• Slope of the frequency-power characteristic is
called the droop or regulation and can be
expressed as:
ACTIVE POWER AND FREQUENCY CONTROL
• In other words: the droop is the
frequency drop, in per unit of the
rated frequency, when the active
power output of the generator rises
from no-load to full-load (being the
rated power).
ACTIVE POWER AND FREQUENCY CONTROL
• For the speed governor, three different cases can be
distinguished.
• Standalone generator
• Load dictates the amount of active power to be supplied by
the generator; the speed governor determines the frequency.
• Standalone generator connected to a load experiences a
sudden change of the active power balance: the load
suddenly requires more active power.
• To cope with this, the kinetic energy of the rotating mass of
the generator, and thus the frequency, drops.
• To restore the active power balance, the speed governor
increases the mechanical power of the prime mover withP, in
accordance with the speed governor characteristic.
• The new frequency, for which the active power balance is
fulfilled, is lower than the original frequency
ACTIVE POWER AND FREQUENCY CONTROL
• A generator connected to an infinite bus
• The infinite bus dictates the frequency
• the speed governor determines the amount of
active power to be supplied by the generator.
• A generator connected to an infinite bus
experiences a frequency drop.
• As a result, the speed governor increases the
prime mover power according to the speed
governor characteristic.
ACTIVE POWER AND FREQUENCY CONTROL
• Two generators in parallel
• In this case two generators supply the load
• Frequency is set by both the speed governors.
• The active power generation is shared by the
two generators.
• When suddenly more active power is
required by the load, the frequency drops
with f.
• To restore the active power balance, the
speed governors increase the prime mover
power according to the respective speed
governor characteristics.
Secondary Control or Load Frequency Control
(LFC)
• When an imbalance between the active power generation
and active power consumption occurs, the primary control
(being the speed governor) detects a frequency deviation
and increases or decreases the mechanical power supply
to the generator in order to restore the active power
balance and to prevent the frequency from deviating
further.
• As the speed governor characteristics have a droop, the
power balance is restored at a lower or higher frequency.
• The LFC (load frequency control) is used to modify the
setting of the speed governor in such a way that the
frequency is brought back to the original reference value.
VOLTAGE CONTROL AND REACTIVE POWER
• voltages in the power system can only be controlled locally:

• either at generator buses by adjusting the generator voltage control or

at fixed points in the system where tap-changing transformers,
capacitor banks or other reactive power consumers/producers are
connected.
VOLTAGE CONTROL AND REACTIVE POWER
• Generator Control (AVR)
• The Automatic Voltage Regulator
(AVR) is the basis of the generator
reactive power control.
• The main task of the AVR is to keep
the value of the voltage at the
synchronous generator terminals at
a specified level.
 VOLTAGE CONTROL
• Principle of AVR - Terminal voltage of the
generator decreases (increases), the voltage
regulator magnifies (reduces) the excitation
which results in a higher (lower) internal EMF
and terminal voltage.
• The same result can be obtained by increasing
(decreasing) the reference voltage that is
offered to the voltage regulator.
• A generator with a fixed terminal voltage, the
effect that the reactive power output rises
when the internal EMF increases, is easily
understood from the phasor diagram.
VOLTAGE CONTROL AND REACTIVE POWER
• The AVR can be tuned such that the generator terminal voltage
remains constant and that it is independent of the generator loading
as is shown in Figure
VOLTAGE CONTROL AND REACTIVE POWER
• But, such a voltage control would cause problems when generators run
in parallel for two reasons.
• When a voltage drop occurs, for instance, each controller will separately
try to restore the terminal voltage and increases the excitation.
• As a result, the generators equipped with fast-operating controllers will
supply more reactive power than the generators with slow-acting
controllers.
• After a number of control actions, the reactive power is distributed
randomly amongst the generators.
VOLTAGE CONTROL AND REACTIVE POWER
• Furthermore, if two generators run in parallel, one having a voltage controller
setting that is slightly above the common setpoint and the other one with a
setting that is slightly below the common setpoint, both the controllers will
react in an opposite way.
• The busbar voltage will settle at a value between the two settings, which is,
however, too low for the first and too high for the second controller.
• Now, one controller will try to increase its voltage and starts to boost the
generator’s reactive power output, but the other controller does just the
opposite and consumes reactive power.
• In this way an unwanted reactive power exchange between the two generators
is the result.
Switch Yard
Control Room
ECONOMICS OF POWER GENERATION
• The art of determining the per unit (i.e., one kWh) cost of production
of electrical energy is known as economics of power generation.
COST OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
• The total cost of electrical energy generated can be divided into three
parts, namely ;
• Fixed cost ;
• Semi-fixed cost ;
• Running or operating cost.
Expressions for Cost of Electrical Energy
• Three part form.
• In this method, the overall annual cost of electrical energy generated is divided into
three parts viz fixed cost, semi-fixed cost and running cost i.e.
• Total annual cost of energy = Fixed cost + Semi-fixed cost + Running cost
= Constant + Proportional to max. demand + Proportional
to kWh generated.
= Rs (a + b kW + c kWh)
• where
a = annual fixed cost independent of maximum demand and energy output.
b = constant which when multiplied by maximum kW demand on the station gives the annual
semi-fixed cost.
c = a constant which when multiplied by kWh output per annum gives the annual running
cost.
Expressions for Cost of Electrical Energy
• Two part form.
• It is sometimes convenient to give the annual cost of energy in two part form.
• In this case, the annual cost of energy is divided into two parts viz., a fixed sum per kW of maximum
demand plus a running charge per unit of energy.
• The expression for the annual cost of energy then becomes :
Total annual cost of energy = Rs. (A kW + B kWh)
• Where
• A = a constant which when multiplied by maximum kW demand on the station gives the
annual cost of the first part.
• B = a constant which when multiplied by the annual kWh generated gives the annual
running cost.
• It is interesting to see here that two-part form is a simplification of three-part form.
• Constant “a” of the three part form has been merged in fixed sum per kW maximum demand (i.e.
constant A) in the two-part form.
Tariff
• Objectives of tariff. Like other commodities, electrical energy is also
sold at such a rate so that it not only returns the cost but also earns
reasonable profit.
• Therefore, a tariff should include the following items :
• Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power station.
• Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission and distribution
systems.
• Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical energy
e.g., metering equipment, billing etc.
• A suitable profit on the capital investment.
Tariff
• Desirable Characteristics of a Tariff
• Proper return : The tariff should be such that it ensures the proper return from
each consumer.
• Fairness : The tariff must be fair so that different types of consumers are
satisfied with the rate of charge of electrical energy.
• Simplicity : The tariff should be simple so that an ordinary consumer can easily
understand it.
• Reasonable profit : The profit element in the tariff should be reasonable.
• Attractive : The tariff should be attractive so that a large number of consumers
are encouraged to use electrical energy.
Types of Tariff
• Simple tariff. When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed,
it is called a simple tariff or uniform rate tariff.
• Disadvantages
• There is no discrimination between different types of consumers since every
consumer has to pay equitably for the fixed* charges.
• The cost per unit delivered is high.
• It does not encourage the use of electricity.
Types of Tariff
• Flat rate tariff. When different types of consumers are charged at
different uniform per unit rates, it is called a flat rate tariff.
• Disadvantages
• Since the flat rate tariff varies according to the way the supply is used,
separate meters are required for lighting load, power load etc. This makes the
application of such a tariff expensive and complicated.
• A particular class of consumers is charged at the same rate irrespective of the
magnitude of energy consumed. However, a big consumer should be charged
at a lower rate as in his case the fixed charges per unit are reduced.
Types of Tariff
• Block rate tariff. When a given block of energy is charged at a
specified rate and the succeeding blocks of energy are charged at
progressively reduced rates, it is called a block rate tariff.

• Two-part tariff. When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the

basis of maximum demand of the consumer and the units consumed, it
is called a two-part tariff.
fixed charges and running charges
Types of Tariff
• Total charges = Rs (b × kW + c × kWh)
• where,
b = charge per kW of maximum demand
c = charge per kWh of energy consumed
• This type of tariff is mostly applicable to industrial consumers who have appreciable
maximum demand.
• Advantages
• It is easily understood by the consumers.
• It recovers the fixed charges which depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer but are
independent of the units consumed.
• Disadvantages
• The consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of the fact whether he has consumed or not
consumed the electrical energy.
• There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the consumer.
Types of Tariff
• Maximum demand tariff
• It is similar to two-part tariff with the only difference that the maximum
demand is actually measured by installing maximum demand meter in the
premises of the consumer.
• This removes the objection of two-part tariff where the maximum demand is
assessed merely on the basis of the rateable value.
• This type of tariff is mostly applied to big consumers.
• However, it is not suitable for a small consumer (e.g., residential consumer) as
a separate maximum demand meter is required.
Types of Tariff
• Power factor tariff. The tariff in which power factor of the consumer’s
load is taken into consideration is known as power factor tariff.
• The following are the important types of power factor tariff :
• kVA maximum demand tariff :
• Sliding scale tariff :
• kW and kVAR tariff :
Types of Tariff
• Three-part tariff.
• When the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into
three parts viz., fixed charge, semi-fixed charge and running charge, it
is known as a three-part tariff. i.e.,
• Total charge = Rs (a + b × kW + c × kWh)
• where
a = fixed charge made during each billing period. It includes interest and depreciation on the
cost of secondary distribution and labour cost of collecting revenues,
b = charge per kW of maximum demand,
c = charge per kWh of energy consumed.
Basics of Distribution System
• Distribution System- That part of power system
which distributes electric power for local use is
known as distribution system.
• Feeders.
• A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-
station (or localised generating station) to the area
where power is to be distributed.
• Generally, no tappings are taken from the feeder so
that current in it remains the same throughout.
• The main consideration in the design of a feeder is
the current carrying capacity.
Basics of Distribution System
• Distributor.
• A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken
for supply to the consumers.
• AB, BC, CD and DA are the distributors.
• The current through a distributor is not constant because
tappings are taken at various places along its length.
• While designing a distributor, voltage drop along its length
is the main consideration since the statutory limit of voltage
variations is ± 6% of rated value at the consumers’
terminals.
• Service mains.
• A service mains is generally a small cable which connects
the distributor to the consumers’ terminals.
Basics of Distribution System
• The a.c. distribution system is classified into
• primary distribution system and
• secondary distribution system.
• Primary distribution system.
• It is that part of a.c. distribution system which operates at voltages somewhat
higher than general utilisation and handles large blocks of electrical energy
than the average low-voltage consumer uses.
• The voltage used for primary distribution depends upon the amount of power
to be conveyed and the distance of the substation required to be fed.
• The most commonly used primary distribution voltages are 11 kV, 6·6 kV and
3·3 kV. Due to economic considerations, primary distribution is carried out by
3-phase, 3-wire system.
Basics of Distribution System
Basics of Distribution System
• Secondary distribution
system.
• It is that part of a.c.
distribution system which
includes the range of voltages
at which the ultimate
consumer utilises the
electrical energy delivered to
him.
• The secondary distribution
employs 400/230 V, 3-phase,
4-wire system.
Basics of Distribution System
• Comparison between Overhead Versus Underground System
• Public safety. The underground system is more safe than overhead system because all
distribution wiring is placed underground and there are little chances of any hazard.
• Initial cost. The underground system is more expensive due to the high cost of trenching,
conduits, cables, manholes and other special equipment. The initial cost of an underground
system may be five to ten times than that of an overhead system.
• Flexibility. The overhead system is much more flexible than the underground system. In the
latter case, manholes, duct lines etc., are permanently placed once installed and the load
expansion can only be met by laying new lines. However, on an overhead system, poles, wires,
transformers etc., can be easily shifted to meet the changes in load conditions.
• Faults. The chances of faults in underground system are very rare as the cables are laid
underground and are generally provided with better insulation.
Basics of Distribution System
• Appearance. The general appearance of an underground system is better as all the distribution lines are invisible. This factor is
exerting considerable public pressure on electric supply companies to switch over to underground system.
• Fault location and repairs. In general, there are little chances of faults in an underground system. However, if a fault does occur, it is
difficult to locate and repair on this system. On an overhead system, the conductors are visible and easily accessible so that fault
locations and repairs can be easily made.
• Current carrying capacity and voltage drop. An overhead distribution conductor has a considerably higher current carrying capacity
than an underground cable conductor of the same material and cross-section. On the other hand, underground cable conductor has
much lower inductive reactance than that of an overhead conductor because of closer spacing of conductors.
• Useful life. The useful life of underground system is much longer than that of an overhead system. An overhead system may have a
useful life of 25 years, whereas an underground system may have a useful life of more than 50 years.
• Maintenance cost. The maintenance cost of underground system is very low as compared with that of overhead system because of
less chances of faults and service interruptions from wind, ice, lightning as well as from traffic hazards.
• Interference with communication circuits. An overhead system causes electromagnetic interference with the telephone lines. The
power line currents are superimposed on speech currents, resulting in the potential of the communication channel being raised to
an undesirable level. However, there is no such interference with the underground system. It is clear from the above comparison
that each system has its own advantages and disadvan
Connection Schemes of Distribution System
• Radial System
Connection Schemes of Distribution System
• This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost.
However, it suffers from the following drawbacks :
• The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.
• The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor.
Therefore, any fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the
consumers who are on the side of the fault away from the substation.
• The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to
serious voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor changes.
• Due to these limitations, this system is used for short distances only.
Connection Schemes of Distribution System
• Ring main system
Connection Schemes of Distribution System
• The ring main system has the following advantages :
• There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.
• The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via *two feeders. In the
event of fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is
maintained.
Connection Schemes of Distribution System
• Interconnected System
Connection Schemes of Distribution System
• The interconnected system has the following advantages :
• It increases the service reliability.
• Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can be fed
from the other generating station. This reduces reserve power capacity and
increases efficiency of the system.
Requirements of a Distribution System
• A considerable amount of effort is necessary to maintain an electric
power supply within the requirements of various types of consumers.
Some of the requirements of a good distribution system are :
• proper voltage,
• availability of power on demand and
• reliability.