1 Matrices and Gaussian Elimination

Solving linear systems using elimination method

Recall: Common method to solve a linear system using Gaussian/Gauss-Jordan elimination:
1) Construct a matrix (called the augmented matrix) corresponding to the system
2) Using elementary row operations on matrices to reduce the augmented matrix to an upper triangu-
lar matrix.

3) Using back-substitution to solve the final system.

Exercises:
1. Which of the following are linear equations in x1 , x2 and x3 ?
√ √
(a) x1 + 5x2 − x3 = 1 (c) πx1 − 2x2 + 13 x3 = 71/3
√ √
− 32
(b) x1−2 + x2 + 8x3 = 5 (d) x1 − 3x2 + 4√ x3 = 2
5

2. The following matrices are the augmented matrices of systems of linear equatioins in variables
x1 , x2 , . . .. Write down the corresponding systems explicitly and solve them.

(a) (c)  

1 0 0 5
 1 6 0 0 4 −2
0 0 1 0 3 1 
0 1 0 −2  
0 0 0 1 5 2 
0 0 1 4
0 0 0 0 0 0
(b) (d)
   
1 0 0 4 −1 1 2 0 3 0 7
0 1 0 2 6  0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 3 2 0 0 0 0 1 2

3. Solve the following linear systems using Gaussian or Gauss-Jordan (back-substitution) elimina-
tion. Write clearly all elementary row operations you used.

(a) (d)

x + y + 2z = 0 x − 2y + z − 4t = 1
2x + 4y − 3z = 1 x + 3y + 7z + 2t = 2
3x + 6y − 5z = 0. x − 12y − 11z − 16t = 5.
(e)
(b)
2I1 − I2 + 3I3 + 4I4 = 9
2x + 2y + 2z = 0
I1 − 2I3 + 7I4 = 11
−2x + 5y + 2z = 1
3I1 − 3I2 + I3 + 5I4 = 8
8x + y + 4z = −1.
2I1 + I2 + 4I3 + 4I4 = 10.
(c) (f)
x + 2y − t + w = 1 2u − v =0
3y + z − w = 2 −u + 2v − w =0
z + 7t = 1. − v + 2w − z = 0
− w + 2z= 5.
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 4. For which values of a will the following system have no solutions? Exactly one solution? In-
finitely many solutions?

x + 2y − 3z = 4
3x − y + 5z = 2
4x + y + ( a2 − 14)z = a + 2.

Operations on matrices
Recall:
1) Some special matrices: Identity matrices, zero matrices, symmetric matrices,...

2) Operations: addition, multiplication with a scalar, transpose of a matrix, multiplication.

3) General properties: Associativity, commutativity...
Exercises:
1. Suppose that A, B, C, D, E are matrices with the following sizes: A : 4 × 5; B : (4 × 5); C : 5 × 2;
D : 4 × 2; E : 5 × 5. Determine (if exists) the size of each of the following matrices:

(a) BA; (d) AB + B; (g) E T A;

(b) AC + D; (e) 2E( A + B);
(c) AE + B; (f) E( AC ); (h) ( A T + E) D.

2. Let
     
3 0     1 5 2 6 1 3
4 −1 1 4 2
A =  −1 2 , B = ,C = , D =  −1 0 1 , E =  −1 1 2 .
0 2 3 1 5
1 1 3 2 4 4 1 3

Compute the following (where possible)

(a) 2B − C; (e) AC and CA;

(b) 3D − 2E T ; (f) (C T B) A T and Tr ((C T B) A T );
(c) 3D T − 2E) and Tr (3D − 2E T ); (g) tr ( DD T ).
(d) AB and BA; (h) D T E T − ( ED ) T .

3. Write down the 2 by 2 matrices A and B that have entries aij = i + j and bij = (−1)i+ j . Multiply
them to find AB and BA. Is the product of A and B commutative?
4. True or false? Give a specific counterexample when false.
(a) If columns 1 and 3 of B are the same, so are columns 1 and 3 of AB.
(b) If rows 1 and 3 of B are the same, so are rows 1 and 3 of AB.
(c) If rows 1 and 3 of A are the same, so are rows 1 and 3 of AB.
(d) ( AB)2 = A2 B2 .
5. Which of the following matrices are guaranteed to equal ( A + B)2

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 (a) A2 + 2AB + B2 (c) ( A + B)( B + A)
(b) A( A + B) + B( A + B) (d) A2 + AB + BA + B2

6. By trial and error find examples of 2 by 2 matrices such that

(a) A2 = − I, A having only real entries.

(b) B2 = 0, although B 6= 0;
(c) CD = − DC, not allowing the case CD = 0.
(d) EF = 0, although no entries of E or F are zero.
7. Suppose A commutes with every 2 by 2 matrix, and in particular
     
a b 1 0 0 1
A= commutes with B1 = , B2 = .
c d 0 0 0 0

Show that a = d and b = c = 0. Consequently, prove that if AB = BA for all 2 × 2-matrices B,

then A is a multiple of the identity.
8. In each part find matrices A, X, B which express the given system of linear equations as a single
matrix equation AX = B. Solve these equations.

(a)

x1 − 3x2 + 5x3 = 7
9x1 − x2 + x3 = −1
x1 + 5x2 + 4x3 = 0

(b)

x1 − 3x3 + x4 =7
5x1 + x2 − 8x4 =3
2x1 − 5x2 + 9x3 − x4 =0
3x2 − x3 + 7x4 = 2

9. Find the powers A2 , A3 , B2 , B3 , C2 , C3 . What are Ak , Bk and C k for a given k?

1 1
1
− 12
   
2 2 1 0
A= 1 1 ,B = , and C = AB = 21 .
2 2
0 −1 2 − 12

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Triangular factors and row exchanges
Recall: Reduce solving Ax to solving two triangular systems Lc = b and Ux = c, where A = LU and L
is a lower triangular matrix, and U is a upper triangular matrix.
1. Given the triangular factorization of A
     
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
A = 1 2 2 = 1 1 0 · 0 1 1 = LU
1 2 3 1 1 1 0 0 1

Solve the system Ax = b with a right-hand side b = (2, −2, 3).

2. Apply the elimination method to find the LU decomposition for the following matrices

(a) (b)   (c)  

  3 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 3 1 1 4 4
8 7 1 1 3 1 4 8

3. Find the PA = LDU factorizations for

   
0 1 1 1 2 1
( a ) A = 1 0 1 ; ( b ) A = 2 4 2 .
2 3 4 1 1 1

Inverses of matrices
Recall:
1) Equivalent definitions: A is invertible if one the following equivalent conditions holds.

i) There exists B such that AB = BA = I;

ii) The equation Ax = 0 has unique solution 0.
2) Find the inverse of a matrix
• Using elementary row transformations to bring [ A| I ] into [ I | A−1 ]. (Gauss-Jordan.)

Exercises:
1. Show that if A and B are invertible matrices then
(a) A T is invertible and ( A T )−1 = ( A−1 ) T
(b) AB are invertible and ( AB)−1 = B−1 A−1 .

2. Use the Gauss-Jordan method to invert the following matrices then solve the equations Ax = b
for b = (−1, 2, 7).

(a) (b) (c)

     
1 0 0 2 −1 0 1 1 1
A1 = 1 1 1 , A2 =  −1 2 −1 , A3 = 1 2 2 ,
0 0 1 0 −1 2 1 2 3

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 (d) (e) (f)
   √ √  1 1 −2 
0 0 1 √2 3√ 2 0 5 5 5
A4 = 0 1 1 , A5 =  −4 2 2 0 , A6 = 1 1 1 
5 5 10
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 −4 1
5 5 10

3. True or false (with a counterexample if false and a reason if true):

(a) A 4 by 4 matrix with a row of zeros is not invertible.
(b) If A is invertible then A−1 is invertible
(c) If A T is invertible, then A is invertible.
4. If a matrix A has row 1 + row 2 = row 3, show that A is not invertible:
(a) Explain why Ax = (1, 0, 0) cannot have a solution.
(b) Which right-hand sides (b1 , b2 , b3 ) might allow a solution to Ax = b?
(c) What happens to row 3 in elimination?
5. Find the inverse (in any legal way) of

(a) (b) (c)

     
0 0 0 1 a b 0 0 k 0 0 0
0 0 2 0 c d 0 0 1 k 0 0
A1 =  , A2 =   A3 =  
0 3 0 0 0 0 a b 0 1 k 0
4 0 0 0 0 0 c d 0 0 1 k

6. For which three numbers c is this matrix not invertible, and why not?
 
2 c c
A =  c c c
8 7 c

7. Give examples of matrices A and B such that

(a) A + B is not invertible although A and B are invertible.
(b) A + B is invertible although A and B are not invertible.
(c) all of A, B, and A + B are invertible.
(d) In the last case use A−1 ( A + B) B−1 = B−1 + A−1 to show that C = B−1 + A−1 is also
invertible and find a formula for C
8. Show that A2 = 0 is possible but A T A = 0 is not possible (unless A = zero matrix).
9. If the inverse of A2 is B, show that the inverse of A is AB. Thus, A is invertible whenever A2
invertible.
10. If A = A T and B = B T , which of the following matrices are certainly symmetric?
(a) A2 − B2 ;
(b) ( A + B)( A − B);
(c) ABA;
(d) ABAB.

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2 Vector spaces
Vector spaces and subspaces
1. By checking the vector space axioms, determine which sets together with the two operations
(scalar and addition) defined respectively are vector spaces:
(a) The set of all triples of real numbers ( x, y, z) with the following operations ( x, y, z) + ( x 0 , y0 , z0 ) =
( x + x 0 , y + y0 , z + z0 ) and k · ( x, y, z) = (kx, y, z);
(b) The set of all triples of real numbers ( x, y, z) with the following operations ( x, y, z) + ( x 0 , y0 , z0 ) =
( x + x 0 , y + y0 , z + z0 ) and k · ( x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0);
(c) The set of all triples of real numbers ( x, y, z) with the following operations ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) +
( x2 , y2 , z2 ) = ( x1 + x2 + 1, y1 + y2 + 1, z1 + z2 + 1) and k · ( x, y, z) = (kx, ky, kz);
(d) The set of all pairs of real numbers ( x, y) with the following operations ( x, y) + ( x 0 , y0 ) =
( x + x 0 , y + y0 ) and k · ( x, y) = (2kx, 2ky);
(e) The set of all pairs of real numbers of the form ( x, y) where x ≥ 0, with the standard opera-
tions on R2 ;
(f) All 2 by 2 matrices with the matrix addition and scalar multiplication;
(g) The set of singular 2 by 2 matrices with the matrix addition and scalar multiplication;
(h) The set of non-singular 2 by 2 matrices with the matrix addition and scalar multiplication;
(i) All non-singular matrices 2 by 2 with the matrix scalar multiplication and the addition is the
matrix multiplication.
 
a 1
(j) The set of all 2 by 2 matrices of the form with the matrix addition and scalar multi-
1 b
plications;
 
a 0
(k) The set of all 2 by 2 matrices of the form with the matrix addition and scalar multi-
0 b
plications;
(l) All one variable polynomials of degree 2 with the scalar multiplication and addition are the
scalar multiplication and additions in polynomials.

2. Which of the following subsets of R3 are actually subspaces?

(a) The plane of vectors (b1 , b2 , b3 ) with first component b1 = 0.
(b) The plane of vectors b with b1 = 1.
(c) The vectors b with b2 b3 = 0 (this is the union of two subspaces, the plane b2 = 0 and the
plane b3 = 0).
(d) All combinations of two given vectors (1, 1, 0) and (2, 0, 1).
(e) The plane of vectors (b1 , b2 , b3 ) that satisfy b3 − b2 + 3b1 = 0.
3. Which of the followings are subspaces of R∞ ?
(a) All sequences like (1, 0, 1, 0, . . . ) that include infinitely many zeros?
(b) All sequences x1 , x2 , . . . with x j = 0 from some point onward?
(c) All decreasing sequences x j+1 ≤ x j for each j?
(d) All convergent sequences?
(e) All arithmetic progression x j+1 − x j is the same for all j?
(f) All geometric progression ( x1 , kx1 , k2 x1 . . . , ) allowing all k and x1 ?

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 4. Which of the following descriptions are correct? The solutions x of
 
 x
1 1 1  1
  
0
Ax = x2 =
1 0 2 0
x3
form

(a) a plane; (d) a subspace;

(b) a line; (e) the nullspace of A;
(c) a point; (f) the column space of A.

5. Denote by M the vector space of 2 by 2 matrices with matrix addition and scalar multiplication.
   
1 0 0 0
(a) Describe a subspace of M that contains A = but not B = ;
0 0 0 −1
(b) If a subspace of M contains A and B, must it contain I?
(c) Describe a subspace of M that contains no nonzero diagonal matrices?
6. Describe the smallest subspace of the 2 by 2 matrix space M that contains
     
1 0 0 1 1 −1
(a) and ; (c) ;
0 0 0 0 1 0
         
1 0 0 −1 1 2 0 −1 −1 0
(b) and ; (d) , , .
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 1

7. Describe the column space and the null space of the matrices
     
1 −1 0 0 3 0 0 0
A = , B = and C = ,
0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0
   
1 1 −2 −4 6 1
1 1 −2  −1 4 1
D= 1 1 −2 , E =  5 6 7 .
  

1 1 −2 4 7 1
8. For which vectors (b1 , b2 , b3 ) do these systems have a solution?
    
1 2 4 x1 b1
(a) 0 3 6  x2  = b2 
0 0 0 x3 b3
    
1 4 2 x1 b1
(b)  2 8 4   x2  = b2  .
−1 −4 −2 x3 b3
   
1 4   b1
x
(c)  2 9  1 = b2 
x2
−1 −4 b3

Solving Ax = 0 and Ax = b
1. Reduce the following matrices to echelon form U and then the reduced row echelon form R.
Find their ranks. Which variable are free? Describe their column
 spaces and nullspaces. Solve
1
the complete solution by finding a particular solution of Ax = 0 for each given matrix A.
3

7
    
1 2 0 1 1 3 −2 2
(a) 0 1 1 0; (c) −1 −2 −1 −1 ;
1 2 0 0 −1 −5 8 −3
   
1 2 3 1 2 1 2
(b) 4 5 6 . (d)  1 1 4 0 .
7 8 9 −1 −1 −4 1

2. What conditions on b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 make each system solvable? Solve for x.

       
1 2   b1 1 2 3   b1
2 4 x1 b2  2 4 6  x1 b2 
2 5 x2 = b3  , 2 5 7  x2 = b3  .
        
x3
3 9 b4 3 9 12 b4

3. If Ax = b has two distinct solutions x1 and x2 , find two solutions to Ax = 0. Then find another
solution to Ax = b.
4. Suppose that you know x p (free variables of equation Ax = 0) and all special solutions for Ax =
b. Find x p and all special solutions for these systems:
     
  x A   b
Ax = 2b, A A = b, x = .
x A b

5. Write all known relations among r, m and n if Ax = b has

(a) no solution for some b;

(b) infinite many solutions for every b;
(c) exactly one solution for some b, no solution for other b.
(d) exactly one solution for every b.

Linear independence, dependence, spanning, bases and dimension

1. By using the definitions, show that v1 , v2 , v3 are linearly independent but v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 are depen-
dent:        
1 1 1 2
v1 = 0 , v2 = 1 , v2 = 1 , v4 = 3 .
0 0 1 4

2. Which of the followings are bases for R3 ?

(a) (1, 2, 0) and (0, 1, −1)?
(b) (1, 1, −1), (2, 3, 4), (4, 1, −1), (0, 1, −1)?
(c) (1, 2, 2), (−1, 2, 1), (0, 8, 0)?
(d) (1, 2, 2), (−1, 2, 1), (0, 8, 6)?
3. True or False
(a) The vectors (1, 3, 2), (2, 1, 3) and (3, 2, 1) are independent;
(b) The vectors (1, −3, 2), (2, 1, −3), (−3, 2, 1) are independent;
(c) The two vectors (1, 1, −1) and (−1, −1, 1) span R3 ; Describe the subspace spanned by two
these vectors. Find its dimension.
(d) The three vectors (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1) span R3 and it forms a basis of R3 ;

8
 (e) R3 is spanned by the columns of a 3 by 5 echelon matrix with 2 pivots?
(f) All vectors with positive components forms a spanning system for R3 .
4. Let w1 , w2 , w3 be linearly independent vectors. Are the following vectors independent or depen-
dent? If they are dependent, find a their non-zero linear combination that gives zero. Does the
claims hold if the given vectors w1 , w2 , w3 are dependent.

(a) v1 = w1 − w2 , v2 = w2 − w3 , v3 = w3 − w1 ;
(b) v1 = w1 + w2 , v2 = w2 + w3 , v3 = w3 + w1 .
5. Decide whether or not the following vectors are linearly independent, by solving the equation
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + c3 v3 + c4 v4 = 0, where
       
1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
v1 =  0 ,
 v2 = 
1 ,
 v3 = 
1 ,
 v4 = 
0 .


0 0 1 1

Then decide also if they span R4 . If it not, find the largest number of independent vectors among
them and find the dimension of the subspace spanned by these vectors.
6. To decide whether b is in the subspace spanned by w1 , w2 , . . . , wm , let A be matrix having column
vectors w and try to solve the equation Ax = b. What is the result for
(a) w1 = (1, 1, 0), w2 = (2, 2, 1), w3 = (0, 0, 2), b = (3, 4, 5);
(b) w1 = (1, 2, 0), w2 = (2, 5, 0), w3 = (0, 0, 2), w4 = (0, 0, 0) and any b?

7. For which numbers c and d do these matrices have rank 2?

 
1 2 5 0 5  
c d
A = 0 0 c 2 2 , U= .
d c
0 0 0 d 2

8. Find a basis for each of these subspaces of R4 :

(a) All vectors whose components are equal;
(b) All vectors whose components add to zero.
(c) All vectors that are perpendicular to (1, 1, 0, 1) and (1, 0, 1, 1).
 
1 0 1 0 1
(d) The column space (in R2 ) and null space (in R5 ) of U = . Find their di-
0 1 0 1 0
mensions.

The Four Fundamental Subspaces

1. True or False
(a) A and A T have the same number of pivots;
(b) A and A T have the same left null space;
(c) If the row space of A is equal to the column space, then A = A T ;
(d) If A T = − A, then the row space of A equals the column space.
2. Find the dimension and construct a basis for the four subspaces associated with each of the fol-
lowing matrices. Give the comparisons between each of A and U?

9
 (a)    
0 1 4 0 0 1 4 0
A= U=
0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0
(b)    
1 2 0 1 1 2 0 1
A = 0 1 1 0 U = 0 1 1 0
1 2 0 1 0 0 0 0

3. Why is there is no matrix whose row space and null space both contain (1, 1, 1).
4. Find a left-inverse and/or a right-inverse (when they exist) for
 
  1 0  
1 1 0 a b
A= M = 1 1 T= .
0 1 1 0 a
0 1

5. Let A be m by n matrix such that all columns of A are linearly independent. What is its rank, the
dimension of the four subspaces of A
6. (a) If a 7 by 9 matrix has rank 5, what are the dimension of the four subspaces? What is the sum
of all four dimensions?
(b) If a 3 by 4 matrix has rank 3, what are its column space and left nullspace?
7. Construct a matrix with the required property, or explain why you can’t.
(a) Column space contains (1, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1), row space contains (1, 2) and 2, 5.
(b) Column space has basis (1, 2, 3), null space has basis (3, 2, 1).
(c) Dimension of null space = 1 + dimension of left null space.
(d) Left null space contains (1, 3), row space contains (3, 1).
(e) Row space = Column space, null-space 6= left null space.
8. Suppose the 3 by 3 matrix A is invertible. Write the bases for the four subspaces for A and also
for the 3 by 6 matrix B = [ A A].

Linear Transformations
Recall: Let T be a map from Rn to Rn . T is linear transformation if T satisfies three properties:

i) T (0) = 0;
ii) T ( x + y) = T ( x ) + T (y) for any x, y ∈ Rn ;
iii) T (cx ) = cT ( x ).

Exercises:
1. Which of these transformations is not linear? The input is v = (v1 , v2 ). Find its matrix with
respect to the standard basis (1, 0) and (0, 1)?

(a) T (v) = (v2 , v1 ), (d) T (v) = (0, 1),

(b) T (v) = (v1 , v1 ),
(c) T (v) = (0, v1 ), (e) T (v) = (2v1 + v2 , v21 ).

2. Suppose a linear T transforms (1, 1) to (2, 2) and (2, 0) to (0, 0). Find T (v) when

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 (a) v = (2, 2) (b) v = (3, 1) (c) v = (−1, 1) (d) v = ( a, b).

3. For these transformations of V = R2 to W = R2 . Find T ( T (v))

(a) T (v) = −v;
(b) T (v) = v + (1, 1);
(c) T (v) = 90o rotation = (−v2 , v1 );
4. Find the range and kernel of T:
(a) T (v1 , v2 ) = (v2 , v1 );
(b) T (v1 , v2 , v3 ) = (v1 , v2 );
(c) T (v1 , v2 ) = (0, 0);
(d) T (v1 , v2 ) = (v1 , v1 ).
5. From the cubics P3 to the fourth-degree polynomials P4 , what matrix represents multiplication
by 2 + 3t? The columns of the 5 by 4 matrix A come from applying the transformation to 1, t, t2 , t3 .
6. The space of all 2 by 2 matrices has the four basis ”vectors”:
       
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
, , , .
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

For the linear transformation of ”transposing”, find its matrix A with respect to this matrix. Why
is A2 = I?

Reviews
Goal: Understand the equation Ax = b: the existence of solutions, the space of solutions (or nullspace)
in case it has infinite solutions (find the dimension, the basis of the solution space); For which b the
equation has a solution, the space of the vectors b such that Ax = b (or the column space) has at least
one solution. Find solutions of a linear equation, the inverse matrix, the dimension, the basis...
1. Find the basis and dimension for the following subspaces of R4 :
(a) The vectors for which x1 = 2x4 ;
(b) The vectors for which x1 + x2 + x3 = 0 and x3 + x4 = 0;
(c) The subspace spanned by (1, 1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 3, 4), (2, 3, 4, 5);
2. What is the echelon form U of A? Find the dimensions of its four fundamental subspaces?
 
1 2 0 2 1
 −1 −2 1 1 0 .
1 2 −3 −7 −2

3. (a) Ax = b has a solution under what conditions on b, for the following A and b:
   
1 2 0 3 b1
A = 0 0 0 0 b = b2  .
2 4 0 1 b3

(b) Find a basis for the null-space of A;

(c) Find a basis for the column space of A;
(d) Find the rank of A T ;

11
 (e) Find the general solution to Ax = b, when a solution exists;
 
2 −1 0
4. Find the inverse of the matrix A = −1 2 −1. Then solve the equation Ax = (0, 1, 2).
0 −1 2
5. Write down the matrix representation of the following linear maps relative to the natural bases
of Rn :
(a) T : R4 → R2 given by T ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = ( x2 , x3 );
(b) T : R4 → R3 given by T ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = ( x1 + x2 − x3 , 0, 3x4 );
(c) T : Rn → Rn given by T ( x ) = 3x;

3 Orthogonality
Orthogonal vectors and subspaces
1. Which pairs are orthogonal among the vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , where v1 = (1, −1, −1, 1), v2 =
(0, 3, 2, 6), v3 = (−1, 2, 3, 6), v4 = (−2, 2, 0, −1).
2. Find a vector x orthogonal to the row space, a vector y orthogonal to the column space and a
vector z orthogonal to the null-space of each of the following matrices:
 
    2 −2 1
1 2 1 1 2 3 −1  −3 1 −1
A = 2 4 3 , B = 3 5 8 −2 , C =   5
,
4 1 
3 6 4 1 1 2 0
1 0 0

3. Find the orthogonal complement of the plane spanned by the set of vectors:

(a) (1, 1, 2) and (1, 2, 3);

(b) (1, 4, 4, 1) and (2, 9, 8, 2);
(c) (1, 1, 1, 1), (1, −1, 1, −1) and (1, 0, 1, 0).
4. Find all vectors perpendicular to (1, 4, 4, 1) and (2, 9, 8, 2).

5. Find a basis for the orthogonal complement of the row space of

 
1 0 2
.
1 1 4

Split x = (3, 3, 3) into a row space component xr and a null space component xn .

Gram-Schmidt
1. Which of the following sets of vectors are orthogonal/orthonormal?

(a) ( √1 , 0, √1 ), ( √1 , √1 , − √1 ), (− √1 , 0, √1 )
2 2 3 3 3 2 2
1 1
(b) (1, 0, 0), (0, √ , √ ), (0, 0, 1).
2 2

(c) ( 3 , − 3 , 3 ), ( 3 , 3 , − 32 ), ( 13 , 23 , 23 ).
2 2 1 2 1

(d) ( √1 , √1 , − √2 ), ( √1 , − √1 , 0).
6 6 6 2 2

2. Using Gram-Schmidt process to transform the following bases into orthonormal ones:

12
 (a) u1 = (1, 1, 1), u2 = (−1, 1, 0), u3 = (1, 2, 1); Find the coordinate vector of (1, −1, 2) with
respect to that basis;
(b) u1 = (1, 0, 0), u2 = (3, 7, −2), u3 = (0, 4, 1); Find the coordinate vector of (1, −1, 2) with
respect to that basis;
(c) u1 = (0, 2, 1, 0), u2 = (1, −1, 0, 0), u3 = (1, 2, 0, −1), u4 = (1, 0, 0, 1); Find the coordinate
vector of (1, 1, 1, 1) with respect to that basis.
3. Find a basis of the subspace spanned by v1 = (1, −1, 0, 0), v2 = (0, 1, −1, 0), v3 = (0, 0, 1, −1).
Then, using the Gram-Schmidt to find an orthonormal basis of that subspace.
4. Find a basis for the solution space N of the equation x1 + x2 + x3 − 2x4 = 0. Using the Gram-
Schmidt to normalize that basis. Find an orthonormal basis for the orthogonal complement of
N.
5. Which of the following are orthogonal:
" 1
− √1
 
− √1 √1 √1
#
√
(a) 2 2 2 6 3
1 √ 1 √
 −2
√ √1 
2 2 (c)  0
 6 3
√1 √1 √1
2 6 3
1 1 1 1 

√1
 2 2 2 2
0 1 1 − 56 1 1
2 2 6 6

(b) 1 0 0  (d) 1 1 1

− 56 
 
2 6 6
0 0 √1 1 1
2 2 6 − 56 1
6

4 Determinants
 
a b c
1. Let A =  d e f  . Assume that det( A) = 7, find
g h i
 
(a) det(3A); (d) det At ; a g d
(b) det(2A−1 ); (f) b h e .
c i f
(c) det((2A)−1 ); (e) det A2 ;

2. Prove the identity without evaluating the determinants

 
b+c c+a b+a
(a) det  a b c  = 0;
1 1 1
   
a1 b1 a1 + b1 + c1 a1 b1 c1
(b)  a2 b2 a2 + b2 + c2  =  a2 b2 c2  ;
a3 b3 a3 + b3 + c3 a3 b3 c3
   
a1 + b1 a1 − b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
(c)  a2 + b2 a2 − b2 c2  = −2  a2 b2 c2  ;
a3 + b3 a3 − b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
3. Evaluate determinants by cofactor expansion along a row or column of your choice:

1 k k2
   
−3 0 7
 
3 3 1
(a)  2 5 1 (b) 1 0 −4 (c) 1 k k2 
−1 0 5 1 −3 5 1 k k2

13
 a2
   
k+1 k−1 7
 
1 a 1 0 0 1
(d)  2 k − 3 4 (f) 1 b b2  0 1 1 1
(g)  
5 k+1 k 1 c c2 1 1 0 1

3 3 0 5
 1 0 0 1
2 2 0 −2
(e) 
4 1 −3 0 


2 10 3 2

4. Find the inverse of the following matrices by calculating its cofactors

   
2 5 5 2 0 3
(a) −1 −1 0 (b)  0 3 2 
2 4 3 −2 0 −4
 
1 3 1 1
2 5 2 2
5. Let A = 1 3 8 9 .


1 3 2 2

(a) Evaluate A−1 using its cofactors;

(b) Evaluate A−1 using the elimination method.
6. Solving equations using Cramer’s Rule
( 
(a)
7x1 − 2x2 = 3 2x1 + x2
 =3
3x1 + x2 =5 (c) x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 70

x2 + 2x3 = 0

 
4x + 5y
 =3  x1 − 3x2 + x3 = 4

(b) 11x + y + 2z =3 (d) 2x1 − x2 = −2
 
x + 5y + 2z =1 4x1 − 3x3 = 0
 

7. Let v = (3, 2) and w = (1, 4).

(a) Find the area of the parallelogram with edges v and w;
(b) Find the area of the triangle with sides v, w and v + w. Draw it.
(c) Find the area of the triangle with sides v, w and w − v. Draw it.
(d) The corners of a triangle are (2, 1), (3, 4) and (0, 5). What is it area?

5 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

Characteristic polynomials, eigenvalues, eigenvectors, eigenspaces
1. Determine whether or not each of the specified vectors is an eigenvector of the given matrices. If
so, give the corresponding eigenvalue.
       
1 0 1 0 0
(a) A = , v1 = , v2 = , v3 = .
−2 1 2 3 −4
       
1 −1 −1 2 1
(b) A = , v1 = , v2 = , v3 = .
−6 2 3 −4 2
       
0 0 2 1 1 2
(c) A = 2 0 0, v1 = 1, v2 = 0, v3 = 2.
0 2 0 3 5 2

14
        
0 1 0 −1 1 −4
(d) A = 6 3 2, v1 =  2 , v2 =  0 , v3 =  0 .
3 0 1 0 −3 1
2. For each of following matrices, find their
i) characteristic polynomials;
ii) eigenvalues;
iii) eigenvectors corresponding to each of eigenvalue;
iv) bases for eigenspaces corresponding to each of eigenvalue.
     
1 0 4 0 1 0 1 1
(a) A = ;
0 1 (c) C = −1 −6 −2; (e) E = 1 0 1;
5 0 0 1 1 0
   
  6 3 −8 4 0 −1
0 −1 (d) D = 0 −2 0 ; (f) F = 0 3 0 .
(b) B = ;
4 0 1 0 −3 1 0 2

3. If we shift A to A − 7I, what are the eigenvalues and eigenvectors and how are they related to
those of A?
 
1 4
4. Let A = . Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of the matrices A, A +
2 3
I, A2 , A−1 , A−1 + A2 , A2015 .
 
1 −1
5. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix . Verify that the trace equals the
2 4
sum of the eigenvalues, and the determinant equals their product.
6. Find the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors of
   
3 4 2 0 0 2
A = 0 1 2 B = 0 2 0 .
0 0 0 2 0 0

Check that λ1 + λ2 + λ3 equals the trace and λ1 λ2 λ3 equals the determinants.

7. A 3 × 3 matrix A is known to have eigenvalues 0, 1, 2. Compute three of the following

(a) the rank of A,
(b) the determinant of A T .A,
(c) the eigenvalues of A T .A, and
(d) the eigenvalues of ( A + I )−1 .
8. Suppose that A has eigenvalues 0, 3, 5 with independent eigenvectors u, v, w.
(a) Give a basis for nullspace and a basis for column space of A;
(b) Find a particular solution to Ax = v + w. Find all solutions;
(c) Show that equation Ax = u has no solution.
9. Let A be a 2 × 2 matrix, and call a line through the origin of R2 invariant under A if Ax lies on
the line when x does. Find equations for all lines in R2 , if any, that are invariant under the given
matrix.

15
      
4 −1 0 1 2 3
(a) A = (b) A = (c) A =
2 1 −1 0 0 2

(Orthogonal) diagonalization of a (symmetric) matrix

1. Determine whether the following matrices are diagonalizable or not? If so, find matrix P diago-
nalizing it and its diagonal form P−1 AP.
     
2 0 1 0 0 −1 4 −2
(a) ;
1 2 (c) 0 1 1; (e) −3 4 0 ;
0 1 1 −3 1 3
 
  −2 0 0 0
3 0 0  0 −2 0 0
  (f)  .
−14 12 (d) 0 2 0;  0 0 3 0
(b) ;
−20 17 0 1 2 0 0 1 3

2. Diagonalize the matrix  

1 −2 8
A = 0 −1 0  .
0 0 −1
Then compute A2015 , A−2050 .
3. Find a matrix P that orthogonally diagonalizes A, determine P−1 AP
     
3 1 1 1 0 6 −2
(a) (e)
1 3 (c) 1 1 0 −2 3
0 0 0  
  3 1 0 0
√  2 −1 −1 1 3 0 0

6 2 3 (f)  
(b) √ (d) −1 2 −1 0 0 0 0
2 3 7 −1 −1 2 0 0 0 0

16