53 Relative clauses

Napoleon Bonaparte, who was

born in Corsica, was France's
greatest military leader.

1 Relative clauses and alternatives

A relative pronoun can be the subject or object of a relative clause:
Last week I saw that film which won all the Oscars. (subject = the film won the Oscars)
Last week I saw the film which you made at college. (object= you made the film)
To make the meaning clear, we usually put the relative clause as close as possible to the
noun it refers to:
X 14311 am hllf this dish (Fem >•ew• lernl Stlf)ermsrket, whid1 is rruuJ_e (Fem ergRRic wheRt.
.I You can buy this dish, which is made from organic wheat, from your Local supermarket.
Relative clauses are not the only way to define or add information. Alternatives include:
People who have a compiaint-« people with a complaint (prepositional phrase > Unit 54.4)
The man who lives downstairs - The man living downstairs (participle clause >- Unit 55.1 /2)
The first person who helped me-« The first person to help me (infinitive clause >- Unit 56.1)

2 Defining relative clauses

A defining relative clause identifies or classifies a noun or pronoun in the main clause.
IDENTIFYING Is this tile book that you were looking for?
CLASSIFYING Would all those who have booked dinner please go into the restaurant?
The defining relative clause gives information which is necessary for the sense of the
sentence. In the first example above, ls this the book? does not convey the full meaning of
the whole sentence, i.e. the specific book that you were looking for.
We often use these clauses to describe an important quality of someone or something:
Van Gogh was an artist who used a lot of bold, vibrant colours.
A ln defining relative clauses we can omit the relative pronoun when it is the object of the
relative clause, but NOT when it is the subject:
X I SRw the fihrt we."I Rll the Oscars. ./ 1 saw the film you made at college.
In American English that is more common than which or who in defining relative clauses.
Relative clauses with introductory it > Unit 75.2

3 Non-defining relative clauses

A non­defining relative clause gives extra information about a noun or pronoun in the
main clause (or about the whole clause), but it doesn't define or classify; the main clause
still makes sense without it:
Napoleon Bonaparte was France's greatest military leader.
+ EXTRA INFORMATION Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Corsica.
- Napoleon Bonaparte, who was born in Corsica, was France's greatest military leader.
Napoleon lost the Battle of Waterloo in 187 5.
+ EXTRA INFORMATION The fact that he lost the battle led to his exile.
- Napoleon lost the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, which led to his exile.

236
 We can also use non­defining relative clauses to show consecutive actions:
Heskey passed the ball to Owen, who scored a magnificent goal.
m
We always use a relative pronoun, e.g. which, who, to introduce non­defining
relative clauses:
~ .Lr1st year's wiHner p,i:ese,lted the rnp, each he!der keeps (or #1e ;rear .
./ Last year's winner presented the cup, which each holder keeps for the year.
However, we don't use that in the same way:
)( This <J{fer, that will net be repeR.ted, must eHd Hext week.

4 Defining or non-defining relative clause?

Compare:
DEFJNING The natives who traded with the settlers retained their land.
This answers the question 'Which natives retained their land?' The answer
is 'the ones who traded with the settlers'. It identifies or defines particular
natives and this means that some of the natives probably didn't trade with
the settlers and therefore lost their land.
NON-DE~INING The natives, who traded with the settlers, retained their land.
This sentence means 'The natives retained their land.' lt doesn't identify
particular natives, so it means that all the natives retained their land.
In written English the use of commas shows these differences.
• In non­defining clauses we use a comma to separate the relative clause from the rest of
the sentence.
• In defining relative clauses we don't use commas at aJI.
CE Pronunciation > 1.16
The use of commas also reflects the way we say the two types of relative clause. In defining
relative clauses, there is no pause between the main clause and the relative clause:
We asked for the lovely double room which had a sea view.
Although we don't often use non­defining relative clauses in speech, when we do there is
usually a falling intonation at the end of the main clause:
We asked for the lovely double room (._. ), which had a sea view.

5 Comment clauses
We can add a non­defining relative clause to the end of a sentence to make a comment
about the information (not the noun) in the main clause. Unlike most non­defining
relative clauses, comment clauses are common in spoken English.
FACT Winston Churchlll lost tile 1945 election.
COMMl'.Nl' People didn't expect this.
-+ Winsto,1 Churchill lost the 1945 election, which was rather unexpected.
In conversation, we can use a comment clause to add our opinion:
A We had to wait for over an hour to see the doctor.
B Which is outrageous!
We use which, NOT who, whose, that or it to introduce a comment clause within a sentence:
X Hfl>"fild rm•er phenes hef<He -..isiti,"'8, #!Rt is e,m~·ittg.
./ Harold never phones before visiting, which is annoying.
In writing we always put a comma before which, and in speech there is usually a falling
intonation at the end of the main clause.

237
53 RELATIVE CLAUSES

Practice
1 Choose the correct or most likely meaning, A or B.
1 I read a book while I was waiting at the airport, which was very boring.
A The book was boring. 8 Waiting at the airport was boring.
2 The members of the team, who bad sponsors, flew to the championships in Ottawa.
A All the members of the team flew to Ottawa.
B Some of the members of the team didn't fly to Ottawa.
3 It's the only hotel in the town that has free wireless Internet access.
A There are several hotels in the town. B There is only one hotel in the town.
4 l had a plate of pasta at the new pizzeria restaurant, which was enormous.
A The plate of pasta was enormous. B The restaurant was enormous.
5 The students who passed the test received a prize.
A All the students received a prize. B Some of the students didn't receive a prize.
6 My flatmate, who is unemployed, often struggles to pay the rent.
A I have one flatmate. B I have several flatmates.

2 Match each headline 1-6 with a sentence from A-G. Using each pair, write one sentence
containing a relative clause, as in the example. Use the present perfect tense in the main
clause and add commas where necessary.
A They were grounded by th~ [Q) Scientistsdiscover new
cloud of volcanic ash. wonder-cure for cancer
B They have been studying
cancer genes for years.
C It was held in The Hague.
-
ITl BODY OF MAN FOUND IN RIVER SEVERN
­
O Bangkok protesters bring
city to a standstill
D They oppose the current
prime minister. CT] GLOBAL WARMING CONFERENCE
E It was in clanger of closing ENDS WITHOUT AGREEMENT
through lack of funds.
F The man jumped off the
Severn Bridge.
G It is threatened by oil from the rn Flights across northern Europe resume
leaking underground well in
the Gulf of Mexico.
London Zoo remains open

O Scientists 'd.kp_.~y:i;,__~~!'!-.#.~ffyi,rig__~':1.".1:l~".".3r-.~fo.r..Y.l:ffr..i:.~Y:t;,.j~t..~f.!.<:~X~~-~--''.'~°d .
. ,l'!,q_"Yf.er.-.~.1~:".°Y.far. <:~!'!'-~!'": .
The body of a man .

2 ln Bangkok, protesters .

3 The global warming conference .

4 The president of the United States .

5 Flights across northern Europe .

6 London Zoo .

238
3 Combine the sentences, using relative clauses, as in the example. Omit the pronoun if
possible. CllDiD Listen and check.
m
O Craig's parents made him promise to be home by midnight. They are very strict.
Craig's parents, .. ~l:\Q .. ~n,.Y.~r.}". ..rt.r:i?.t.. _mf!q~ .hlm­. P.r:QmY~.#.. Pf ..~m-~. kY. m.~<!.~.9.J.y;, .
I The boss refused to discuss our grievances. T think that's outrageous.
The boss , .
2 Sunil's parents made him marry a distant relative. He'd never met her before.
Sunil's parents .
3 One of my brothers lives in Los Angeles. I'm going to stay with him.
I'm going .
4 We bought lots of furniture at IKEA. Some of it wouldn't fit in the car so we asked the
shop to deliver those pieces on Friday.
On Friday, IKEA is going to deliver .
5 Sue had seen a great dress in a magazine. She s_pent hours at the shops trying to find it.
Sue spent hours .
6 Samantha Davis has started her own Internet company. She used to work in our
London office.
Samantha Davis, .

4 Complete the text, using suitable relative pronouns. Then add six more
missing commas, as in the example. mml Listen and check.

The Iron Duke

Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington, is a leading military and
political figure of the nineteenth century. He is best known as the
commander of the British forces (1) helped to defeat
Napoleon Bonaparte at the battle of Waterloo in 1815.
Welleslet who was born in Ireland joined the British army in 1787. At
first he worked for the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, (2) was a
friend of his brother Richard Wellesley. He also began a political career
when he was elected as a member of parliament for Trim, (3) .
was a constituency in Ireland two years later.
Wellesley saw his first active military service in 1794 in the Netherlands.
In 1796 he went to India to fight in the fourth Anglo-Mysore war which
culminated in the battle of Seringapatam. But the most significant phase of Wellesley's career
began in 1808, when he sailed to Portugal to lead the British army in the campaign against
the French occupation of the Iberian peninsula. In 1813 he defeated Napoleon's brother Jacob,
the man (4) had proclaimed himself king of Spain, at the battle of Vitoria. It was a
significant victory (5) effectively liberated Spain from French occupation. As a reward
for this success, Wellesley was given the title of Duke of Wellington by the British government.
Wellington's greatest victory came in Belgium in 1815. Together with Gebhard von Blucher who
was the general leading the Prussian forces he finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo, in Belgium.
The victory brought an end to the war (6) had ravaged Europe for almost twenty years.
Wellington returned to London as a national hero and resumed his political career serving as prime
minister from 1828 to 1830.

C) Go onlrne for more prc1ct1cc 239

54 Pronouns, adverbs
and prepositions
in relative clauses
Although gangster Al Capone was responsible for a
number of murders and extortion rackets in 1930s
Chicago, the crime for which he was eventually
tried and imprisoned was tax evasion.

1 Relative pronouns
This chart lists relative pronouns and how they can be used:

Hd·ut·i'WW
who' people, animals .I
whom2 people J(

which3 objects, animals .I

ther people, objects, animals .I
whose relationships, possessions .I
no pronoun5 people, things, animals J(
1 We can use who to refer to animals when they are known individuals, e.g. domestic pets:
ts Sheba the cat who was run over and nearly killed last year?
2 Whom is formal and we rarely use it in speech. We now mainly use whom after prepositions (see 54.2).
3 We always use which (not who) to refer to inanimate objects. (For which to introduce a comment
clause> Unit 53.5).
4 In spoken English we can use that or who to refer to people.

s (For information on omitting pronouns in object defining relative clauses> Unit 53.2).

ACADEMIC ENGLISH In formal and academic English we use which rather than that in
defining relative clauses:
This report is based on the survey which was conducted by Shering and Beecham.
We can also use whose to refer to inanimate objects:
It would only be possible to colonise planets whose atmosphere contained enough oxygen to
sustain human life. (= the atmosphere of which)

2 Relative clauses with prepositions

We can use prepositions with relative pronouns. Their position depends on formality:
INFORMAL/NEUTRAL
Our clients, Mr and Mrs Thompson,
My grandparents lived in the My grandparentsdidn't own the
did not own the house in which
house but they didn't own it. house (which/that) they lived in.
they lived.
I'd like some information Do you have any information about The insuranceclaim to which you
about an insuranceclaim. the insuranceclaim (that/which) referred does not appear to be in
I referred to it in an email. I referred to in my email? our records.

A We do not put a preposition before the relative pronoun that:

)( They rJirJ1~'t ewn t:he heuse in t:hat the,• lived.
If we put a preposition before who, the pronoun always becomes whom:
The patients, among whom there were several immigrants, had to undergo a series of tests.
Compare:
The people who this report Ls addressed to will have to consider its proposals carefully.
The people to whom this report is addressed will have to consider its proposals carefully.

240
3 Relative clauses with where, when, and why
We can use these adverbs to introduce or replace relative clauses about places, times, etc:

ti-WM=• USE IN RELATIVE CLAUSES EXAMPLES

The house that Dickens The house where Dickens
instead of which/that wrote his later novels in wrote his later novels is
where* + a preposition to is now a school. now a school.
describeplaces This is the line on which This is the line where you
you sign your name. sign your name.
instead of that or I remember - it was the
I remember - it was the day
when on which to describe day that/on which the
when the heatwave staned.
times, days, years,etc. heatwave started.
instead of for+ which, High taxation is often the High taxation is often
why (usuallywith the noun main reason for which (the main reason) why
reason) governments fall. ovemments fall.
* In informal English we also use where with the meaning in which to describe a situation:
Have you seen the episode where the Hoppers' farm is destroyed in a fire?
I once saw an accident on the motorway where three people ended up going to hospital.
It is possible to use where, when and why without the noun to which they refer:
It's (the place) where that music festival is held every year.
I can't remember (the time) when I got home last night.
She's hyperactive. That's (the reason) why she can't concentrate.
We don't include a preposition in when or where clauses:
X Th6lt's the heuse wheff! Jg,-ew up in.

4 Prepositional phrases
In some cases we can use prepositional phrases to replace relative clauses:
Passengers who have Passengers with
instead of that/which/who+
with first-class tickets can first-class tickets can
have to describepossession
board now. board now.
in/at/on, instead of which/that+ be+ I've never seen the furniture I've never seen the
etc. preposition to describeposition which is in the attic. furniture in the attic.

what to introduce noun clauses>- Unit 57 .1

5 Modifying relative pronouns

We often use modifiers such as all of and many of before which or whom in a non­defining
relative clause to refer to the subject or object of the clause:
The supermarket withdrew all of its jars of tomato puree, several of which were found to contain
fragments of glass.
The renewable energy grants, half of which are provided by local government, will be available
from September.
The college entered over a hundred students for the exam, all of whom passed.
We interviewed fourteen applicants for the post, none of whom we thought suitable.

6 whichever, whenever, etc.

In defining relative clauses we can modify the pronoun or adverb with -ever to give the
meaning of anything, anyone, anywhere, etc:
Use whichever phone you want- they all have outside lines. (= any phone that)
Invite whoever you like to the party. (= any person who)
You can put the photo wherever you think it looks best. I don't mind. (= in any place where)

241
54 PRONOUNS, ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS IN REtATIVE CtAUSES

Practice
This is the palace i11 which /
1 Choose the correct words that I where King Philip Il
in italics. Sometimes two lived and died.
or three options are possible.

Julius Caesar was

the Roman general
whom I which I who
conquered Gaul.

Queen Victoria is the only

British monarch who had I
with I whose nine children.

9th November J 989 was
the day 011 which I when I
that the Berlin Wall fell.
rnDelfina
Potocka was the
Polish noblewoman
for whom I for who I
which Chopin wrote his
famous Minute Waltz.
Genghis Khan was a ruler
of whom I which his I whose
empire stretched from
China to the Middle East.

2 Rewrite the underlined parts of each sentence, using a word or phrase from the box and
any other words necessary.
into which at which many of which none of which whichever when whenever why where

O There are several delightful hotels in the area

that you may wish to stop at.
1 All the towels are clean so you can use
any of the towels that you like.
2 Do you know the reason
for her disappearance?
3 This is the spot
at which Lady lane Grey was executed.
4 We looked at five or six second­hand cars,
but there weren't any that were suitable.
S The children had no idea of the adventure
that their curiosity would Lead them into.
6 In Scotland, December 31st is a day
on which everybody has a party.
7 You can come and visit us
any time you want.
8 They have a great range of designer jackets ­
many of them are quite inexpensive.

242
3 Complete the article with suitable relative pronouns or adverbs, as in
the example. Use one word only. Clll!D Listen and check.
m
desperate call. This calls wakes up stepdaughter, for (6) he
>TV CHOICE> a man (3) most viewers attempts to keep the household
will recognise as Keith Allen - an together. His relationship with his
JACK OF HEARTS
actor (4) characters are wife, (7) seems to be a
9.00 p.m., BBC 1
usually villains on the wrong side short-tempered, moody woman.
Jack of Hearts is a new six-part
of the law. This time, however, he is further threatened later in the
drama series (0) ... .tMt. ... comes
is playing a hard-pressed probation series (8) she joins the
to our screens this week. It has
officer with a complicated staff of a college at (9) .
been given the prime Wednesday
professional and personal life, both. she is faced with a problem from
evening slot, (1) shows
of (5) form the main her past. Thus the ground is
that the network has faith in its
themes of the series. The writers prepared in this first episode for a
latest creation. The first episode
have managed to find a different series ( 10) may help to
opens to a scene (2) a
angle on his personal problems. At lift British summertime TV out of
young man is being chased. He
the centre of these problems is his its regular slump.
stops at a phone box and makes a

4 Find thirteen more mistakes in the text and correct them, as in the
example. CDB!Iil Listen and check.
Ta le o Conte S·

tourism whu.h
• Tourism today is an industry[has grown so much in recent years that in many
countries it provides the greatest single contribution to the country's revenue. But
is it always a good thing? Mass tourism which is a relatively recent phenomenon,
brings with it a whole raft of problems. First. it means that a country's economy
may rely on an industry who is wholly seasonal, with the consequence that the
huge numbers of people work in tourism during the season have no income
during the rest of the year. Some find wherever work they can, but others may
look for support from a government is already receiving lower revenues.
• Second, it is true that in many countries tourists are destroying the very sights
where they flock to see. They take home pieces of an ancient monument or of
a coral reef which will gradually result in erosion of the attractions and therefore
of the industry. While this kind of destruction may be wholly unintentional, a
certain type of tourist which wants only a 'good time' can be very destructive in a
different way: they behave badly, pick fights and often damage the hotel rooms
where they are staying in. Obviously, it is then this behaviour by that the local
community judges all members of that nationality, creating enmity rather than
fostering empathy, whose should be one of the main advantages of tourism.
• Finally, there are many places tourism is threatening a well-established way of
life: people that whose livelihoods traditionally come from older industries, such
as agriculture or fishing, are finding new jobs and wealth in the overdeveloped
tourist regions, but at what cost? It is sometimes difficult to understand the
reasons which for countries become involved with tourism.

C) Go online for more pr dct1u' 243

 1 Forms
There are several different participle forms in participle clauses:

simple (not) repaired

continuous (not) repairing (not) being repaired
perfect (not) having repaired (not) having been repaired

Using a password, I opened the email application. (Active: l used a password.)

Used with a password, the application offerscomplete security. (Passive: the application is used
by someone.)
State verbs, e.g. be, own, possess is- Unit 25.1), can be used in participle clauses:
X Ye!tmde is rid'I f/Rd is ewNing six herl'les. ./ Yolanda is rich, owning six homes.

2 Positioning and relationship with the subject

Participle clauses give information about a noun in the main clause, so they do not usually
contain a subject. The subject of the main clause acts as the subject of the participle clause:
Moaning with pain, the victim was examined by a young doctor. (The victim was moaning.)
A A participle clause at the beginning of a sentence cannot refer to the object of the
main clause:
)( ,!,'leaning wi#i pein, s ;·eung decwr extilmi1wd the victim.
(This would mean that the young doctor was moaning, not the victim.)
In formal written English the participle clause can have a subject which is related to the
subject of the main clause, but which isn't exactly the same:
Horns locked, the two stags struggle for supremacy. (The horns belong to the stags.)
I crouched i11 the alleyway, my eyes straining in the darkness. (My eyes are part of me.)
For rules about subjects and objects in reduced relative clauses> Unit 55.5

3 Clausesof time and sequence with -ing participle

We usually use these clauses when two actions happen at around the same time:
Turning the corner, we saw the hospital in front of us.
(= As we were turning the corner we saw the hospital in front of us.)
In written English an -ing participle clause often describes the setting or background:
Living in Los Angeles, Brad was 011e of those ever-optimistic movie wannabes.
Standing alone in the desert, the huge pyramid dominated the landscape.

244
 If one action happened before another, we usually use a perfect participle clause for the
earlier action. This can go before or after the main clause:
Having finished his coffee, Versace began to walk back to his house.
= Versace began to walk back to his house, having finished his coffee.
We can also use prepositions in front of -ing participles:
On entering the darkened room, we noticed a strange figure huddled in tire comer.
(= As we entered the room ... )
After swallowing the pill, Edward lay down and tried to get some rest.

4 Participle clauses for reason, condition and result

-
Provided that the subject of BOTH clauses is the same, we can use participle clauses to
replace clauses of reason, condition and result. We often do this in writing:
FULL CLAUSE
She will be unable to answer your queries Not being qualified, she will be unable
becauseshe is not qualified. to answeryour queries.
As I hadn't been asked, I didn't really want Not having been asked, I didn't really
reason1 want to interfere.
to interfere
I had to borrow a set of keys from my landlord Having forgotten to take my keys,
becauseI'd forgotten to take mine. I had to borrow a set from my landlord.
condition If you treat it gently, the teb:« should last for If treated/Treated gently, the fabric
years. should last for years.
The corporation shut down the plant, with the The corporation shut down the plant,
result' result that many workers were left unemployed. leaving many workers unemployed.
I We often use the perfect participle because a reason or cause usually comes before a result.
2 Note that the result is often not intended: I stayed at work rather late, missing my last train home.

5 Reduced relative clauses

Participle clauses are an efficient way of giving more information about a noun and
can often be used to replace a defining relative clause (>­ Unit 53.2). We call these
reduced relative clauses. Compare these examples:
The man who lives upstairs is very noisy. (defining relative clause)
­+ The man living upstairs is very noisy. (active participle phrase)
They haven't identified the body which was found in the Thames. (defining relative dause)
-+ They haven't identified the body found in the Thames. (passive participle phrase)
Unlike participle clauses, in reduced relative clauses we put the noun we are describing in
front of the participle and we do not use commas to separate the clause from the rest of
the sentence.
We can only use participles in this way when the subject of the main clause and the
relative clause is the same. We cannot use a reduced relative clause if there is another
subject between the relative pronoun and the verb:
X The hettse lll'i.'lg in is r:eelly eld. ./ The house which we live in is really old.
In reduced relative clauses we only use an -ing form when we are describing a continuing
action or situation. We can't use an -ing form for a single completed action or with
state verbs:
X The thie(hlking her beg !ms heen 6/ffes~ .
./ The thief who took her bag has been arrested. (single completed action)
X The pelice ere iw,•estigfl:ting the ,'nRn ewning the hHrnt eut facwry .
./ The police are investigating the man who owns the burnt-out factory. (state verb)
We use commas around reduced non­defining relative clauses:
The college, founded in the nineteenth century, became a university i11 the 1930s.
Cl Pronunciation >­ 1. 17

245
55 PARTICIPLE CLAUSES

Practice
1 Choose the best participle forms from A-G to complete the sentences. There is one extra
form. Cl'IIDListen and check.

A giVlng C not giving E being given G given

B not having been given D having been given F having given
1 The best part ..... to another actor, Josh felt unwilling to continue in the show.
2 I've always treasured the watch ..... to me on my eighteenth birthday.
3 The police officers stood at either end of the hallway, ..... Ray no chance of escape.
4 ..... our tickets to the attendant, we were ushered into the antechamber of the tomb.
5 We are dividing up the grant according to need, the largest amount ..... to the homeless.
6 ..... one month's notice by the landlord, the tenant was able to stay on in the house.

2 Use the information in the chart to write sentences, using a participle clause, as in
the example.

action/reason result/further information

0 Hilary got a job in a cate. She was able to make lots of new friends.
1 I wasn't very fit. I was unable to finish the marathon.
2 I left my keys at the office. I couldn't get into my flat last night.
3 Manuela hasn't got a visa. She can't travel to the USA.
4 They got home early. They found the place had been burgled.
5 The old house had been restored by experts. It regained its former glory.
6 Dave and Maria's children had left home. They felt they should move to a smaller house.

o H~0-.f;l!}.,g.qt..~. .i#1.. ~~-~-.e:~ •.. Hitf'!r.Y..~M.f..~~~~.t~.~4..~:?r .. o.f.~Wfi.:f.0.I.!, .

1 ·············································································································································
2 ..
3
4 ·············································································································································
s
6 .

3 Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the underlined phrase with a suitable participle
clause, as in the example.

O As they hadn't been arrested, they were able to leave the police station .
. t-J.qt.. ~0-.~. -~~!'!-. f'!!'X~t~ •. l~Y.. ~~"."~.~kt~. t~. J~Y.~. !~ .P..~!~i;... ~t-~~.'1:- .
1 She fell asleep while she sat in the armchair.

2 Because Ican speak Finnish I managed to follow their conversation.

3 So far nobody has claimed the money which we discovered under the floorboards.

4 After he had moved out, Danny found it difficult to find a nice place to stay.

246
 s If you leave it for too long, oil paint will form a skin.

6 The sea was very rough, which made me feel sick.

7 As I am not very good with figures I'll let you do the accounts.

8 This is a house which has been built to last forever.

4 GRAMMAR IN USE Complete the text with participleclauses, using _the words in brackets.
If a participleclause is not possible, use a relative clause. CIIEll listen and check.

Amelia Earhart
AMELIA EARHART GREW UP IN KANSAS, in a middle-class family.
(O) .G.m<i(~#.~.!rM1·.. h:i&.l:t:.!.~h9.q.l.. ~!1-..!1!~ .. (graduate I
from high school in 1916), she began her first job at Spadna
Military Hospital, ( 1) (work /
as a nursing assistant). Most of the patients were soldiers
(2) (wound/ in World War I).
In 1918 she contracted Spanish influenza and became a patient
herself. Later, (3) (recover), she travelled to
California to join her parents, (4) (move there).
(5) (visit/ an airfield) in Long Beach in 1920,
Amelia was offered a ten-minute flight with her father and she fell in
love with the idea of becoming a pilot. (6) (work/
as a photographer), a truck driver and stenographer, she managed to save up the $1,000
that it cost to take flying lessons. On May 15th, 1923, she was granted a pilot's licence.
On June 17th, 1928, Amelia flew from Newfoundland and arrived at Burry Port in Wales
20 hours later, (7) (become/ the first woman) to fly
across the Atlantic Ocean. When Earhart and her companions returned, they were given a
reception by the President, (8) (receive them) at the White House.
Earhart was determined to do the flight again, but this time on her own. On May 20th,
1932, at the age of thirty-two, she set off from Newfoundland, (9) .
(land I at Culmore), Northern Ireland fifteen hours later.

Early in 1937, (10) (buy I a Lockheed Electra 1 OE),

Earhart started planning a round-the-world flight. She left Miami on June 1st,
(11) (head I south-east). After stops in South America and elsewhere
the plane landed in New Guinea on June 29th, (12) .
(cover about 35,000 kilometres). The final part of the journey would be over the Pacific
Ocean. (13) (leave/ New Guinea) on July 2nd, Earhart and her
navigator Fred Noonan headed for Howland Island in the Pacific. But their plane failed to
arrive and no trace of Earhart was ever found. For years people have advanced theories
about her disappearance but the most likely is that the plane, (14) .
(run out/ of fuel), simply crashed into the sea.

C) Go onl1ne for more prr1ct1ce 247

56 Infinitiveclauses
1 Form and use
An infinitive clause can act as the subject or complement of the verb be:
To reach the top is their aim. Their aim is to reach the top.
We use for with an infinitive clause if the subject of the infinitive is not the same as the
subject of the sentence:

-
X /tick's tiim is his team &3 wi.'1. ./ f.ack's aim is for his team to win.
We can use the following infinitive forms:
ACTIVE INFINITIVE PASSIVE INFINITIVE

simple (not) ro mend (not) to be mended

continuous (not) to be mending (not) to be being mended
perfect (not) to have mended (not) to have been mended
We use the perfect infinitive for an event that happened before the event in the main clause:
Her greatest claim to fame is to have been chosen for the last Olympic squad.
(She is famous now because she was chosen in the past.)
Sentences with an infinitive clause as their subject can sound rather formal. In speech we
usually prefer impersonal it(>- Unit 43.5) or an -ing form(> Unit 46.1):
7' k [ri d hi . d'ffi It It's difficult to keep up a friendship.
to ·eep up a en s ip ts I cu . ­+ Keeping
• up a fr.ten dsl11p · d.ffi
· IS It
, cu .

FORMALITY CHECK ln spoken English we can also use some specific expressions followed
by an infinitive clause to comment on the information in the main clause:
To tell the truth, l found the exhibition disappointing. I'm not keen on spicy food, to be honest.
To cut a long story short, he's left home.

2 Defining clauses
We can use an infinitive clause to identify or classify a person or thing in the main clause,
in a similar way to a defining relative clause O­ Unit 53.2). We can do this after a
superlative, an ordinal number (e.g. first), or one, next, last and only:
The youngest person to enter the programme was just fourteen.
(= Tbe youngest person that entered ... )
The window seat is usually the first one to be taken. (= the first one which is taken)
Linda was the only one to stay for the whole performance. (= the only one who stayed ... )
We don't usually use an infinitive clause to replace relative clauses containing modal verbs,
because the meaning would not be clear:
[He's the only player to save the team from defeat.] (could mean 'who saved' or 'who will save')
./ He's the only player who might save the team from defeat.

3 Purpose and result clauses

We often use an infinitive clause to describe a deliberate purpose or aim. This is the
infinitive of purpose (>­ Unit 45.4):
Davy took a year out to travel and see the world.
ACADEMIC ENGLISH Infinitives of purpose are common in academic English:
Dickins ended each episode with a cliffhanger to encourage readers to buy the next edition.
We can use an infinitive to describe a result or something unexpected, especially with
only and verbs such as find, discover, realise, etc. (>­ Unit 45.4):
Mike rushed out, only to realise he'd forgotten his keys.
Lizzie rejoined her friends, only to discover that Mr Darcy had teft:
Infinitives after verbs, nouns and adjectives >­ Units 45 and 46

248
 Practice
m
1 Complete the famous quotations, using suitable infinitive forms of verbs from the box,
as in the example.
not be do forgive !eve live not take

0 'It is better ..... l9 .. MY.tr..l.qY~ and lost than never to have loved at all.' (Lord Tennyson)
1 'To err is human, , divine.' (Alexander Pope)
2 'To be, or , that is the question.' (William Shakespeare)
3 'One never notices what has been done; one can only see what remains
................................ '(Marie Curie)
4 'One should eat , not live to eat.' (Moliere)
5 'An intelligence test sometimes shows a man how smart he would have been
............................... it.' (Laurence J Peter)
2 GRAMMAR IN USE Find and correct five more mistakes in this text which should be replaced
with infinitive forms. cmm
Listen and check.

In the middle of the seventeenth century Louis XIV decided to build

to Jt,(.rrOt,(.11# . · h f
a vast new garden surreuAEl 1t his new palace at Versailles. T e irst
person to be asking to look at the site was his favourite architect,
Andre Le Notre. Le Notre arrived at Versailles only he discovered a thick
forest with uneven ground and an inadequate water supply. It was a
great honour to had been choose for such a task, but it is not difficult
to understand Le Notre's reluctance to take on such a challenge - the
main water basin alone is 1.5 kilometres long, and there are dozens of
fountains, statues and avenues. It was the first garden that designed
on such a large scale, and took more than forty years for building.
When Le Notre died, in 1700, the garden was still incomplete.

3 Complete the second sentence so it has a similar meaning to the first, using appropriate
infinitive forms. am
Listen and check.
1 The first person that arrives in the office in the mornings is usually Gary.
Gary is usually in the mornings.
2 Celia's major regret is that she had never made more of her musical abilities.
Never is Celia's major regret.
3 The company launched an advertising campaign with the aim of increasing its
market share.
The company its market share.
4 Finding the old house in such a derelict state came as a great shock.
It came as in such a derelict state.
5 They will probably sell the ground floor flat first.
They expect the ground floor flat .
6 The town hall was one of the few buildings that hadn't been destroyed in the earthquake.
The town hall was one of the few in the earthquake.

249
57 Noun clauses and
other noun structures
Machiavelli is a well-known character from Italian
political history, although he is more famous for
what he wrote than for what he did.

1 Noun clauses
A noun clause can start with that,
if/whether or a wh- word.
The clause acts like a noun:
Did you notice that she lett early?(= Did you notice he.r early departure?)
He asked if I intended to leave. (= He asked my intentions.)
I'll never understand why he did it. (= I'll never understand his reasons [tor doing it].)
These clauses are common in spoken English as noun phrases can sound rather formal:
Please inform us of your final decision. (formal)
Let us know if you want to go ahead. (informal)
Because a noun clause acts like a noun, it can be the subject or object of a verb:
What they did doesn't interest me. I'm not interested in what they did.
We can use what, where, when, why, who and how to introduce a wh- noun clause:
••i·l•iefeieiiiW:'
j
1 was quite shocked by his behaviour. -+ I was quite shocked by what he did.
I I
The school isn't far from our home. -+ The school isn't far from where we live.
I I
The label doesn't say the name of the painter. -+ The label doesn't say who painted it.
More on clauses withwhere, when, etc. > Unit 54.3
What usually means the thing(s) (that). We can use a what clause to replace a noun +
defining relative clause if the noun we are referring to is clear from the context:
Tell us about the event (that) you witnessed.>+ Tell us about what you saw.
I'm afraid the dish (that) I like isn't on the menu. -+ I'm afraid what I like isn't on the menu.
We don't include the noun in a what clause:
~ 1t was the mener w.'utt I wonted, net the fame .
./ It was the money (that) I wanted, not the fame.
OR The money was what I wanted, not the fame. (= the thing that I wanted)

2 Comparison clauses with nouns

We can compare nouns which refer to amounts by using more, less and fewer. A clause be­
ginning with than can be added after the noun:
Now that we've built the extension, our house has a lot more space than it used to.
Property taxes usually produce less income than customs duties do.
Due to the congestion charge there are fewer cars in central London than there were previously.
We can also make superlative forms using the most/the least/the fewest+ noun:
The most time you should spend on the running machine is twenty minutes.
The exam papers with the fewest mistakes will gain the highest marks.
We use fewer/fewestwith plural nouns and less/least with uncountable nouns, although in
casual speech less is sometimes used with both:
This checkout is for customers with fewer than five items.
Jt would taste better if you used less salt than you did this time.
lit doesn't seem very busy. Do you think there are less people here today than there are usually?l
More on less> Unit 14.2 More on few> Unit 8.2

250
 Practice
m
1 Complete each sentence with one word only. Do not use the same word more than once.

1 Modem cars use fuel than the old ones did.

2 I don't know her address ­ I've got no idea she Lives these days.
3 If you want to pass the test, you'll have to make mistakes next time.
4 they did with the money is still a mystery.
5 Do you know the boss wants to see me?
6 Caroline never explained she made all that money.
7 Since his retirement Silvio has had time to spend in the garden.
8 l only voted for him because he was the irritating of the candidates.

2 GRAMMAR IN USE Replace each underlined phrase with a wh- noun clause, using the words
in brackets, as in the example. CDDII Listen and check.

Isaac Newton
In 1687 the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton published a book
entitled Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. At the
time few people fully understood (0) the suggestions in the book
(what/suggest). Nonetheless, the book was hugely influential and
made Newton famous around the world, although fame was not
(1) his intention (what/want). Newton's theories were based on
mathematics and (2) his observations of (what/see) in the world
around him. He noticed that all objects, heavy or light, fell to
the ground. He wanted to explain (3) the reasons for this
(why/happen). His theory of gravity provided a revolutionary
explanation of (4) the movement of different objects
(how I different objects I move). (5) The ideas in his book
(what/write) became the basis for much of our understanding
of physics and the processes which govern relationships between
physical objects.

0 .'1h-~t..t.~ ..~,q~~.!.~~tt;l .. 2 .. 4 .
1 . 3 5

3 Find and correct six mistakes in these sentences. Tick (./) the correct sentences.
1 lt's raining so there are less children in the park than usual.
2 I couldn't believe the ridiculous reason what they gave for their behaviour.
3 I'll only accept that promotion if it pays more money than I'm getting now.
4 We weren't very close so we didn't hear that she said very clearly.
5 You should see where she lives ­ it's amazing!
6 It's quite a good novel, but very similar to the one what he published two years ago.
7 Who she married hardly matters any more, does it?
8 Darren won because he took the fewest time to complete the task.
9 The explanation what the suspect gave didn't convince the detective.
10 Let's meet at the Luna cafe ­ it's close to where I work.

<!) Go online for more pr act1ce and cl progress te\t 251

 Review MODULE 12
1 UNITS 53 AND 54 Correct the mistakes in these sentences.

1 Emperor Charles V who ruled over Spain in the sixteenth century had only one son.
2 That's the vintage car she's spent so much money on it.
3 I've thrown away most of the clothes wore when I was a teenager.
4 Do you know the woman who her children are always playing football in the street?
5 That's a question which for the company has no answer, I'm afraid.
6 The director refused to take my call which was really annoying.
7 What you need is the cable, that connects the computer to the printer.
8 You can collect the new bag, when you see my sister, which cost a lot of money.
9 It isn't very clear to who you are referring in this recent correspondence.
10 Do you have any idea for why she hasn't responded to our various offers?

2 Use infinitive and/or participle clauses to rewrite this extract from a TV

listings magazine in a more natural way. Change the underlined parts, as in the example.
You may have to change the word order.
Movie of the week

The Godfather
(O) It dates from 1971 and and duty, Pacino's character
( 1) was directed by Francis embodies the moral dilemma at
Ford Coppola, The Godfather the heart of the movie.
won three Oscars. (2) The film (6) The director intersperses long
lasts almost three hours and is scenes of family life with shorter
Shakespearean in its scope and sequences of extreme violence in
ambition. It is the story of a New order to achieve his aim of taking
York mafia family (3) which is the audience on an emotional
headed by Marlon Brando as the rollercoaster ride.
'godfather'. (7) Because it was shot in explicit
Although Brando has the title role detail, this violence may shock
it is Al Pacino, (4) who plays his some viewers. But anyone
troubled son and heir Michael, (8) who is prepared to put up
who steals the show in a masterly with this will enjoy a unique
dramatic experience. In fact, for
many people The Godfather is the
greatest American film (9) which
had been made in the 1970s .

. P..ort.i':18. fr.~ m-.. 117.1 .

...................................................................................................................................................
········································ ··········································································································
···················································································································································
···· ·· ···················································•·············· ·························································•··············
....... ...........................................................................................................................................
·················· ······················· ···························································•············································
........... ................. ....................... ................................................ ............................................
···················································································································································
················ ··· ······· ···························································•···················································•······

252
3 UNITS 55, 56 AND 57 Complete the second sentence so it has a similar meaning to the first.
Use three to six words, including the word in brackets.
m
1 Martin is always a great asset at any party because he is so charming. (being)
......................................................................................... always a great asset at any party.
2 This is the only hotel in which they don't charge for Internet access. (to)
This is the only hotel for Internet access.
3 I took a short computing course following my graduation from college. (having)
................................................................................................... a short computing course.
4 I'll never forget the things that I saw that night. (what)
........................................................................................................ is impossible to forget.
5 As she threw open the windows, Mary said, 'There's nothing like fresh air! (throwing)
'There's nothing like fresh air!' the windows.
6 There wouldn't be as many accidents if traffic was reduced. (less)
If there was as many accidents.

•
Amanda
I'm writing an essay on Catherine the Great. Can anyone
give me any information? I know she was one of Russian's
greatest rulers, but was she the first woman (1) ..... Russia?
14.30 Wednesday 9 May

a
Carlos
Catherine wasn't Russian, she was German, (2) ..... is rather surprising. She married
The Grand Duke Paul, (3) ..... was the grandson of Peter the Great. Her husband became
Tsar in 1762 but died shortly afterwards, (4) ..... Catherine as the ruling empress.
15.21 Wednesday 9 May

I've been to the palace (5) she lived - the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo. It certainly
~ gives you an idea of (6) powerful she was. Catherine was a great patron of the arts.
Tasmin The huge art collection (7) during her lifetime is now the basis of the Hermitage
Museum in St Petersburg.
II .. .. .. ,.7.:.,.5..."".~.~~~5.~~-~ 9...~~~.. . .. . .. . .. .
Catherine was a very important political figure in the eighteenth century. She started as a
liberal, (8) ..... more conservative as she grew older. She made important changes to the
Leo system of government but (9) ..... Russia's borders was her main ambition. Catherine wasn't
the only woman (10) ..... Russia; there were several other powerful women leaders in
Russian history.
09.42 Thursday 10 May

1 A ruling B ruled C to rule 7 A built up B building up C build up

2 A that B which C what 8 A became B becoming C to become
3 A whom 8 who C that 9 A expanding B the expansion
4 A leaving B who left C that left C expanded
5 A which B where C that 10 A governing B governed C to govern
6 A what B how much C how

C) (JO Oi1l1IH' for d/1 l'XI( test 253