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THE IMPACTS OF UNCLEAN DRINKING WATER IN LUSAKA'S GARDEN HOUSE

COMPOUND: A CASE OF MIDDLE WEST AREA

Research · September 2020

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.32387.32800

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THE IMPACTS OF UNCLEAN DRINKING WATER IN
LUSAKA’S GARDEN HOUSE COMPOUND: A CASE
OF MIDDLE WEST AREA
By

Tailosi Yambwana (University of Zambia 4th Year Student – BA. ED)

Kalapa Eric (University of Zambia 4th Year Student – BA. ED)

ABSTRACT

Water is a natural resource without which all living things cannot exist. It is a natural
requirement for all living things to have access to clean, safe drinking water if they have to
stay alive. According to the National Water and Supply Council (NWASCO), over 70% of
the urban folks in Zambia are not connected to central sewerage lines. The same regulator
articulates that over 60% of people in urban and peri-urban areas have no access clean water
connections in their households. They either depend on boreholes or wells. Access to basic
sanitation still remains a big challenge to the urban poor. The combination of poor
accessibility to potable water and basic sanitation is negatively impacting on the economic,
environmental, and social condition of a country. Garden House Compound of Lusaka is
among the many shanty compounds in Zambia experiencing poor accessibility to potable
water and basic sanitation. The consequences of the lack of water lines/pipes particularly in
shanty compounds have been severe, manifesting in deadly diarrheal diseases such as cholera,
dysentery and typhoid. Such is the case for Garden House's Middle West Compound in
Lusaka.

Like many other shanty compounds that were set up a long time ago in Zambia, the provision
of water and sanitation services still remains a challenge in Middle West Shanty Compound
of Lusaka’s Garden area. The majority of the population is poor and live without adequate
services. They do not have access to adequate water supply and consequently their health is
compromised leading to a reduced ability for productive work.

Keywords: Impacts, unclean drinking water, shanty compound.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT Page No.
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………….i

TABLE OF CONTENT………………………………………………………………...…. ii

CHAPTER ONE…………………………….……………………………………………....1

1.0 Introduction…………………………………….….…...…………………...............1

1.1 Background of the Study…………………………………………………………...1

1.2 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………..............3

1.3 Aim…………………………………………………………………………...............4

1.4 Objectives…………………………………………………….………………….......4

1.5 Research Questions…………………………………………………………………4

1.6 Rationale…………………….…………………………………………….................4

1.7 Limitations and challenges of the study…………………………………………....5

1.8 Scope of Study…………………………………………………………………………5

1.9 Conceptual Framework…………………………………………………………….6

1.10 Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………………….7

CHAPTER TWO……………………………………………………………………………9

LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………………..9

2.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………9

2.1 The Sources of Water Contamination……………………………………………...9

2.2 Impacts of Drinking the Unclean Water………………………………………….10

2.4 Solutions to The Causes and The Impacts of Unclean Water Brings……………11

2.5 Anticipating for The Future……………………………………………………….11

CHAPTER THREE………………………….……………………………………….……12

3.0 METHODOLOGY………………………..…………………………………….…12

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3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….…….............12

3.2 Research Design……………………………………………………………………12

3.3 Data Collection………………….………………………………..………………...13

3.3.1 Study Site………………..………………………………………………….13

3.3.2 Study Population….…………………..……………………………………13

3.3.3 Sample Size……..………….………………..…………...…………………13

3.2.4 Data Collection Procedure………….……………………...……..……….14

3.3.5.1 Data Collection Techniques and Instruments……………..………..….....14
3.3.6.2 Administration of Research Instruments…………….…….……….…….14
3.4 Data Analysis………………………………………………..……………..……….14
3.4.1 Qualitative Data Analysis………………………..…………………….......15
3.4.2 Quantitative Data Analysis……………………………………………......15
3.5 Ethical Issues …………….………………………………………………………...15

CHAPTER FOUR…………………………………………………………………………16

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS……………………………………………………….16

4.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..16

4.1 Monthly Income Determines the Sources of Water……………………………..16

4.2 Sources of Drinking Water in Garden House’s Middle West Area…………….17

4.3 Quality, Reliability and Cleanness of The Water Sources………………………17

4.4 Quantity of Each Source of Water Available in Garden House Compound’s
Middle West Area…………………………………………………………………18

4.5 Impacts of Unclean and Unreliable Drinking Water Percent……………………19

4.6 A comparative presentation of the Impacts of Unclean Drinking Water In Homes

and Schools…………………………………………………………………………19

4.7 Health Impacts of Unclean and Unreliable Drinking Water for the Past Five
Years (2015-2020)…………………………………………………………………20
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CHAPTER FIVE…………………………………………………………………………22

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS …………………………………………………………...22

5.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..22

5.1 Sources of Drinking Water Used by The People of Middle West Area………….22

5. 2 The Reliability and Cleanness of the Sources of Drinking Water Used by the
People of Middle West Area ………………………………………………………25

5.3 The Impacts of Unclean and Unreliable Drinking Water on the Residents of
Middle West Area………………………………………………………………….27

5.4 Suggested Possible Measures of Reducing the Impacts of Unclean Drinking

Water in Lusaka’s Garden House – Middle West Area………………………….28

5.5 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….29

5.6 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………29

5.6.1 Recommendations for Further Research…………………………………………30

5.6.1 Recommendations for Setting up Water Kiosks and Water Hand Pump Provision
Projects in Middle West Area by the Ministry of Water Development, Sanitation
and Environmental Protection and Other Stakeholders………………………...30

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………….31

APENDIX…………………………………………………………………………………..34

Interview Guide……………………………………………………………………34

Research Budget…………………………………………………………………...36

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: Sources of Water Determined by Monthly Income………………….16

Table 1: Budget of the study……………………………………………………….36

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1: Sources of Drinking Water in Garden House Compound’s Middle

West Area…………………………………………………………………………..17
Figure 4.2: Quality, Reliable and Cleanness of The Water
Sources……………………………………………………………………………...18
Figure 4.3: Quantity of Each Source of Water in Garden House Compound’s
Middle West Area………………………………………………………………….18
Figure 4.4: Impacts of Unclean and Unreliable Drinking Water
Percent……………………………………………………………………………...19
Figure 4.5: A comparative presentation of the impacts of unclean drinking
water in homes and Schools……………………………………………………….20
Figure 4.6: Health Impacts of Unclean and Unreliable Drinking Water for the
Past Five Years (2015-2020)………………………………………………………21
Figure 5.1: Residents fetching water from an Improved Borehole. Source: Field
Data (2020). Captured by the Researchers during the first survey of the
area…………………………………………………………………………………22
Figure 5.2: One of the residents fetching water from unimproved water
borehole. Source: Field Data (2020). Captured by the Researchers……………23

Figure 5.3: Unimproved borehole and a pit latrine . Source: Field Data (2020).
Captured by the Researchers during the first survey of the area………………23

Figure 5.4: One of the Co-Researchers observing the unimproved borehole’s

condition. Source: Field Data (2020). Captured by the Researchers…………..24

v
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

It is well known that water is a natural resource without which all living things cannot exist.
It is a natural requirement for all living things to have access to water, if they have to be alive.
It is why seventy percent of our planet earth is covered by water, though the world population
is facing water scarcity (WWF, 2020). It is estimated that almost 900 million people lack
access to improved drinking water worldwide, and over 5 million of those people live in
Zambia (Kinkese etal.,2018). Such scarcity of water is urging people to use water from
unprotected sources which the world urban poor and rural population are highly affected
(WWF, 2020). It is a well-known fact that ‘water is life’ because it gives life to all. On the
contrary, many people are dying as a result of unsafe drinking water. The consequences of
unsafe drinking water are in general negatively affecting the environmental and socio-
economic development of a nation. According to Kinkese et al. (2018), access to basic
sanitation still remains a big challenge to the urban poor. The combination of poor
accessibility to potable water and basic sanitation is negatively impacting on the economic,
environmental, and social condition of a country.

Water is connected to every form of life on earth and is the basic human need, equally
important as air. Water is connected to every aspect of human day-to-day activities either
directly or indirectly. At a basic level, everyone needs access to safe water in adequate
quantities for drinking, cooking, personal hygiene and sanitation facilities that do not
compromise health or dignity. Therefore, the United Nations (UN) and other countries
declared that access to safe and dependable (clean and fresh) water is the fundamental/basic
right of humans and that it is an essential step toward improving living standards worldwide
(WHO/UNICEF, 2006). According to Watkins (2006), people who are deprived of access to
improved water and sanitation services face diminished opportunities to realize their potential.
Unimproved drinking water and sanitation are the world's second biggest killer of children
(Watkins, 2006) and the World Bank (2003) articulates that approximately 10,000 people die
every day from water- and sanitation-related diseases, and thousands more suffer from a
range.

1
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal of ensuring access to clean water and
sanitation for all by 2030 is an ambitious target for Africa. With reference the to new research
by non-partisan research network Afrobarometer, nearly half of Africans don’t have access to
clean water and two-thirds lack access to sewage infrastructure. Improvements in both of
these areas have been made in the past decade, but huge numbers of Africans still live without
these basic necessities. The consequences of the lack of water lines/pipes particularly in
shanty like compounds have been severe, manifesting in deadly diarrheal diseases such as
cholera, dysentery and typhoid (UN, 2015).

Zambia, according to the Central Statistics Office is one of the most urbanised countries in
sub-Sahara Africa with approximately 39% of the population living in urban areas (CSO,
2003). After gaining independence, Zambia experienced an acceleration of rural-urban
imbalances as government sought to develop a modern mining and industrial economy. This
resulted into rural-urban migration, which led to the concentration of people living along the
line of rail. The social infrastructure provided to support this population was inadequate. This
led to the proliferation of unplanned settlements around urban and peri-urban centres which
created many social problems such as inadequate access to safe and clean drinking water
supply and hygienic sanitation services.

Zambia is a third world country whose quarter of the population live in the urban shanty
compounds. In relation to this, JICA (2003) affirms that the population of Lusaka is
concentrated mainly in the shanty compounds where approximately 1 million people with low
income live. There are quite a number of reasons that have led to urban population growth in
the shanty compounds but the two major reasons are rural-urban migration in search of
employment opportunities and the high fertility rates within these areas.

According to the National Water and Supply Council (NWASCO, 2016), over 70% of the
urban folks in Zambia are not connected to central sewerage lines. The same regulator
articulates that over 60% of people in urban and peri-urban areas have no access clean water
connections in their households. They either depend on boreholes or wells which are mostly
found in shanty compounds. The consequences of the lack of water lines/pipes particularly in
shanty compounds have been severe, manifesting in deadly diarrheal diseases such as cholera,
dysentery and typhoid. Such is the case for Garden House’s Middle West Compound in
Lusaka.

2
Garden House Compound is a large shanty settlement in Zambia’s capital, Lusaka, located
South West of Lusaka. It is one of the largest, densely populated compounds in the city with
somewhere between 40,000 to 60,000 inhabitants (Development Education.ie, 2006). Like
many other shanty compounds that were set up a long time ago in Zambia, the provision of
water and sanitation services still remains a challenge in some parts of Garden House
Compound of Lusaka, particularly in Middle West area where the majority of the population
live without access to safe public water sources. The unplanned nature, coupled with
inadequate or nonexistence of basic services such as water and proper sanitation, tends to
make the living conditions in Middle West Compound essentially unhealthy (Mulenga,
Bwalya, Chishimba, 2017).

The majority of the population in Middle West is poor and live without adequate services.
They do not have access to adequate, safe and clean water from the council, vis-a-vis the
majority of the community rely mainly on boreholes left there by white farmers as their source
of water. Some of these boreholes do not supply water for the local people all-year-round due
to the unpredictable climatic changes characterized by grave droughts with little rainfall.
Besides, during rainy season, the people Middle West face the challenge of lack of access to
clean water as their boreholes where they fetch water become contaminated by water-run-
offs.

The majority of the people in this Compound use unimproved pit latrines, as such, if there is
a heavy down pour of rain, like experienced on 8th to 20th January, 2020, the faecal waste in
the pit latrines may be contaminating the underground waters from which their domestically
used water is fetched. The latrine faecal wastes would make the drinking water susceptible to
water borne diseases such as cholera just as evidenced by 2017-2018 cholera outbreaks in
Lusaka compounds due to poor or untreated water, consequently, their health is compromised.
Subsequently, it is imperative to carry out this project so as to curb the water challenges faced
in Garden House Compound.

1.2 Problem statement

Like many other shanty compounds that were set up a long time ago in Zambia, the provision
of water and sanitation services still remains a challenge in Middle West Shanty Compound
of Lusaka’s Garden area. The majority of the population is poor and live without adequate
services. The consequence of the lack of water lines/pipes particularly in shanty-like

3
compounds have been severe, manifesting in deadly diarrheal diseases such as cholera,
dysentery and typhoid. Researches pertaining to the effects of unclean drinking water have
been carried out in Zambia but there is no research which has established the impacts of
unclean drinking water in Garden Compound’s Middle West are. Therefore, it is necessary to
carry out such a study which aims at establishing the impacts of unclean drinking water in
Garden House’s Middle West area and suggesting solutions to these unclean water challenges
for decision makers and implementers to have informed decisions in solving the impasse.

1.3 Aim

This study aims at establishing the impacts of unclean drinking water in Garden House’s
Middle West area.

1.4 Objectives

The objectives of this study are to:

(a) determine the sources of drinking water used by the people of Middle West area.

(b) examine whether the sources of drinking water used by the people of Middle West area
are reliable/clean.

(c) determine the effects of poor drinking water supply in Middle West area.

(d) investigate whether there are any measures that have been put in place by any
organization to ensure access to clean drinking water in Middle West area.

1.5 Research Questions:

(a) What are the sources of drinking water in Middle West area?
(b) Are the sources of drinking water reliable/clean?
(c) What are the effects of poor supply of drinking water in Middle West?
(d) Has any organization (governmental or non-governmental) put in place any measures
to ensure asses to clean drinking water in middle west area?

1.6 Rationale

There are several reasons why this study is important. The researchers thought of carrying out
this study with a view to contributing the findings of this study to the body of knowledge with

4
reference to water quality. The researchers also saw it important to recommend the findings
of this study to decision makers and other interested stakeholders who are involved in
providing clean, safe and reliable water to underprivileged communities by suggesting
management strategies and deriving possible substantive solutions to challenges of water in
order to promote public safety in regards to clean drinking water in Middle West area of
Garden House Compound in Lusaka.

1.7 Limitations and challenges of the study

Resources, especially finances, were a limitation as the study was not funded by the
researchers’ academic sponsors because their contract field research funds were not credited
in due course of the research. Thus, they faced a number of challenges in line with lack of
funding as they required travelling to the study area and following up the people who were to
be interviewed and printing out the data collection instrument (Interview guides). Some of the
households from where the data of the research were to be collected could not understand the
purpose of scientific study and at the time, they confuse the study with that of district policy
measures and expecting something new to happen in solving their water challenges after the
finalization of data collection. This research has reflected a variety of opinions, values and
personal experience. But still, it has not been able to represent all different and contradictory
opinions expressed by the people who participated during the research as it inclined itself to
the scope of the study. Also, the main findings are limited to the answers and translations
received by other people and own interpretation. Therefore, generalization of findings in this
study is only possible to a certain extent, and findings have to be understood in the current
context of this research. Furthermore, some of the respondents did not co-operative to be
interviewed and provide the researchers with the accurate data required for the study. During
data collection and analysis, time was insufficient this limited the number of people who were
interviewed to the sample size indicated in the methodology chapter.

1.8 Scope of Study

The coverage of this research study is to establish the impacts of unclean drinking water in
Garden House’s Middle West area. The study also focus on determining the sources of
drinking water used by the people of Middle, whether the sources of drinking water used by
the people of Middle West area are reliable/clean, the effects of poor drinking water supply
in Middle West area and whether there are any measures that have been put in place by any
organization to ensure access to clean drinking water in Middle West area.

5
1.9 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual frame work shown in Figure 1.1 below means that drinking of unclean water
has effects and most notably impacts on the lives of the community members. As indicated in
Figure 1.1, drinking unclean water can bring about the outbreak of water borne diseases such
as cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, typhoid, etc. and even leading to death. Lack of clean and
safe water also leads to underperformance of female pupils in schools in the sense that due to
lack of clean and reliable water, female learners in schools become affected because of the
issues of sanitation and personal hygiene. Psychologically, they get disturbed if they are not
having a conducive environment with good bathroom in school. Due to lack of clean and
quality water within community members’ vicinity, they spend more of their time and energy
to and fetch water somewhere very far from their places and in long queues, as such, they
reduce their time of being at work or their market places of works. Thus, the economy is
impacted by a reduction in social economic productivity as well as reduction in the income.
Moreover, due to lack of water within the vicinity of the community members, they end up
being forced to pay for water services on a daily basis, which is very costly as compared to
monthly water bills. This leads to reduction in the national economic growth and
development.

6
 Figure 1.1: Conceptual Framework. Source: Researchers (2020).

1.10 Theoretical Framework

In the domain of water ethics, especially within the context of social justice, there are
recommended frameworks (Anand 2013, Wutich 2013) to establish links between the access
to water and human capability. However, there is no such framework linking the impact of
water on the capabilities of the individual. To establish such a relationship, this study has
chosen to borrow the social justice theory of the health capability paradigm (HCP) developed
by Jennifer Prah Ruger, whose focus is on the health of individuals and how different social
and economic factors such as access to clean water affect the health capabilities of individuals
and groups (Ruger 2009).

The HCP theory is gaining popularity, particularly for the reformation of the healthcare
system, health policy as well as public health policies. In this model (theory), the term “health
capability” refers to a person’s ability to be healthy. J. P. Ruger, the founder of the

7
model/theory, defines it as ‘…the ability of individuals to achieve certain health functionings
and the freedom to achieve those functionings’ (Ruger 2009, p. 81). While health functionings
are essentially the avoidance of disease, deformity, malnutrition, disability, and reaching
normal life expectancies, in HCP, it means the freedom of choice to pursue these functionings.
However, the core freedom in the HCP is freedom from escapable diseases and premature
death (conditioned by social, economic, political, and other factors) and in terms of health
capability, it is the central health capability (Ruger 2009).

This study however, extends and justifies this social justice framework to the discourse of
drinking water ethics based on two reasons:

Firstly, scarcity in the availability or supply of water and uneven distribution of water results
in some people being more deprived than others in terms of accessing water (for example,
formal urban setups have more clean drinking water provisions than inform setups [shanty
compounds]). As a result of this deprivation, some groups suffer more than others by not
being able to have what they value in their lives. For example, when the availability of water
affects farming and food security, it obstructs the opportunities of some not to exercise their
choices, be it for occupation and food security. When the quality of water affects their health,
it opens the opens the door for waterborne diseases. So also, when shortage of water drives a
few people to utilize low quality or contaminated water, these groups or individuals are
distinctly denied of being empowered to achieve their ‘optimum health’ (Ruger 2009).

Secondly, lack of accessibility to quality water often results in waterborne diseases such as
cholera, dysentery and typhoid, a trend which is prevalent in most of the shanty compounds
like Garden House. It also affects the lives of women and children more than others by
affecting their health, hygiene, sanitation, drinking capacity and water seeking behaviour.
From a health capability perspective, making provisions for good quality water to all is a
public health obligation. Failure to do so leads to a failure of provision for ensuring and
enabling an environment for all to be healthy. Considering this failure of obligation, this study
makes an endeavour to have its foundation on the health capability paradigm (HCP)
model/theory. With reference to HCP, this research paper articulates that everyone,
particularly people in shanty compounds such as Garden Compound should have access to
safe, clean and quality drinking water in order to have a healthy life.

8
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Water is an essential compound to human beings and it is always required to be clean for it to
be considered suitable for consumption. Usually water is contaminated due to so many factors
and when the water is contaminated it becomes a hazard and can bring dire effects when
consumed. The following review of literature shows the sources of water contamination, it
also shows the impacts of drinking the unclean water and discusses specific and general
solutions to the causes and the impacts of unclean water brings.

2.2 The Sources of Water Contamination

The sources of drinking water have shown to not match the increasingly growing population.
In the study by Gleick (2002) it was observed that Limited resources and rapidly growing
populations have made it difficult to provide comprehensive and complete water coverage for
all and according to Gleick the failure to provide safe drinking water and adequate sanitation
services to all people was the greatest development failure in the 20th century.

Disposing the waste irregularly becomes so hazardous for the drinking water. The world
health organization (WHO, 2001) also agrees with Gleick and further adds that the lack of
adequate supplies of safe water and safe methods of disposing of their wastes is a source of
water contamination. WHO also states that the increase in pollution from municipal and
industrial waste and the leaching of fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture contaminates
the drinking water.

It was also found by (Pal, Ayele, Hadush, Panigrahi and Jadhav, 2018) that Different irrigation
systems in agriculture have been correlated with increased incidence of foodborne infections
leakage or seepage in septic tanks or inappropriate sewage treatments results in pollution of
groundwater. (Pal et.al) also adds that Bacteria from these sources enter wells that are either
open at the land surface or not watertight and Rodents, insects, animals or plant parts entering
the wells are other sources of contamination. Wastes from animals and humans, papers, pulp
plants, and tanneries are discharged into water bodies, and the organic materials decomposed
by using large quantities of oxygen from water. Among the different wastes, human and
animal feces are the most common cause of water contamination (pal et.al).

9
According to the united nations children’s fund UNICEF (2016; p1) Zambia has one of the
lowest accesses to sanitation and hygiene services on the continent and an estimated 8.4
million lack access to improved sanitation of which around 2.1 million practice open
defecation. UNICEF also adds that the access time for persons practicing open defecation to
find a private location to defecate is expensive. Consequently, the open defecation is one of
the causes of contamination of drinking water in Zambia.

2.3. Impacts of Drinking the Unclean Water

The study conducted by (Pal et.al.) shows that around 37.7 million people are affected by
waterborne diseases, 1.5 million children are estimated to die of diarrhoea alone, and 73
million working days are lost due to waterborne disease annually. And according to other
findings as cited by (pal et.al), unsafe water and poor sanitation cause more than 500,000
infant deaths each year in the Pacific region of Asia. Gleick also predicted that the total water
related deaths would rise still, that was with or without the millennium development goals
from the year 2002 to 2020.

The water challenges are attributed to so many diseases in the world today evidence also
shows that waterborne disease contributes to background rates of diseases not detected or
reported explicitly as outbreaks. Diarrhoea alone kills more children than malaria and
tuberculosis together worldwide (pal et.al).

Pal et.al shows that the chemical contamination of drinking water has great impacts which
may include skin lesions, vascular, and cardiac problems, and cancer of the bladder, lungs, or
skin, liver, and kidney damage, damage to the nervous system, suppression of the immune
system, and birth defects.

Gleick also added that the Contamination and pollution of water causes not only public health
implications but economic implications as well. The economic implications may include
human deaths which lead to health expenditures, loss of man-days, and reduction in
agricultural output and, reduction in fish population.

10
2.4 Solutions to The Causes and The Impacts of Unclean Water Brings

Gleick argues that far too much money has been spent on centralized large-scale water
systems that cannot be built or maintained with local expertise or resources, while traditional
and community-scale systems have been inadequately funded and supported. He suggested
that there is need to fund and support community-scale systems so that they can be maintained
by the communities. In another study done by Hunter (2010) indicates that the level of water
sector financing in low-income countries is widely criticized as being inadequate, but at the
same time water supply budgets are often underutilized or ineffectively used. Delays in the
release of central government funds to local authorities combine with inadequate allocations
for operational expenses to render local governments ineffective in disbursing the funds that
do reach them. And so, there is need for the governments adequately fund projects that are
working towards solving the drinking water problems in ample time.

Gleick furthers added that extensive research into inexpensive, small-scale technologies is
likely to lead to new and exciting breakthroughs that can be implemented quickly and cheaply.
Pal et.al also suggested that practicing recycling and reusing strategies for waste water and
solid wastes should be the first option.

2.5 Anticipating for The Future

Recent reports have revealed, however, the evidence based regarding water sanitation system
(WSS) interventions, especially with regard to sanitation, is extremely weak. And so, there is
need to research more with an explicit goal to strength sanitation systems for sustainability.

11
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the research design, data collection which will consists of study
population, sample size, data collection procedures, data collection techniques and
instruments, administration of research instruments and data analysis.

3.2 Research Design

The study employed a descriptive survey design. Descriptive survey design in this study was
applied so as to help us as social researchers, to find solutions to fundamental questions such
as “what is going on?” This helped us provoke the `why' questions of explanatory research
“why is it happening?” as explained by (Cook and Campbell, 1979). Thus, the descriptive
survey design in this study involved careful and in-depth investigation of the impacts of
unclean drinking water in garden house’s middle west area. Moreover, a survey enabled to
capture just a representative fraction of a whole, much as a camera takes a single frame
photograph to represent larger landscapes as observed by (Mwila, 2013; Yambwana, 2019).

The survey approach also facilitated the use of both qualitative and quantitative techniques
simultaneously. Thus, the study used both quantitative and qualitative methods. The
quantitative approach, however, was only employed specifically during analysis of data thus,
transforming data into descriptive statistics (percentages) just like the approach used by
Yambwana (2019). The qualitative aspect was employed during collection (due to the fact
that the data collected was qualitative in nature) and when interpreting it. The researchers in
this study opted to use this approach as they sought to understand and establish the impacts
of unclean drinking water in garden house’s middle west area. The multi–method approach
helped to enrich the study and made the data trustworthy and in accordance with the study of
(Jennifer, John, & George, 2013). This is because “survey may be qualitative or quantitative”
Sidhu (2009:109) depending on the nature of data to be collected and how they are intended
to be collected and interpreted.

12
3.3 Data Collection

Primary data will be collected from selected respondents from Garden House Compound’s
Middle West area and secondary data will be gathered from relevant documents and other
literatures published online. In this survey, data collection consisted of study area, study
population, sample size, data collection procedures, data collection techniques and
instruments, administration of research instruments and data analysis.

3.3.1 Study Site

This study was conducted in Garden House Compound’s Middle West area. This area was
selected for the study for a number of reasons. Firstly, Garden House Compound’s Middle
West area, as compared to the rest of other areas in Lusaka’s Garden Compound, was
relatively a good representative and was helpful to get valuable information for the study, as
the area is one of the underprivileged areas in Lusaka in most socio-economic developmental
projects. Secondly, the researchers were well aware of the problem in the area as they have
carried out a water project survey for Emerging Young Leaders – Lusaka Hub’s Global
Sharpers in February, 2020 in the area. The area is also easily accessible as it is within the
city of Lusaka where the researchers visited regularly, as such, it helped to save researchers’
money and time.

3.3.2 Study Population

In the case of this study, the population was the number of community members in Garden
House Compound’s Middle West area. The population of Middle West area compound is
about 7, 000 according to approximations made by the researchers in accordance with CSO
(2019). Then from that, a population sample was selected. The target participants for this
study comprised the community leaders for that area (constituting the Chairperson, Vice-
Chairperson, etc.), random selected teachers and pupils from the local schools around the area
and community households.

3.3.3 Sample Size

Sample size in this case involved Garden House Compound’s Middle West community
members which consisted of the community leaders for that area (Chairperson, Vice-
Chairperson, etc.), random selected teachers and pupils from the local schools around the area,

13
and community households. The population sample that the researchers proposed to use in
the study was 60 participants. Therefore, the population sample targeted was four (4)
community leaders, 10 teachers from three different schools, twenty-six (26) pupils from three
different schools and twenty (20) households (specifically parents).

3.3.4 Data Collection Procedure

Random and purposive sampling procedures were used in choosing participants from different
community sects of Garden House Compound’s Middle West area (but within the specified
numbers of each community sect as stated in 3.3.3 above). This procedure enabled each unit
in the population have an equal chance of being selected. Specifically, simple random
sampling was used in this study since no complexities were involved. This was backed up by
the study of (Kombo &Tromp, 2006).

3.3.3.1 Data Collection Techniques and Instruments

In order to gather data for the study, the research instruments that were used during research
were interview guide, verbatim records and observation. Why these instruments were selected
was due to the type of information which was initially intended to be collected, as it allowed
the participants to answer the open questions freely by giving their opinions without
limitations as explained by (Jennifer, John, & George, 2013). Observation was selected to
enable the researchers to survey Garden House Compound’s Middle West area in regard to
the water sources used so as to have a clear understanding of the prevailing water problem.

3.3.3.2 Administration of Research Instruments

To ensure that the respondents understood the questions correctly in the interview guide, the
researchers clarified and repeated the questions when asking the interviewees. Additionally,
to ensure that the researchers recorded the answers accurately, they got consent from the
interviewees to have verbatim interview sessions recorded in one of the researchers’ gadgets.

3.4 Data Analysis

Since the research design that was used in the study was survey research design, with both
qualitative and quantitative, even the data analysis was done separately for quantitative and
qualitative respectively and then a conclusion was drawn. Below, is an explanation of how
the data was analyzed:

14
3.4.1 Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data from the open-ended questions in the interview guide and verbatim records
were carefully collected, transcribed and coded into themes and sub-themes that were
emerged through thematic analysis. This was done by carefully sorting out the qualitative
answers from the interview guides in order to interpret, reduce and code key responses into
major, and sub-themes for later discussion. This was in the light of the research questions at
hand. Some responses were sorted out as verbatim or original quotes for highlighting
important findings of the study.

3.4.2 Quantitative Data Analysis

The data from 60 interview guides was collected, entered on the data entry screen created on
the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0 software. SPSS software
facilitated accuracy and speedy entry of the data which was sorted out and transferred into
Microsoft Excel, as well as analysis of the responses. Thereafter, descriptive statistics were
generated in form of tables, chats and percentages in Microsoft Excel.

3.4.3 Ethical Issues

The researchers ensured that ethics that guide how a study is conducted were followed with
cautious and robust. For example, the identified respondents or participants were informed in
advance before they were approached. The informed assent was given in form of a notice
which enabled the respondents to choose the convenient time and environment from which
they were to be interviewed.

15
 CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

4.0 Introduction

This chapter has presented the findings of the study drawn from the data collected in Middle
West Area of Garden House Compound of Lusaka and analysed as prescribed in the preceding
chapter about the Methodology. This chapter has presented the findings based on the
objectives stated in the first chapter. The irrelevant data not in accordance with the objectives,
have not been presented in this chapter.

4.1 Monthly Income Determines the Sources of Water

Table 4.1: Sources of Water Determined By Monthly Income

Interviewee's Number of Source of Water Used
monthly Income Interviewees In By Each Category
Each Income
Category
K100 to K500 30% Unimproved Boreholes
K500 to K1, 000 40% Unimproved Boreholes
K1000 to K2, 000 15% Improved Boreholes
K2, 000 to K5, 000 10% Improved Boreholes
K5, 000 to K10, 000 5% Water Hand Pumps
Source: Field Data (2020). Compiled by the Researchers of this study.
From Table 4.1, it was revealed that those who earned a monthly income ranging between
K100 to K500 were about three-tenth (30%) and they mainly used unimproved boreholes.
The majority whose monthly income was ranging from K500 to K1, 000 were about 40% of
the population and they also chiefly used unimproved boreholes. While those earned a
monthly income between K1, 000 to K2, 000 were slightly below one-fifth (15%). Those with
a monthly income ranging from K2, 000 to K5, 000 were one-tenth (10%) and they used
improved boreholes (boreholes which were well constructed, covered and treated). While the
minority who sourced water from their own good quality water hand pumps and whose
monthly earning was ranging between K5, 000 to K10, 000 were five percent only (5%).

This clearly indicated that income determined the source of water of Garden House
Compound’s Middle West Area residents because the majority with little monthly income
could not afford an improved borehole or a water hand pump, while the minority with a

16
reasonably good monthly income accessed good quality water hand pumps as their source of
drinking water.

4.2 Sources of Drinking Water in Garden House’s Middle West Area

In Figure 4.1 below, it was revealed that there were three sources of drinking water available
in Middle West Area of Garden House Compound. The main source were unimproved
boreholes which were about slightly below two-third (60%) of the sources of water available.
The other available sources of water were improved boreholes which were slightly above one-
third (35%). While the third source were water hand pumps which were one-tenth (10%).

Sources of Drinking Water In Middle West Area

60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Unimproved Boreholes Improved Boreholes Water Hand Pumps

Figure 4.1: Sources of Drinking Water in Garden House Compound’s Middle West Area.
Source: Field Data (2020). Collected and Compiled By The Researchers of this Study.
4.3 Quality, Reliability and Cleanness of The Water Sources
Based on the data presented in Figure 4.2 below, it was revealed that unimproved boreholes,
as sources of drinking water, were unsafe poor in quality with a percent slightly above three-
quarters (80%) with an improvement of only one-fifth (20%). While the improved boreholes
were not reliable and unclean (poor) by a percent slightly below two-third (65%) and, reliable
and clean (good) by only slightly above one-third (35%). While water hand pump sources
were highly clean and reliable by ninety-five (95%) and poor by only a small percent (5%).

17
 Quality, Reliability and Cleanness of The Water Sources
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
Percent

50%
Good
40%
Poor
30%
20%
10%
0%
Unimproved Boreholes Improved Boreholes Water Hand Pump
Sources of Drinking Water

Figure 4.2: Quality, Reliable and Cleanness of The Water Sources.

Source: Field Data (2020) collected and compiled by the Researchers of this study.

4.4 Quantity of Each Source of Water Available in Garden House Compound’s

Middle West Area

The data in Figure 4.3 below indicated that the most available source of water for drinking
was unimproved boreholes whose number were slightly below two-third (60%), while the
improved boreholes were slightly less than one-third (30%). On the other hand, water hand
pumps were five-tenth percent (5%).

Quantity of Each Source

5%
Unimproved Boreholes
35% Improved Boreholes
60%
Water Hand Pump

Figure 4.3: Quantity of Each Source of Water in Garden House Compound’s Middle West
Area. Source: Field Data (2020). Collected and compiled by the researchers.

18
4.5 Impacts of Unclean and Unreliable Drinking Water Percent
Based on the data presented in Figure 4.4 below, it was revealed that the health impacts highly
affected households with less monthly income by a percent slightly above three-quarter (80%)
while those with a better monthly income were only affected by one-fifth percent (20%).
Increased medical expenses highly impacted those with less monthly income by eighty-five
percent (85%) while those who earned a better monthly income were only affected by fifteen
percent (15%). Due to unclean and unreliable drinking water, a reduction in economic
productivity was higher in households who earned a little monthly income by three-quarter
percent (75%) and less affected households who earned a better monthly income by one-
quarter (25%). While pupils and teachers from households with unstable monthly
experienced high absenteeism in school by a percent slightly above three-quarter (80%) and
those from households with better monthly income only experienced absenteeism by one-fifth
percent (20%).

Impacts of Unclean and Unreliable Drinking Water

90
80
70
60
Percent

50
40
30
20
10
0
Health Impacts Increased Reduction in Pupil and Teacher
Medical Expenses Economic Absenteeism in
Productivity School
Households with Less Monthly Income (%)
Households with Better Monthly Income (%)

Figure 4.4: Impacts of Unclean and Unreliable Drinking Water Percent. Source: Field Data
(2020). Collected and Compiled by the Researchers of this study.

4.6 A comparative presentation of the Impacts of Unclean Drinking Water In Homes

and Schools

19
Figure 4.5 below showed that both homes and schools were equally impacted by the impacts
of unclean and unreliable drinking water by two-quarter (50%). Which explicitly indicates
that parents, pupils and teachers were collectively affected by lack of clean and reliable water.

A comparative presentation of the Impacts of Unclean Drinking

Water In Homes and Schools (%)

Home
50% 50%
School

Figure 4.5: A comparative presentation of the impacts of unclean drinking water in homes
and Schools. Source: Field Data (2020). Collected and compiled by the Researchers of this
study.

4.7 Health Impacts of Unclean and Unreliable Drinking Water for the Past Five
Years (2015-2020)

Figure 4.6 below showed that for the past five years, cholera affected the people of Middle
West Area due to unclean drinking water by a percent slightly below two-third (65%), while
those who were not affected by cholera were a minority of only slightly above one-third
(35%). Diarrhoea, however, affected the majority in the past five years with a percent slightly
above three-quarter (80%), while those who were not affected by diarrhoea were a minority
twenty percent (20%). Those who were affected by typhoid in the past five years were two-
quarter (50%) and equally those who were not affected by the same disease (typhoid) were a
two-quarter percent (50%). On the other hand, dysentery affected the residents of Middle
West Area by fifty-five percent (55%), while those who were not affected were forty-five
percent (45%).

20
 Health Impacts For the Past Five Years (2015-2020)

80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Cholera Diarrhea Typhoid Dysentry

Peaple Impacted People Not Impacted

Figure 4.6: Health Impacts of Unclean and Unreliable Drinking Water for the Past Five Years
(2015-2020). Source: Field Data (2020). Collected and compiled by the researchers of this
study from Kazinva clinic.

21
 CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

5.0 Introduction

Chapter four presented and analysed data collected from interviews. This chapter discusses
the findings presented in chapter four which set out to establish the impacts of unclean
drinking water in Garden House’s Middle West area. Based on the findings presented in the
previous chapter, specific points have been identified and discussed in this chapter.

5.1 Sources of Drinking Water Used by The People of Middle West Area.

From the fieldwork and interview sessions, emerged interesting points regarding the different
uses and sources of drinking water in Garden’s Middle West compound. For most of the
people in Middle West compound, their sources of water for washing, cooking and drinking
are water hand pumps as well as boreholes which are either improved or unimproved.
Improved boreholes are water sources that, by nature are of their construction (having a built
structure protecting the water) are protected from outside contamination, in particular from
faecal matter while unimproved boreholes are unprotected dug wells/boreholes (Wright,
Gundry and Conroy, 2004). Very few individuals have piped water into their dwellings/yards
and these are mostly the well to do individuals who can afford water tanks to support piped
water systems in their houses. Figure 5.1, Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3 below show unimproved
borehole and improved boreholes used by the residents of Middle West Area of Lusaka’s
Garden House Compound.

22
Figure 5.1: Residents fetching water from an Improved Borehole. Source: Field Data
(2020). Captured by the Researchers during the first survey of the area.

Figure 5.2: One of the residents fetching water from unimproved water borehole. Source:
Field Data (2020). Captured by the Researchers.

Figure 5.3: Unimproved borehole and a pit latrine . Source: Field Data (2020). Captured
by the Researchers during the first survey of the area.

23
Figure 5.4: One of the Co-Researchers observing the unimproved borehole’s condition.
Source: Field Data (2020). Captured by the Researchers.

When analysing the determinants of household choice of drinking water sources in Middle
West compound, household income was the core factor that came in play. A strong
relationship was found between income level and the domestic drinking water choices. Out
of the five income groups under consideration in Table 4.1, it was revealed that those who
earned a monthly income ranging between K100 to K500 (30% of the population) mainly
used unimproved boreholes because with the little monthly income they earned, they could
not afford to construct an improved borehole or a water hand pump. The majority whose
monthly income was ranging from K500 to K1, 000 (40% of the population) also used
unimproved boreholes because like the former, they could not afford to construct improved
boreholes or water hand pumps. When interviewed, the former and the latter from households
with low income levels said because of larger family size and personal demands, most of the
money was used for food supplies and children’s school fees. As a result, they resorted to the
use of unimproved boreholes because they cost little to construct.

24
One of the respondents in reply to a follow-up question as to whether they could manage to
set up a clean, reliable and improved water source for drinking in their own capacity in their
home, as translated from local language to English by the Researchers, said:

“Here in Middle West, for us who do not earn more money, especially with these
economic challenges, we only manage to fetch water from the boreholes left by the
farmers who used to do agriculture here. They are not better boreholes as they are
not well constructed and they are just open holes. We use the little money we have
to solve other basic needs in our homes and paying our children’s school fees.”

Individuals and households who earned a monthly income ranging from K2, 000 to K5, 000
(10% of the population) used improved boreholes. While the minority whose monthly earning
was ranging between K5, 000 to K10, 000 (5% of the population) sourced water from their
own good quality water hand pumps because their income levels permitted the construction
of improved wells and water hand pumps. The researchers during the fieldwork, only came
across six households with water tanks which supported piped water systems in their homes
while the remaining 5% used water hand pumps. These findings correlate with the finding of
UNICEF and WHO (2011) who, in their publication pointed out that the gaps between the
rich and the poorest in the use of drinking water sources in developing regions increase with
wealth, and access to cleaner drinking water sources like hand pumps and piped water on
premises is much higher among the rich and wealthier people as compared to the poor.

5. 2 The Reliability and Cleanness of the Sources of Drinking Water Used by the
People of Middle West Area

A total of 70% of the interviewed respondents said they use unimproved boreholes as a source
for drinking water. A study by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) (2003) on the
basic design study on living environment improvement project for unplanned settlements in
Lusaka showed that the use of unimproved boreholes is associated with many negative
impacts on the community’s daily activities such as increase in poverty rates, high mortality
rates and increase in the prevalence of diseases. JICA (2003)’s findings are in correlation with
the respondents’ answers in this research study who said that the lack of clean drinking water
has had severe negative impacts on their lifestyle. The negative impacts of using unclean
drinking water were measured using the indicators of health, increased medical expenses,
reduced economic productivity and absenteeism of pupils and teachers from schools. These

25
indicators were revealed in the interviews with the interviewees. For instance, one of the
interviewees from one particular household, among others, explained:

“Lack of clean water affects us so much here in Middle West. We spend much of our
time in queues for fetching water at the improved borehole when we are supposed to
go and do our market businesses. Like in my case, I do a small business about
vegetable selling which I order early in the morning in city market. So, it becomes a
challenge to firstly fetch water in the morning because water only becomes available
in the morning when it is still cold. But again, at the same time I need to be in town
for orders which only become available in the morning. Besides, I have my little
children I am supposed to prepare food for before they go to school within the same
time. As such, at time I fail to make it for my orders as I get exhausted and have less
time for my business.”

In among the interviews carried out with pupils, a verbatim interview with one of the pupils
as to whether the pupils get affected by water challenges is herein quoted:

“We face the water problem at home whereby we have to work up very early in the
morning with mum and my siblings to go and fetch water to a water hand pump with
clean water [commonly called mugujugo] where we have to wait for a long time for
others to fetch. As a result, we end up getting late for school and so sometimes we just
miss school to avoid being questioned by our teachers why we come late most of the
time. Again, as a girl child, I feel not comfortable to go to school without taking a
bath, so every morning my sisters and I always have to go and wait in queues for
fetching water.”

It is evident that the water challenges have negatively impacted the people of Middle West
area economically and in terms of pupil performance at school due to less time and
absenteeism respectively. The researchers thus, argued that there is need for government and
Non-Governmental Organizations to help Middle West Area community in terms of clean and
reliable water provision. Moreover, due to some of the households being subjected to drinking
water from unimproved water boreholes, which they do not treat with standardized methods
because they cannot afford improved and clean sources, some of them end up suffering from
waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, typhoid, etc. This affects and
compromises their health. For instance, the 2017 cholera outbreak affected Middle West area
as it is one of the areas around Kanyama constituency which was the hotspot of cholera

26
outbreak. In the long run, water challenges have impacted the health sector due to increased
medical expenses for eradicating waterborne infections.

5.3 The Impacts of Unclean and Unreliable Drinking Water on the Residents of
Middle West Area

When asked about the effects of unclean drinking water, participants tended to respond with
several specific illnesses or diseases. Participants identified diarrhoea as the most common
disease acquired from drinking unsafe water from unimproved boreholes. Alongside
diarrhoea, participants also identified cholera, typhoid, dysentery and malaria as other
common waterborne related diseases. Participants in the area felt that their water was unsafe
even when treated with chlorine and did not trust it but had no other choice but to drink the
very unsafe water because they could not afford better and cleaner sources of water. Health
statistic obtained from Kazinva clinc (a nearby clinic to the study area) showed that for the
past five years, the most prevalent waterborne diseases in the area were diarrhoea (80%),
cholera (65%), dysentery (55%) and typhoid (50%) as depicted in Figure 4.6.

When asked why the unimproved water sources caused these diseases, the vice chairperson
of Middle West said:

“Because many boreholes in the areas are open without any infrastructure protecting
the water, particularly in the rainy season when it rains, the area gets heavily flooded
and water from nearby toilets, sewer pond and roads were both humans and animals
defecate washes away into these boreholes making the water unsafe to drink.”

Other participants thought that drinking unsafe water was no beneficial due to economic
reasons and high medical expenses/costs. Most of the community members in Middle West
are poor and rely on small businesses to sustain their livelihood. With their low income and
salaries, most households and individuals are expected to pay for their own treatment and that
of their children when they get sick with waterborne diseases. As a result, most community
members said that the high costs of medications are one of the economic costs which they
regard as a great burden because resources which should have been used to provide food for
themselves and their families, as well as pay school fees for their children is diverted to
purchasing of expensive medications. One father among the respondents explained the

27
relationship that exists between unsafe drinking water and economic productivity and medical
expenses when he said:

“If I get sick as a result of drinking unclean water, my family will not have food to eat
because I am the bread winner of my family. When I get sick, I will not go to work and
when I do not go for work, my family will not have food because I will not have money
to buy food. When my children get sick, I have to take them to the hospital and buy
expensive medication for them. As a result I cannot with my little income saved money
to buy a water hand pump.”

Furthermore, when people get sick, they are forced to stay away from work and businesses,
as they are not strong enough for any activity. This subsequently reduces their household
income. If the patient is the household head, the income of that particular household is highly
negatively affected. For example, mothers are the caretakers of the house, if a mother gets
sick, she will not cook for the children, neither will she be able to do businesses (such as
selling food products at the market) that will raise money to provide food for her family.
Because of waterborne diseases, most parents and teachers have to be absent from their jobs,
this in turn lessens productivity. Gleick (2002) compliments the research findings by
clarifying that the contamination and pollution of water causes not only public health
implications but economic implications as well in that human illness/deaths will lead to health
expenditures, loss of man-days, and reduction in agricultural output.

5.4 Suggested Possible Measures of Reducing the Impacts of Unclean Drinking

Water in Lusaka’s Garden House – Middle West Area.

The community members suggested measures which may serve to prevent negative
consequences for the poor accessibility to safe drinking water. The community members
raised an appeal that if Government of the Republic of Zambia (GRZ) or NGOs like JICA
who are working to provide safe drinking water through the installation of water kiosks or
water hand pumps should consider them too, as this may increase their role in alleviating the
problems of poor access to potable water and basic sanitation as well as reduce the impacts
associated with unclean drinking water. Thus, the government has to encourage and support
NGOs to increase their services and reach out to marginalised communities that lack access
to clean, safe and quality drinking water. Provision of better, safe and increased sources of
water in the area will also help reduce on medical expenses, reduce compromise in the health

28
standards of the people, improve performance of pupils in schools and increase economic
productiveness of the people of Middle West Area. Moreover, the researchers suggested that
GRZ should carry out an educational programme for sensitization Middle West Area residents
on the right ways of treating their drinking water to avoid getting infected by waterborne
diseases.

5.5 Conclusion

Water is a basic need for human life. Access to clean, safe drinking water is a basic human
right for all. Moreover, everyone needs access to safe water in adequate quantities for cooking,
drinking, personal hygiene and sanitation facilities that do not compromise health or dignity.
Access to safe water is one of the most important catalyst given high priority by the UN for
sustainable development. Despite these facts, there are inequalities in the access of safe
drinking water in Garden House’s Middle West compound.

In Middle West compound, the source of water for washing, drinking, cooking and other
household activities are boreholes which are either improved or unimproved. Because of lack
of financial resources, the majority of the people in this area use unimproved boreholes which
are susceptible to diseases such as cholera, typhoid and dysentery. Very few individuals have
piped water in their dwelling or water hand pumps and these are the well-to do individual.
During the research, the researcher came across six household with water tanks and few more
individuals with water hand pumps.

When asked about the effects of unsafe drinking water, the respondent stated that unsafe
drinking water bears health impacts (diseases like cholera, typhoid and dysentery), decreased
economic productivity and increased spending on medication. Teachers in particular stated
that diseases brought about by unsafe water increases the rate of absenteeism among pupils
and also among teacher.

5.6 Recommendations

Premised on conclusion and some of the major findings of this research, recommendations
have been proposed in relation to further research; carrying out a Water Kiosk and Water
Hand Pump provision projects in Middle West Area; and the Ministry of Water Development,
Sanitation and Environmental Protection to formulate policies that look into advocating for
the welfare of the underprivileged communities.
29
5.6.1 Recommendations for Further Research

Researchers should conduct further research beyond the focus of this study in the context of
connecting Middle West Area to water tap supplies like most parts of Lusaka city.

5.6.1 Recommendations for Setting up Water Kiosks and/or Water Hand Pump
Provision Project in Middle West Area by the Ministry of Water Development,
Sanitation and Environmental Protection and Other Stakeholders

The Ministry of Water Development, Sanitation and Environmental Protection should

consider planning and implementing Water Kiosks and/or Water Hand Pump Provision
Projects in Middle West Area which are cheap projects as compared to connecting the area to
water tap supplies from Lusaka and Sewerage Company. Furthermore, Non-Governmental
Organizations should be allowed or take interest in coming to the aid of the residents of
Middle West Area by providing them with any better sources of clean and reliable drinking
water as a form of contribution to their social welfare. The Ministry of Water Development,
Sanitation and Environmental Protection should also rehearse with other government
ministries on coming up with policies that ensure that they create an enabling environment
for Middle West Area to have more access to many social amenities.

30
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 APPENDICES

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE IMPACTS OF QUALITY DRINKING WATER IN

LUSAKA’S GARDEN HOUSE - MIDDLE WEST AREA

Interviewer: _______________________________________________________________
Interviewee number: ________________________________________________________
Institution: ____________Date:_________ Start Time__________ End Time__________
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

THE IMPACTS OF QUALITY DRINKING WATER IN LUSAKA GARDEN

HOUSE MIDDLE WEST

SECTION A: [Personal Details].

1. GENDER: a). Male [ ] b). Female [ ]

c). Transgender [ ]

AGE_______

2. MARITAL STATUS: a). Married [ ] b). Not Married [ ]

c). Widowed [ ] d). Divorced [ ]

3. PLACE: a). home [ ] b). school [ ]

3. OCCUPATION: (a) pupil [ ] b). teacher [ ] c). parent [ ] other [ ]

SECTION B. a). Determining the Sources of Drinking Water Used by The People

1. What water sources are used in the area? __________________

2. What is your monthly income? _____ ______________

a). k100– k500 [ ] b). k500 – k1000 [ ] c). k1000 – k2000

d). k2000 – k5000 [ ] e). k5000– k10, 000 [ ]

3. i). Does the income determine your source of drinking water? Yes [ ] No [ ]

34
 ii). How does income determine your source of drinking water?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

b). Examining Whether the Sources of Drinking Water Used Are Reliable.

4. Are the sources of drinking water clean and safe? Yes [ ] No [ ]

i). If Yes, how safe are they?____________________________________________

ii).If no, what makes them unsafe__________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

c). Determining the impacts of poor drinking water supply in middle west area.

And if no: what are the impacts of this unclean

water?____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

1. what are the measures you have put in place to make the drinking water safe?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

d). Investigating Whether There Are Any Measures That Have Been Put In Place By
Any Organization To Ensure Access To Clean Drinking Water In Middle West Area.

Has any organization (governmental or non-governmental) put in place any measures to

ensure access to clean drinking water in this area? Yes [ ] No [ ]

i). If yes: what measures have been put in

place?__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

ii). Do these measures solve the problems?_____________________________________

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_

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 iii). If no: what measures do you think should be put in place to solve this
problem?__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

END OF INTERVIEW

THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND RESPONSES!

RESEARCH BUDGET
Below is the research budget for the study
Table 1: Budget of the study
SN Budget item Total cost
(ZKM)
2 Field Ration 100
(food and drinks)

3 Air time for 25

appointments
4 Interview sheet 120
printing
5 Transport and 300
logistics
6 Ream of paper 80
7 Pencils and pens 30
8 Printing and 100
binding final
report
Total K755

36

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