ELECTRICAL PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Generator Protection

12.1 Introduction

Generator is the most important and costly equipment in a power system. It is subjected
to more possible types of troubles than any other equipment because it is accompanied by
several sub-systems like:

1) Prime mover

2) Excitation system

3) Cooling System

4) Rotating parts

5) Unit transformer.

The desire to protect against all abnormalities and yet to keep the protection simple and
reliable has resulted in considerable diversions of opinions on the choice of protection.

The choice must be carefully made since inadvertent operation of the relays is almost as
serious as failure to operate. This is because unnecessary disconnection of a large
generator may overload rest of the system and could cause collapse of the whole system.
On the other hand, failure to clear a fault promptly may cause extensive damage to the
generator.

Another difficulty is the fact that unlike other equipments, opening a breaker to isolate a
defective generator is not sufficient to prevent further damage since the generator will
continue to supply power to a stator winding fault until its field excitation has been
suppressed.

It is therefore necessary to remove the field, shut off the steam/water/fuel supply to prime
mover along with opening of generator circuit breaker. Further more, CO2 is passed into
some large machines to extinguish any burning of insulation which might have started by
a fault arc and fanned by rotor movement.

12.2 Faults / Abnormalities

Generally, abnormal conditions/faults can be categorised as follows:

1) External faults.

2) Internal faults.

3) Excitation system faults.

4) Over voltages.

5) Miscellaneous faults.

12.2.1 External faults

External faults can be categorised as follows:

1) Single phase to ground or multi-phase short circuit.

2) Overloading.

3) Unbalanced loading.

12.2.1.1 Single phase to ground or multi-phase short circuit

During external faults, with a large short circuit current, severe mechanical stress will be
imposed on the stator winding apart from the temperature rise. The temperature rise is
however relatively slow and dangerous temperature levels could be encountered in about
10 seconds.

With asymmetrical faults, severe vibrations and overheating of the rotor may occur.

The overcurrent and earth fault protection or impedance type back up protection of a
generator provides back up protection to these external faults. The primary protections
against these faults are provided by protective devices of respective equipments of the
external network viz., transformers, lines, bus bars, etc.

Complete machine is shutdown by the actuation of this protection i.e., switching OFF the
generator circuit breaker, field circuit breaker and the prime mover.

12.2.1.2 Overloading

Continuous overloading may increase the winding temperature to such an extent that
insulation of stator winding may get damaged or its life reduced.

Temperature rise can also be caused by failure of the cooling system.

The overcurrent protection is generally set at a higher value and hence it can not sense
continuous overload of less value neither it can sense failure of the cooling system.

In machines, thermocouples and resistance thermometers are embedded in the stator slots
and the cooling system to identify these abnormalities.

An alarm is initiated by actuation of the first stage of this protection so that corrective
actions (reduction of load, revival of cooling system) can be taken.

If no corrective action is effected, second stage of this protection operates to switch OFF
the generator circuit breaker.
12.2.1.3 Unbalanced loading

Continuous unbalanced loads, equal to or more than 10% of rated current will cause
dangerous heating of the cylindrical rotor of a turbo generator.

Salient pole rotors in hydro generators often include damper windings and are less
affected by unbalanced loading.

Unbalanced loading of generators can be due to unsymmetrical faults in the system,

maloperation of circuit breaker ( i.e., all three phases have not been closed ) resulting
single phasing in the down stream system.

Negative phase sequence protection provides protection against these faults. Generator
breaker is switched OFF by the actuation of this protection.

12.2.2 Internal faults

Internal faults include :

1. Stator faults

2. Rotor faults

12.2.2.1 Stator faults

Stator faults can be further categorised as follows:

1) Phase to earth faults.

2) Phase to phase faults.

3) Inter-turn faults.

4) Lamination faults.

Phase to phase and inter-turn faults are less common. Detection of interturn faults is
difficult.

12.2.1.1 Phase to earth faults

An internal phase to earth fault involves armature winding and iron core. It is a very
serious matter because the arc generated may melt the laminations of the iron core, which
may necessitate rebuilding of the core. The damage is directly related to earth fault
current which depends on the value of the neutral earthing resistor.

With fault current less than 20A, negligible burning of the core will result if the machine
is tripped fast. The repair work thereto amounts to changing the damaged coil without
restacking the core laminations.

If, however, the earthing resistor is selected to pass much larger current (>100 A), severe
burning of the stator core will take place necessitating restacking of laminations.

Even when a high speed differential protection is used, severe damage may be caused.

Circulating current differential protection is provided to guard against these faults.

However, the sensitivity of such a protection for earth faults depend upon the resistance
in neutral to earth connection and position of earth fault in the winding.

Earth fault in a winding must, therefore, be cleared quickly by complete shutdown of the
generator, i.e. by shutting OFF the prime mover, generator circuit breaker and field
circuit breaker (the field is opened and de-energised by field suppression).
12.2.2.1.2 Phase to phase faults

Short circuit between the stator windings very rarely occurs because the insulation in a
slot between coils of different phases is at least twice as large as the insulation between
one coil and the iron core. However, a phase to earth fault may cause a phase to phase
fault within the slot. Phase to phase fault occurs most likely at the end connections of the
armature winding, i.e. in the overhang outside the slots.

Fault of this nature causes severe arcing with high temperature, melting the copper. The
risk of fire is also high if the insulation is not made of fire-resistant and non-flammable
materials. Since these currents do not pass via stator core, the laminations will not be
particularly damaged. The repair work may therefore be limited to replacing the affected
coils and mechanical parts of end structures.

Circulating current biased differential protection is provided to guard against these faults.

Phase to phase fault in a winding must be cleared quickly by complete shutdown of

generator, i.e. by shutting OFF the prime mover, generator circuit breaker and field
circuit breaker (the field is opened and de-energised by field suppression).

12.2.2.1.3 Interturn faults

Short circuit between the turns of one coil may occur if the stator winding is made of
multiturn coils. Such faults may develop owing to incoming current surges with a steep
wave front which may cause high voltage equal to Ldi/dt across the turns at the end of the
stator winding.

If, however, the stator winding is made up of a single turn coil, with only one coil per
slot, it is of course impossible to have an interturn fault. If there are two coils per slot, the
insulation between the coils is of such a dimension that an inter-turn fault is not likely to
occur.
In large generators (>50 MVA), interturn protection is often unnecessary because there is
only one turn per phase per slot. The greatest value of this fault protection is for a
generator with its neutral ungrounded or grounded through high impedance because here
an interturn fault would otherwise have to burn through another phase before it causes
any relay operation.

Differential protection and overcurrent protection do not sense interturn faults.

Stator internal fault protection relays are used to detect stator interturn faults.

Complete machine i.e. prime mover, generator circuit breaker and field system are shut
off by actuation of this relay.

12.2.2.1.4 Lamination Fault

Stator overheating protection is used to sense these faults.

12.2.2.1.5 Ventilation failure

Ventilation failure is caused due to choking of cooling tubes resulting in improper

circulation of cooling medium.

These may cause overheating of the stator and overheating protection is used to detect
this fault, which compares the inlet & outlet temperatures of the cooling medium.

12.2.2.2 Rotor Faults

Rotor faults can be categorised as follows :

1) Rotor conductor to earth fault.

2) Rotor interturn fault.

3) Open circuit fault.

12.2.2.2.1 Rotor conductor to earth fault

The rotor circuit is normally not connected to the earth so that a single earth fault does
not give rise to any fault current.

A second earth fault will short circuit a part of the winding and may thereby produce an
unsymmetrical field system, giving unbalanced force on the rotor. Such a force will cause
excess pressure on bearings and shaft distortion if not cleared quickly. It may also cause
local heating which may slowly distort the rotor causing dangerous eccentricity. This also
can cause vibration and severe damage.

Rotor earth fault protection is provided to guard against these faults.

Generally, on first rotor earth fault, annunciation will be actuated and on second rotor
earth fault the complete machine is shut down by shutting of generator circuit breaker,
prime mover and field circuit breaker (the field is opened and de-energised by field
suppression) .

12.2.2.2.2 Rotor Inter turn Fault

An interturn fault will cause local heating and unsymmetrical field system described
earlier.

12.2.2.2.3 Open circuit Fault

Rotor open circuits are very rare but, if one occurs it must be dealt with promptly because
ensuing arc may cause damage by burning.

An impedance relay is utilised to guard against such faults. An impedance relay will
however, be effective for parallel operated generators but not during isolated operation.

12.2.3 Excitation System Faults

Excitation system faults can be caused by faulty field breaker or by failure of automatic
voltage regulator. The ultimate effect of this is the loss of field or operation of generator
at an undesired point which may or may not be harmful to the generator.

When generator running in parallel with other generators or the grid loses its field, it
speeds up slightly and acts as an induction generator. Turbo alternators tend to overheat
the rotor and the slot wedges under these conditions because of slip frequency currents
induced in these parts; sometimes arcing occurs in the metal wedges of the slots.
Furthermore, the wattless current that the machine draws from system as magnetising
current may overheat the stator.

Large machine running out of step with the system as induction generator may upset the
system stability.

Loss of field protection is provided to guard against this fault. On actuation of this
protection only generator circuit breaker is shut off.

12.2.4 Over-voltages

Internally generated and externally imposed over-voltages can appear across the
generator terminals while in operation. They are :

1) Atmospheric Surge Voltages.

2) Switching Surges.

3) Arcing grounds.

12.2.4.1 Atmospheric Surge Voltages

These are caused by direct lightning strokes on the aerial lines of the HV system. Induced
and capacitively transferred surges can reach generator terminals.
To protect generator from severe voltage surges, lightning arrestors and surge capacitors
are often used. In case of machines directly connected to distribution network comprising
overhead lines, surge protective devices are of prime importance.

12.2.4.2 Switching Surges

Switching operations may cause relatively high transient over-voltages if restriking

occurs across the contacts of circuit breakers. They may be limited by using modern
restrike free circuit breakers.

Lightning arrestors installed between a generator and its circuit breaker assist in reducing
switching surges.

12.2.4.3 Arcing Grounds

The amplitude of transient voltages during arcing grounds may theoretically, under the
most unfavourable condition of arc striking, reach a value of 5 times normal line to
neutral peak voltage.

By means of resistance earthing of the generator neutral, this over-voltage can be reduced
to a maximum value of about 2.5 times the rated peak voltage.

12.2.5 Miscellaneous Faults

These include the following faults :

1) Loss of Synchronism.

2) Loss of prime mover i.e. Motoring.

3) Wrong synchronisation.

4) Under frequency.

5) Over frequency.
6) Over-speeding.

7) Excessive bearing temperature.

8) Bearing current.

9) Abnormal vibrations.

12.2.5.1 Loss of Synchronism

A generator may lose synchronism with the power system because of a severe system
fault or due to operation at a high load with a leading power factor and hence a relatively
weak field.

In this condition the machine is subjected to violent oscillations of torque, with wide
variation of current, power and power factor. If the angular displacement of the rotor
exceeds the stable limit, the rotor will slip a pole pitch. Synchronism can be regained if
the load is sufficiently reduced or the disturbance is removed very fast, but if these do not
occur within a few seconds, it is necessary to isolate the generator.

12.2.5.2 Loss of prime mover i.e. Motoring

Motoring of generator will occur if the driving torque of the prime mover is reduced
below the total losses of generator, due to failure of the prime mover or failure of the
governor. Active power will then be drawn from network in order to maintain
synchronous running and generator will work as synchronous motor.

In case of turbo-generators, superheated steam flowing through the turbine acts as the
coolant to the turbine blades. If steam supply is reduced sufficiently, the heating caused
by turbulence of trapped steam while generator is motoring, can detemper and damage
turbine blades. Moreover, the entrapped steam may condense on the turbine blades
causing damage to the blades.
In turbo-generators, where a reduction gear is utilised, power transmitted through this
gear changes the face of gear teeth while motoring, which may not be designed for power
transmission and hence causing damage to the gear.

In case of DG sets, the prime mover failure may result in severe mechanical damage.
Besides, the unburnt gases in the process of combustion may cause explosion and fire.

Reverse power relay is used to guard against this fault.

12.2.5.3 Wrong Synchronisation

Present day requirements stipulate that a generator must be short circuit proof. However,
with low reactance of the network and the unit connected transformer, in event of wrong
synchronisation the current can be higher than under short circuit conditions. This is not
permissible. In other words, wrong synchronisation must not occur.

Synchro-check relay and synchro-check guard relay are utilised to prevent the possibility
of wrong synchronisation.

However, any modification in synchronising circuitry is to be viewed seriously to avoid

wrong synchronisation.

12.2.5.4 Under Frequency

Steam turbines comprise several stages of turbine blades of varying lengths, shapes and
natural frequencies of vibrations. The design is such that at synchronous speed , the
vibrations are within limits. Off-frequency operation of a turbine under loaded condition
increases the vibrational stresses on the turbine blades and may eventually damage them.

Under frequency operation of turbine generator was studied and following limits were
established.

1) A reduction of frequency of 1% would not have any effect on turbine blades.

2) A reduction in frequency of 2% for about 90 minutes would result in damage.

3) A reduction in frequency of 3% for about 10 - 15 minutes would result in damage.

4) A reduction in frequency of 4% for a period of 1 minute could result in damage.

The above limits are applicable to a particular machine. For actual limits the
manufacturer's data is to be referred.

Under frequency relay is provided to guard against these abnormal conditions.

12.2.4.5 Over Frequency

Over frequency operations also has similar limits which can be obtained by mirror image
graph.

Over frequency relay is provided to guard against this abnormal condition.

12.2.4.6 Over-speeding

Over-speeding may occur as a result of a fault in turbine governor or its associated

equipments while running in isolation. Overspeed can also be caused due to ' load throw
off ' in isolated condition.

Modern governors are designed to avoid dangerous overspeeding even in case of 100 %
sudden load throw off.

Prime-movers are provided with mechanical overspeed devices to guard against this
abnormal conditions. In conjunction, over frequency relay can be considered as a
protection against this condition.

12.2.4.7 Excessive Bearing Temperature

It may arise due to mechanical faults, impurities in lubricating oil or defects in the
lubrication system.
This fault may be detected by means of temperature monitoring devices embedded in
bearing.

12.2.4.8 Bearing Current

An induced electromotive force of some volts may be developed in the shaft of a

generator owing to certain magnetic dissimilarities in the armature field. If the bearing
pedestals at each side of generator end are earthed, the induced emf will be impressed
across the thin oil film of bearings. A breakdown of oil film insulation in two bearings
can give rise to heavy bearing currents owing to very small resistance of shaft and
external circuit thus developed, causing damage to the bearings.

Consequently, the bearing pedestal farthest from the prime mover is usually insulated
from earth. Further, to prevent rotor and shaft being electrostatically charged, the shaft is
usually earthed via slip ring brush arrangement, at the nearest end of the prime mover.

12.2.4.9 Abnormal Vibrations

These may occur owing to unbalanced loads or certain types of mechanical faults.
Vibration detectors are usually mounted on generator bearing pedestals.

12.3 Overcurrent and earthfault protection

With an automatic voltage regulator (AVR) used with the machine, the sustained fault
current would be higher than maximum load current. A simple attracted armature
electromagnetic type of overcurrent relay in conjunction with a definite time delay relay
is used to protect the generator. The overcurrent setting may be 125% to 150% of full
load current and definite time may be 3 to 6 seconds. Sometimes, 3 such units, one in
each phase are used and sometimes, only one relay in any one phase with a phase
unbalance is used.

Instead of attracted armature with a definite time delay, IDMTL relay can be used for a
generator with an AVR. It is set about 120% of full load current of the generator.
For generators not fitted with AVR, the sustained fault current fed by the generator on an
external fault may be less than the maximum load current. In this case, a voltage
restrained or a voltage controlled inverse time provides the necessary protection.

For direct connected generators, voltage restrained or voltage controlled over current
relays are more commonly used as back up protection against external uncleared faults.
These are time co-ordinated with the down steam back up protection with adequate
grading margin.

In case of generators, connected to the system through step up transformers, an

impedance type back up protection is provided.

Overcurrent relay with voltage restraint is a relay which restraints the actions of current
elements. The restraining coil distinguishes between a normal operating condition and a
short circuit by change of voltage even if the magnitudes of currents in two conditions are
equal. The restraining effect is reduced as the voltage drops whenever there is short
circuit and overcurrent element then operates. Relay characteristics are such that
sensitivity and speed increases as the voltage restraint decreases.

The scheme shown in Fig.No.12.3a provides back up protection for a generator against
external faults, e.g. faults in bus zone, transmission zone.

Generator Gen. Trafo. C.B. C.B.

1 = Line protection

2 = Busbar protection

3 = Generator backup Overcurrent, Earthfault protection

Sequence of operation = 1, 2, 3

Fig. No. 12.3a

Inverse definite minimum time relays are used for generator back up protection. The
setting is selected such that generator overcurrent and earthfault protection do not
normally operate for external faults such as "F".

However, if fault at F persists for a long duration due to failure of line protection (1), this
protection (3) must operate. Hence, overcurrent or earth fault protection must be set at a
higher value of external fault currents with due time lag.

12.4 Negative Phase Sequence Protection

From the theory of symmetrical components, we know that the unbalanced 3 phase
currents have a negative sequence component. This component rotates at a synchronous
speed in the direction opposite to the direction of rotation of rotor. Therefore, double
frequency currents are induced in rotor field winding and damper windings. These
currents cause overheating, vibrations and hence weakening of slot wedges if the degree
of unbalance is appreciable.

Negative sequence current filter with overcurrent relay provides protection against
unbalanced loads. Fig.No.12.4a shows the scheme for such protection.
R

R = Overcurrent Relay

Fig. No.12.4a

The time for which the machine can be allowed to withstand unbalanced condition is
expressed as

I22 t = K

where I2 = negative phase sequence component of the fault current

t = time in seconds, and

K = constant which depends on the type of generator and its cooling system.

K = 7 for Turbo Generator with direct cooling,

K = 60 for salient pole hydro-generator.

The product I22 t is a machine characteristic and negative sequence relays used must have
matching I22 t characteristics.

The overcurrent relay used in negative sequence protection has a long operating time
with a facility of range of settings to permit its characteristics to be matched with I 22 t
characteristic of the machine. Typical time range for such relay is 0.2 to 2000 seconds.

The negative phase sequence filter gives an output proportional to I2. It actuates an alarm
as well as time current relay which has an inverse characteristics. The alarm unit also
starts a timer which is adjustable from 8% to 40% of negative sequence component. The
timer makes a delay in the alarm from sounding unnecessarily on unbalanced loads of
short duration.

12.5 Differential Protection

Differential protection responds to the vector difference between two or more similar
electrical quantities. In generator protection, current transformers are provided at each
end of generator stator windings. Fig.12.5a shows the schematic diagram of percentage
differential protection. It gives protection against winding faults, i.e. phase to phase
faults, phase to earth faults.

The polarity of secondary current of CTs at the particular moment of the external fault is
shown in the Fig.No.12.5a. In the operating coil, the current sent by the upper CT is
cancelled by the current sent from the lower CT and the relay does not operate.

Fig. No. 12.5a

For an internal fault, the polarity of secondary voltage of upper CT is reversed as shown
in figure 12.5b. Now, the operating coil carries the sum of currents sent by the upper CT
and the lower CT and it operates and trips the circuit breaker.

Fig. No. 12.5b

The percentage differential protection does not respond to external faults or overloads. It
provides complete protection against phase to phase faults. It provides protection against
ground faults to about 80% to 85% of generator winding. It does not give protection to
100% of winding because it is influenced by the magnitude of earth fault current which
depends upon the method of neutral grounding.

When neutral is grounded through an impedance, the differential protection is

supplemented by sensitive earth fault relays. High speed differential relays having
variable ratio or percentage slope characteristics are preferred. The settings of bias coil
varies from 5% to 50% and that of the relay operating coil from 10% to 100% of the full
load current.

12.6 Restricted earth fault protection

When the neutral is solidly grounded, it is possible to protect complete generator winding
against phase to ground faults, but generally neutral is earthed through an impedance to
limit the earth fault current.

Scheme for restricted earth fault protection is as shown in Fig.No.12.6a

During earth fault at a point F in the generator winding, fault current flows through a part
of generator winding and neutral to ground circuit. The corresponding secondary current
IS flows through the operating coil and relay operates.

For such earth faults, a voltage Vaf is available to drive earth fault current If through
neutral to ground connection. If the fault point F is near the terminal a, (i.e. nearer to
neutral point) forcing voltage Vaf will reduce and consequently If will reduce. It is not
practicable to keep the relay setting too sensitive to sense earth fault current of small
magnitudes. Because, if too sensitive, the relay may respond during through faults or
other faults due to inaccuracies of CTs, saturation of CTs, etc.

Hence, generally 85% of the generator winding is protected and separate earth fault
protection covers the entire winding against earth faults.

aF

Vaf
Fig. No. 12.6a

For low resistance earthing, the resistance R is such that full load current passes through
neutral for a full line to neutral voltage.

Medium resistance earthing is commonly used on generator transformer units. The earth
fault current is restricted to about 200 Amp for full line to neutral voltage.

In high resistance earthing, maximum earth fault current is of the order of 10 Amps.

Assuming R is the resistance in neutral connection to the earth and fault current for line
to ground fault is equal to full load current of generator, the value of impedance to be
inserted in neutral to earth connection is given

R=V/I

where R = Resistance in Ohms between neutral and ground,

V = line to neutral voltage

I = full load current of the machine.

Io = primary current for relay operation

% of winding unprotected from neutral = R x Io x 100

Example :

An 11 KV, 100 MVA generator is grounded through a resistance of 5 Ohms. The CTs
have a ratio of 1000/5 and the relay is set to operate when there is out of balanced current
of 1 Amp. What percentage of generator winding is unprotected?

Solution:
% of winding unprotected (p) = R x Io x 100

Primary earth fault current for relay operation = 1000 x 1

= 200 Amps.

p = 5 x 200 x 100

11/ 3 x 1000

% of winding unprotected = 15.74%.

12.7 Sensitive stator earth fault protection

When a generator is earthed through high impedance to limit fault current, differential
protection does not protect 100% of stator winding against earth faults. Hence, a separate
sensitive earth fault protection is necessary. The method for sensitive earth fault
protection depends upon generator neutral connection to ground.

Two methods are generally used for grounding a generator neutral:

i) The neutral connected through a resistor ( known as the neutral grounding resistor )
which limits the maximum earth fault current to a much lower value than the full load
current.

ii) The neutral is grounded through a voltage transformer. The earth fault current is
limited to the magnetising current of the VT plus the zero sequence current of generator.

With resistance earthing two earth fault relays may be provided on secondary side of
neutral CT as shown in the Fig. No. 12.7a.
Generator

Winding

Neutral

Grounding

Resistor

Fig. No. 12.7a

The first earth fault relay is set at 10% and is of instantaneous type. The second earth
fault relay is set at 5% and is of IDMTL type, i.e. the relay would pick up when earth
fault current is 5% the full load current of generator.

Depending upon the sensitivity, the first earth fault would protect about 90% of stator
winding and second earth fault relay would protect about 95% of the stator winding. For
such sensitive settings, it is necessary to provide a time delay, otherwise the relays may
respond to transient neutral current during external faults.

Fig. No. 12.7b

When the neutral is connected through VT as shown in Fig.No.12.7b., the rated primary
voltage of VT is generally equal to phase to neutral voltage of generator. The grounding
resistor is connected to secondary of the grounding transformer and the relay is connected
across the resistor. During a ground fault, when a set voltage develops across the resistor,
the relay operates. The setting of the relays is 10% the rated secondary voltage of VT. VT
should not saturate for twice the maximum neutral to earth voltage. Sometimes, VT is
protected from HT service by connecting lightning arrester in parallel with primary
winding.

12.8 Stator interturn fault protection

The interturn faults are detected by the residual voltage of generator terminals. Schematic
diagram for circuit connection is as shown in Fig.No.12.8a.

The main VT is connected in star - delta and auxiliary VT is connected in delta circuit. A
voltage VRES proportional to the residual voltage flows through the delta connected
secondary winding of VT.

VRES = VRN + VYN + VBN.

The relay is connected in this circuit by an auxiliary VT. The short circuit between turns
gives residual voltage of fundamental frequency which operates the relay.

The relay should not operate for earth faults. Earth fault also causes residual voltage. This
residual voltage contains third harmonic voltages. An LC circuit tuned to fundamental
frequency offers low resistance path to power frequency voltages appearing due to
interturn fault, but offers high resistance path to third harmonic voltages (150 Hz.)
appearing due to earth fault. Hence, the zero sequence voltages of third harmonics are fed
to restraining coil of the relay. Therefore, for interturn faults, the restraining current does
not flow and relay operates only for interturn faults.

Fig. No. 12.8a

12.9 Rotor earth fault protection

There are different methods of rotor earth fault protection. In one of the methods, as
shown in Fig.No.12.9a, a high resistance is connected across the rotor circuit.
The centre point of this resistor is connected to earth through a sensitive relay. An earth
fault in rotor winding will complete its circuit through this sensitive relay and operate it.
The relay detects earth fault for most of the rotor circuit except for an earth fault at
exactly the centre point of the rotor.
Generator Armature

Fig.No.12.9a

Other methods of rotor earth fault protection includes DC injection method and AC
injection method as shown in Fig.No.12.9b. A single earth fault in the rotor completes the
circuit comprising a voltage source "S" and sensitive earth fault relay, which is a voltage
relay.

NGR

Fig.No.12.9a

12.10 Field Failure Protection

A field failure can be caused by opening of the field switch or field Circuit Breaker. The
behaviour of the generator under such conditions depends on whether the generator is
connected singly to the load or it is connected in parallel with other generating units.

If it is a single unit supplying a local load, loss of field causes loss of terminal voltage
and protection in this case is provided by undervoltage relay.

If the generator is connected in parallel with other units, upon loss of the field it can draw
magnetising current from the busbar and continue to run as an induction generator.
The loss of excitation relay protects the synchronous machine against the consequences
of the asynchronous ( induction ) operation. Synchronous machines fall out of step due to
under-synchronous or excessive outputs of capacitive reactive power.

Fig.No.12.10a shows the capability diagram of synchronous machine with the stability in
the under excited region.

If the load vector Iload crosses the stability limit, e.g. due to voltage regulator problem or
due to loss of excitation, then the machine falls out of step. The loss of excitation
protection has the task of disconnecting the machine from the network in the event of
such an occurrence.

To determine these out of limit operating conditions, the relay uses a directional current
element which measures the voltage Vyb and the current Ir and compares the phase angle
between them. The trip characteristic is also shown in Fig.No.12.10a.

REACTIVE

POWER

ACTIVE POWER

Fig. No. 12.10a

12.11 Protection against asynchronous running

For protection against asynchronous running out-of-step relay is used as shown in the
Fig.No.12.11a and b. When synchronism is lost the impedance measured by a distance
relay will progress through the line impedance vector on a locus from right to left if the
relay is located at the leading or fast end of the system and from left to right if at the
lagging end. Two blinders Oa and Ob are arranged to operate an auxiliary relay Ta or Tb if
the impedance crosses the characteristic of one of them before the other, in either
direction. this auxiliary relay can be arranged to operate an alarm, trip a breaker, or
initiate some form of control.

The advantages of this form of out-of-step relay are:

a) Its operation is not affected by variation in the location of the electrical centre of the
system.

b) It will not trip under any fault conditions.

c) It trips instantly after the first half cycle of system oscillation. Existing relays require
the machine to slip several poles before they will operate.

d) Distinction can be made between speeding up and slowing down of the local
generation.

A single-phase relay is adequate for tripping out-of-step because the regular protective
relays will trip during a fault. If the swing continues after the faults have been cleared or
if the swing was caused by switching of load or generation without a fault, only a single-
phase out-of-step relay is required for tripping because all three phases act similarly.
Fig.No.12.11a.

Fig.No.12.11b.

12.12 Over-voltage protection

Dangerous over-voltages, which can occur due to earth fault at the automatic voltage
controller or due to sudden load shedding can be monitored with a time lag over-voltage
relay. Generally, continuous permissible over-voltage at rated frequency is 5% of rated
voltage. Setting of the relays is 110% (Max) of rated voltage with a delay of 2 seconds.
Scheme is as shown in the Fig.No.12.12a.
 Fig. No. 12.12a

12.13 Undervoltage protection

In a similar way, under-voltages can be monitored with the time lag undervoltage relay.
Undervoltage relay is generally set at 80% (min) of rated terminal voltage with a time lag
of 2 seconds.

12.14 Over-frequency Protection

Generally, mechanical overspeed devices are provided for generator protection and over-
frequency relay is used as a back up protection for these devices. The relay contact for
tripping is connected to trip the throttle of turbines.

The setting of over-frequency relay is usually adjusted to 110% of rated frequency when
applied to steam turbine generator. Higher setting to 115% may be permissible for
hydraulic turbine generators.

12.15 Under-frequency protection

A generator operating in a system with slight over-voltage and slight over-frequency is

indicative of stable system. But, with the slight undervoltage and slight under-frequency,
the system tends to be unstable.

Induction cup type fast operating under-frequency relays can be employed to give alarm
and also to relieve the generator of suitable loads with measured time delay (frequency
based load shedding).

The setting of under-frequency relay is generally 96% or 97% of rated frequency with
some time lag. The setting also depends upon the normal grid frequency.

12.16 Reverse power protection

When the input to the turbine is stopped, the generator continues to rotate as a
synchronous motor, taking active power from the bus bar if an additional source is
generating in parallel. Reverse power protection measures the power flow from the bus
bar to the generator running as a motor.

Normally, power taken in most of the cases is 2% to 10% of rated power. During reverse
power flow, the conditions in all the three phases are balanced hence a single element
directional power relay in any one phase is sufficient. The CTs for reverse power
protection may be either at neutral end or bus bar end of the generator winding.

Motoring is prevented by a sensitive wattmetric relay which operates on about 0.5%

reverse power. This relay usually has a time delay which varies from seconds to minutes.
The setting of reverse power also depends on the types of the turbine. A diesel set
requires a 25% setting while a hydro-machine may require a setting as low as 0.2%.

12.17 Stator overheating protection

The main causes of stator overheating are ventilation failure, overloading, short circuited
laminations and failure of core bolt insulation.

Two methods are commonly used for detecting overheating in large machines (>2 MVA),
one of them is to compare the inlet and outlet temperature of ventilating medium, which
may be air, hydrogen or water.

The other method employs temperature indicating devices embedded in slots at different
points in the winding. This devices may be thermocouples, thermistors or RTDs.

12.18 Over-speeding protection

Over-speeding occurs due to sudden loss of electrical load on generators due to tripping
of the generator circuit breaker, before disconnection of prime mover. Overspeeds are
prevented by fast acting centrifugal governors.

In hydro sets, overspeeds of 150% of normal are possible because the water flow can not
be quickly stopped for reasons of mechanical energy and hydraulic inertia.
Steam and hydro sets are provided with mechanical overspeed devices but, because of
slower throttling down of fuel, overspeed relays are used. The setting of overspeed relays
may be 115% for steam and 140% for hydro machines.

Over-frequency relays provide back up protection against overspeeding.

12.19 Overall differential protection

The scheme for generator transformer unit protection generally covers the generator,
main step up power transformer and generator auxiliary transformer, if any. The zone of
combined or overall differential protection may include generator stator winding, main
step up transformer, generator auxiliary transformer and the busbar connections.

Fig. No. 12.19a

As shown in the Fig.No.12.19a. , a separate set of CTs are provided for this protection.
The CTs at the neutral side are star connected and CTs at the HT side of main step up
transformer (star-delta) are delta connected. A third set of CTs is provided on the T-ed off
unit auxiliary transformer. These CTs are necessary to compensate for the load current in
T-ed off connection. These CTs are connected in parallel with CTs of the main
transformer.

Biased Harmonic Restraint Differential relays are used in this overall differential
protection scheme.

Protective scheme for Turbo Generators

Steam Turbine Generator protection and effected tripping
Gas Turbine Generator-1 protection and effected tripping
Gas Turbine Generator-2 protection and effected tripping

Diesel Generator protection and effected tripping

 Exercises

Q.No.1 What is motoring of a generator ?

Why is protection against this mode of operation required ?

Q.No.2 A generator is running in parallel with the grid with a load of 0.7 p.u. What will
happen to the generator if the excitation is lost. What will be the load in this case ?

Why is protection required against this mode of operation ?

Q.No.3 Why is field suppression necessary ?

Q.No.4 What is the use of a Voltage Restraint Overcurrent protection in a generator ?

Q.No.5 What is the effect of unbalanced loading of a generator ?

How is protection against it provided ?

Q.No.6 Explain the scheme for 100% stator earthfault protection for a generator ?

Q.No.7 Explain with a neat sketch the scheme for rotor earth fault protection for a
generator with brushless excitation system.

Validation Questions

Prob.1 A 3-phase, 11kV, 31.25MVA, Y-connected alternator has been provided with
differential protection. The neutral is earthed through a resistance of 16 Ohms. The relay
operates for an out of balance of 18% full load. Calculate percentage of winding
unprotected against earthfaults.

References:

1. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 1

by A. R. Van C. Warrington.
2. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 2

by A. R. Van C. Warrington.

3. Switchgear and Protection

by Sunil S. Rao

4. Protective Relay application guide

by GEC

5. J & P Switchgear handbook

by Lythal

Transformer Protection

10.1 Introduction :

The power transformer is one of the most important links in a power system. Because of
its relatively simple construction, it is a highly reliable piece of equipment. This
reliability, however, depends upon adequate design, care in erection, proper maintenance
and the provision of certain protective equipment.

Adequate design includes insulation of windings, laminations, corebolts, etc., bracing the
conductors against short-circuit stresses and good electrical connections.

Care in erection includes care to avoid physical damage, leaving or dropping any foreign
objects inside the tank (tools, nuts, etc.) making good connections and making sure the
oil is clean and dry.
Proper maintenance includes checking the oil and winding temperatures, the cleanliness,
dryness and insulation level of the oil and analysing any gas that may have accumulated
above the oil.

The choice of protection for any given power transformer depends upon number of
factors such as size, importance, and whether it has off load or on load tap changers.

The following information is necessary while selecting the protection scheme for a power
transformer.

1) Particulars of transformer.

a. KVA rating

b. Voltage ratio

c. Winding Connection (Vector group )

d. Percentage reactance

e. Neutral point of earthing

f. Resistance value

g. Indoor or outdoor, dry or oil filled

2) Fault level at power transformer terminals.

3) Network diagrams showing position of the transformer in the power system.

10.2 Faults / abnormalities :

Transformer faults can be broadly classified into three main classes :

1. External or through faults.

2. Internal faults.

3. Miscellaneous faults.

10.2.1 External or through faults :

10.2.1.1 Overload :

Sustained overload on a transformer causes weakening of insulation and possible hot spot
generation at weaker electrical connections.

For attended transformer, over load protection is generally arranged to initiate alarm.
Failure to take any corrective actions against these overloads, the relays actuate the
second stage of the protection system whereby the supply is disconnected.

For unattended transformer, over load protection is arrayed to trip the breaker after a
requisite time delay.

10.2.1.2 External short circuit:

These are short circuits on busbars, or on main supply network outside the transformer.
External short circuits may only be limited by the transformer reactance and where this is
low, fault currents may be excessive. This excessive fault current may give rise to
enormous electro- mechanical forces causing damage to the transformer in addition to
overheating and/or hot spot generation inside transformer.

Time graded overcurrent relays or fuses are usually employed against these faults as a
backup protection. Proper co-ordination of this backup transformer protection should be
made with the primary protection of the associated power supply network.

The primary protective scheme associated with the transformer itself, however, should be
made so that the protective gear does not operate under such conditions.

10.2.2 Internal faults :

The primary protection of a power transformer is intended for conditions which arise as a
result of faults inside the protected zone. These internal faults are very serious and can be
classified into two groups:

a. Short circuit in transformer winding and connections.

b. Incipient faults.

10.2.2.1 Short Circuits:

These are electrical faults of serious nature which cause immediate damage but are
generally detectable by unbalance of current or voltage such as :

1. Phase to earth fault or phase to phase fault on the H.V. and L.V.

external terminals.
1. Phase to earth fault or phase to phase fault on H.V. and L.V.

windings:
10.2.2.2 Incipient Faults:
Incipient faults are initially minor faults, causing slowly developing damage. These are
not detectable at the winding terminals by unbalance of voltage or current, they include:
1. Limited arcing under oil due to :

- Failure of the insulation of the laminations and / or core bolts due to poor quality of
insulation or accidental damage during erection.
- Poor electrical connections giving rise to hot spots in winding and connections.
b. Coolant failure : This will cause a rise of temperature even below full load operation.
These may be caused due to:
- Low oil content which leads to local hot spots on windings.
- Clogged oil flow caused due to sludge formation in the oil.
- Failure of oil pump, blocking of a radiator valve, non-operation of fans.
c. Regulator faults and bad load sharing between paralleled transformers which can cause
overheating due to circulating currents.
10.3 Overload Protection:
The permissible over load and their duration depends upon the type of cooling and class
insulation of the transformer. Higher overloads are permissible for shorter duration. A
typical table is given as under:
Permissible duration of overload

% of overload 125 150 175 200 300

duration
125 45 15 10 1
(minutes)

In large power transformers warning is given against overload, resulting in overheating,

by temperature indicators in the oil and in the winding. The indicator is either a
thermostat or a bulb containing volatile liquid which operates a remote pressure indicator
(calibrated to temperature) through very thin tubing.
The temperature indicator is put in an oil filled pocket in the hot oil on the top of
transformer tank to detect oil temperature. In the event of temperature rising above the
permissible temperature rise of the oil, (40-450 C above the ambient temperature of 300
C), first an alarm and in the second stage a trip is initiated.
For sensing winding temperature, similar arrangement is made and in addition to that the
thermometer pocket is provided with a heating coil energised by a current proportional to
the winding current and is obtained by a CT connected in the winding. The thermal time-
constant of the heater matches that of the winding.
In the event of temperature rising above the permissible temperature rise of the winding
(depending upon the insulation class of the winding which is generally class B), first an
alarm and in the second stage a trip is initiated.
Thermal image overcurrent relays with I2t = constant time - current characteristics are
also used for protection against overload.
This protection detects overload but does not detect the failure of the cooling system
whereas the indicator type protections i.e. oil temperature indicators and winding
temperature indicators, as described earlier, takes care of both the situations.
10.4 Overcurrent protection:
Overcurrent protection is generally provided for a transformer as a backup protection
against phase faults except for small transformers where application of Differential relay
as primary protection is uneconomical.
Generally, in transformers below about 5 MVA capacity overcurrent protection is
considered as primary protection against phase fault.
For small distribution transformer below 500 kVA, overcurrent protection may simply be
provided by a fuse on the HV side as these transformers are not provided with circuit
breakers and relays.
IDMTL overcurrent protection co-ordinated with down stream network is provided on
the LT side of the transformer.
On HT side, IDMTL overcurrent protection co-ordinated with the IDMTL overcurrent
protection of the LT side is normally provided. In addition to this, an instantaneous
overcurrent relay is provided on the HT side to isolate the transformer instantaneously in
the event of internal phase faults. This relay is generally set above the reflected fault
current on the primary side due to a fault on the secondary side, thereby ensuring non-
operation of the relay for a fault on the LT side.
The schematic diagram for an overcurrent protection for both HT and LT side for a Dyn-
11 transformer is shown below:
Fig. No. 10.4a
10.5 Earthfault Protection:
Earthfault protection of transformer can be in one or more types such as:
1) Residually connected earthfault protection.
2) Neutrally connected earthfault protection.
3) Restricted earth fault protection.
10.5.1 Residually connected earthfault protection:
Delta windings and ungrounded star windings are best protected by zero-sequence
overcurrent relays (Earth fault relays) supplied by CTs situated at the terminals of power
transformer as shown in Fig.No.10.5.1a.
Fig. No. 10.5.1a
Such relay can only operate for a ground fault in the transformer winding since it does
not have an earth connection through which it can supply an external fault.
The relay is usually instantaneous but must be of high impedance type if supplied with
residually connected CTs in the three phases. The high impedance relay is required to
prevent wrong operation of the relay on false residual currents during heavy external fault
between phases due to transient differences in the CT outputs. An ordinary overcurrent
relay is acceptable if it is supplied by a core-balance type CT because in this case, the
magnetic conditions of the CTs are the same for all the three phases.
10.5.2 Neutral connected earthfault protection:
Another method of connecting an earthfault relay is illustrated in Fig.No.10.5.2a.

Fig. No. 10.5.2a

The relay is connected across the secondary of a CT whose primary is connected in the
neutral to earth connection of a star connected transformer. The fault current finds a path
through the earth and earth to neutral connection of the transformer.
The magnitude of the earth fault current is dependent on the type of earthing and the
location of the fault.
In both the above types of protection the zone of protection can not be accurately defined.
The protected area is not restricted to the transformer winding alone. The relay may sense
an earthfault beyond the transformer winding depending upon position of the source.
Hence, such protection is called unrestricted earthfault protection.
In residually connected earthfault relays where the zone of protection is not restricted to
transformer winding only and in neutral connected earthfault relays, IDMTL earthfault
protection co-ordinated with down stream is to be provided.
10.5.3 Restricted earthfault protection:
When the primary winding is delta connected or star connected without neutral earthing,
earthfaults on secondary side are not reflected on the primary side as the zero sequence
impedance between the primary and secondary is infinite (i.e., open).
In such cases an earthfault relay connected in the residual circuit of 3 CTs on primary
side will operate on internal faults in primary winding only.
The star connected secondary side is protected by Restricted Earth Fault protection as
shown in the Fig.No.10.5.3a.
Fig. No. 10.5.3a
For earth fault within the transformer star connected winding (F2), only I2 flows through
the Earth Fault Relay. For earth fault external to transformer winding (F1), both I1 and I2
(which are equal) circulate through the CTs and the relay does not see any current.
This protection acts on the principle of Merz Price circulating current protection. The
relay is usually instantaneous in nature.
During heavy external phase faults there should be no current supplied to the restricted
earthfault relay if the CTs maintain their ratio.
During external ground fault the sensitivity of low impedance relay is limited by the fact
that the magnetising current of the neutral CT is three times that of each of the three
phase CTs, so that the voltage produced by the neutral CT is three times that of the line
CTs if they are of similar design and turns. If they are of same design, the relay will have
zero voltage across it only if the leads between the relay and the neutral CT have three
times the resistance of the leads between the relay and the line CTs. If this resistance
balance does not exist, it can theoretically be remedied by adding resistance on the
neutral CT side, but this is not the practice because the balance would not hold during
transient conditions or if the neutral CT saturates. The proper solution is to use a
stabilising resistance in series with low impedance relay or to use high impedance relay.
In a resistance grounded system, when fault occurs very near to the neutral point of the
transformer, the voltage available for driving earthfault current is small.
Hence earthfault current will be low. If the relay is to sense such faults, it has to be too
sensitive and would therefore operate for spurious signals, external faults and switching
surges. Hence, the practice is to set the relay such that it operates for earthfault current of
the order of 15% of rated current. Thus 85% of the winding is protected and rest 15% of
the winding towards neutral point remains unprotected.
10.6 Differential Protection:
10.6.1 Basic concept of differential protection applied to transformer:
Usually large transformers are provided with high speed differential relay which detect
faults (in the protected zone) and clears the fault instantaneously.
A transformer differential relay compares the current in the windings of a transformer
through the CTs whose ratios are such as to make their secondary current normally equal
except for the core magnetising currents of the transformer which are selectively small.
Figure 10.6.1a shows an ordinary differential protection for a three phase star delta
transformer.
Fig. No 10.6.1a
In delta star transformer, the load currents in the two windings are not in direct phase
opposition, but are displaced by 300 or 1500 .
In circulating current differential protection, the phase displacement of line currents on
two sides, introduces phase differences in secondary currents of CTs on two sides.
The CT connection should be such that the resultant current fed into the pilot wires from
either side are displaced in phase by an angle equal to the phase shift between primary
and secondary currents. To get this arrangements, the following rules are followed:
1. Secondaries of CTs on star connected side of transformer are connected in delta.
2. Secondaries of CTs on delta side of a power transformer are connected in star. With
such an arrangement the phase displacement between current gets cancelled.
3. The neutral of CTs star and power transformer star are grounded.
4. Current ratios of CTs on each side will be different depending upon the line currents of
power transformers and connection of CTs. The currents fed into the pilots at each end
should be same at no load.
If the CT ratio on the delta side of the transformer is / 1A then, the CT ratio on the star
connected side of the transformers will be /0.577A.
Fig. No. 10.6.1b
In a star-star transformer, the CTs are connected in delta on both the sides of the
transformer as shown in Fig.No.10.6.1b.
10.6.2 Inadequacies of a simple Differential arrangement for transformer application
In practice, differential protection in simple form as shown in Fig. 10.6.1a and 10.6.1b is
handicapped by two main difficulties.
1) Ratio change as a result of tap changing:
Nearly all large power transformers are equipped with tap changers. As the transformer
ratio is changed, the ratio between primary side and secondary side CTs can be made to
match only at one point of the tap changer range. At other points an unbalance current
will flow in the differential relay.
2) Magnetising Inrush Current:
When a transformer is being energised, initially there is no induced emf, the condition is
similar to switching on of an inductive circuit. The resistance being low, a large inrush of
magnetising currents takes place. The magnitude of this inrush current depends on the
circuit conditions and voltage at the instant of switching. The maximum peak values
equal to 10-12 times the rated current with a fairly long time constant of 60 seconds can
occur.
The factors which influence the duration and magnitude of magnetising inrush currents
are:
1. Size of the transformer
2. Position of transformer in power system
3. Type of magnetic material in the core
4. Residual flux in transformer core before switching in.
1. Instant of switching on the voltage wave.

Inrush currents are seen only by primary side CTs, they do not reflect on secondary sides
CTs. The inrush of magnetising currents will, therefore, cause the operation of
differential protection.
10.6.3 Remedies to overcome inadequacy of simple differential protection for
transformer application:
10.6.3.1 Percentage or Biased Differential relay:
The unbalance or difference of the derived currents from the CTs due to tap changing of a
transformer increase with increase of through currents. Thus, a relay whose operating
current is an appropriate percentage of through current will allow a sensitive setting at
low current without danger of tripping.
Such a system is shown in Fig.No.10.6.3.1a.
Fig.No.10.6.3.1a
The operating coil is provided with vector sum of the currents in the CTs and restraining
is provided with through current. The spill current required to operate the relay is usually
expressed as a percentage of through current in the restraining coil and the ratio is
generally termed as percent slope.
10.6.3.2 Harmonic Restrain and Harmonic Blocking:
Formerly the relay was provided with a time lag, to avoid tripping during magnetic
inrush. But what about the protection of transformer during this period ?
Next development was desensitising the relay for a short period during switching. This
method also leads to the same danger mentioned above. The latest method adopted for
transformer differential protection is Harmonic Restrain and Harmonic blocking.
10.6.3.2.1 Harmonic Restraint:
The initial inrush of magnetising current has high component of even and odd harmonics,
whereas harmonic component of short circuit currents is negligible.
The harmonic restraint remains sensitive to fault currents but does not operate during
magnetising inrush currents.
The operating coil of the relay receives fundamental components of current. The
restraining coil receives sum of fundamental and harmonic components. Thereby inrush
currents having more harmonic content give more restraining torque and the relay does
not operate.
10.6.3.2.2 Harmonic Blocking:
The harmonic component of inrush current is used for blocking a separate blocking relay
whose contacts are in series with contact of differential relay.
The blocking relay contains a 100Hz blocking filter in operating coil.
During in-rush current, the second harmonic component is predominant and the blocking
relay is blocked. The blocking relay contact remain open.
During short circuit, 50 Hz component is predominant hence blocking relay operates and
differential relay contact circuit closes.
10.7 Overfluxing Protection:
Increase in power frequency voltage causes increase in working magnetic flux, thereby
increases the iron loss and magnetising current. The core and core bolt get heated and the
lamination insulation is affected. Overfluxing protection is provided for generator
transformer and feeder transformer where a possibility of over fluxing due to sustained
over-voltages exists. The reduction in frequency also increases the flux density and
consequently, it has the similar effects as those due to over-voltage.
The expression for flux in a transformer is given as:
v/f
where , = flux
V = applied voltage
f = frequency
and all are p.u. values. When V/f exceeds unity, it has to be detected. usually 10% of
overfluxing can be allowed without damage. If V/f exceeds 1.1, overfluxing protection
operates. Overfluxing does not require high speed tripping and hence instantaneous
tripping is undesirable when momentary disturbances occur. But the transformer should
be isolated in 1-2 min if over fluxing persists.
10.8 Safety and protective devices with power transformers:
The same has been discussed in detail in Transformer manual.

EXERCISES
Q.1 Distinguish between
i) Through faults and internal faults.
ii) Incipient faults and serious faults.
Q.2 What is a restricted earthfault protection for Star connected neutral earthed side of
power transformer ?
Q.3 Describe the need of over current protection of power transformers for through
faults.
Q.4 Describe the principle of differential protection applied to power transformer. What
are the difficulties experienced and how are they overcomed ?
Q.5 Explain why desensitising of relay was not a satisfactory process in transformer
protection.
Q.6 What is the principle of harmonic restraint ?

Validation Questions:
1. A 50 MVA, 110 kV / 33 kV transformer is protected by means of a differential
protection. Vector group of transformer is Dyn 1, calculate CT ratios for both primary
and secondary sides and draw a neat sketch of the percentage based differential
protection scheme.
2. A 20 MVA, 22 kV/11kV, delta-star transformer with percentage impedance equal to
12% is connected to an infinite supply bus. Calculate the setting for the instantaneous
overcurrent relay on the primary side of transformer in terms of primary current.

References:
1) Switchgear and Protection Sunil S. Rao.
2) The art and science of protective relaying C.R.Mason.
3) Protective relays Vol-I and Vol-II A.R. Van. C. Warrington.
4) J & P Switchgear book Lythall.
5) Power system protection and Switchgear B. Ravindranath and M. Chander.
6) Power system protection and Switchgear Badriram and D.N. Vishwakarma.

Feeder Protection

15.1 Introduction:
The graded overcurrent system though attractively simple, do not meet all the protection
requirement of a power system. Application difficulties are encountered for two reasons.

a) Satisfactory grading cannot always be arranged for a complex network,

b) Graded settings may lead to maximum tripping time too long to prevent excessive
disturbance of the power system.

Theses problems led to the concept of "unit protection" where by sections of the power
system are protected individually without reference to other sections.

The principle of unit system was first established by Merz - Price; this fundamental
differential systems have formed the basis of many highly developed protective
arrangements for feeders and numerous other items of plants. In one arrangements similar
current transformer at each end of the protected zone are interconnected by pilot circuit as
shown in Fig. 15.1.

An alternative arrangement shown in Fig. 15.2 in which, the CT secondary windings are
opposed in through fault conditions and so no current flows in a series connected relays.

They are respectively termed as circulating current and balanced voltage system (Fig.
15.1 & 15.2).

These systems are simple in concept.

To define a current both magnitude and phase be stated. Comparison of both quantities
are performed in Merz - Price system, but it is not always easy to transmit all this
information over some pilot channels.

15.2 Circulating Current System

The principle of this system is shown in Fig. 15.1. If the current transformers are ideal,
the functioning of the scheme is straight forward. The CTs will , however, have losses
which cause deviation from the ideal. The equivalent circuit of a CT can be applied to the
system as shown in Fig. 15.2.1a. Fig. 15.2.1b shows the distribution of potential round
the pilot circuit for a current through the protected zone.

The current transformers are assumed identical and , therefore, share equally the total
circuit burden. The potential diagrams indicates the situation when the relay is
disconnected or of a very high impedance. A point of zero potential occurs at J, the centre
of GH measured in resistance values. If, however, the relay is not located at this point but
at F, it will experience a voltage FF' and the relay will receive a spill current.

Since it is usually inconvenient to connect the relay at a centre of the pilot, it was at one
time common practice to add balancing resistance in series with the pilots to bring the
zero potential point to the position of relay connection. Although this practice improved
steady state stability, the transient stability is not ensured.

The latter is achieved by adding a stabilising resistor in series with the Relay element to
cover the worst condition of saturation of one of the CTs.

15.3 Balanced Voltage System

The balance voltage system, which is the dual of the circulating current system is shown
in Fig. No. 15.1.2.

In case of primary through current, the secondary e.m.f. of the CTs are opposed and
produce no current in the interconnecting pilot leads or the series connected relays. An
in-zone fault leads to a circulating current condition and hence the relays operate.

An immediate consequence of the arrangement is that the current transformers are in

effect open circuited, as no secondary current flows for any primary through current
conditions. To avoid excessive saturation of the core, and secondary waveform distortion,
the core is provided with non magnetic gap sufficient to absorb whole primary mmf at the
maximum current level, the flux density remaining within the linear range. The secondary
windings, therefore, develops electro motive force and can be regarded as a voltage
source. The shunt reactance of the transformer is relatively low, so the device act as a
transformer loaded with a reactive shunt hence the American name "Transactor".

The equivalent circuit of the system is shown in Fig. 15.3.1.

The series connected relays are of relatively high impedance; because of this, CT
secondary winding resistances are not of great significance and pilot resistance can be
moderately large without affecting the operation of the system. This is why the scheme
was developed for feeder protection.

Unlike normal current transformers transactors are not subject to errors caused by build-
up of exciting current, because the whole of the primary currents is expended as exciting
currents. The secondary electro motive force is in consequence an accurate measure of
the primary current within the linear range of the transformer. Provided the transformers
are designed to be linear upto the maximum value of the fault current, the balance is
limited only by the inherent limit of accuracy of the transformer and as a result of
capacitance between the pilot cores.

The spill current arising in the relay because of the above, depends upon the magnitude of
through fault current, and hence to enhance stability under this condition, a bias
(restraint) derived from the total fault current is used.

15.4 Summation Arrangements

So far the single phase system was only been discussed. A polyphase system could be
provided with independent protection for each phase, but this would involve a
corresponding number of pilot channels, which for a feeder of appreciable length would
usually be prohibiting in cost. The alternative is to combine separate phase current into a
single quantity for comparison over the pilot channels.

A summation arrangement is shown in fig. 15.4.1.

The inter phase section of this winding A-B and B-C are often give an equal number of
turns, the neutral end of the winding C-N generally has greater number of turns.
This type of summation results in variable sensitivities, for different types of faults (phase
and earth faults) depending upon the number of turns involved on the summation CTs.
Thus, in the summation arrangement shown in Fig. 15.4.1, the relay will have highest
sensitivity for A-C phase fault and A Phase earth fault.

15.5 Supervision of pilot circuits:

Pilots circuits are exposed to open circuit and short circuit. The effect of open circuit and
short circuit are as follows;

Effects of Open or Short Circuiting the Pilot Wires

Pilot Fault Circulating Current Scheme Voltage Balance Scheme

Short Circuit Fails to trip on internal faults. Trips on full load

Open Circuit Trips on full load Fails to trip on internal faults.

Automatic supervision is usually applied in conjunction with overcurrent fault detectors

which prevent wrong tripping on load. The supervision method usually consists of
circulating a few milliampers d.c. in the pilot and providing relays which give an alarm if
the D.C. is drastically increased or decreased. The alarm is delayed a few seconds so as
not to operate during faults.

Validation Questions:

1. What is the operating principle of balanced voltage differential protection?

2. What means are provided to ensure transient stability in case of circulating current and
balance voltage systems?

3. What special CT requirements are to be catered in case of balanced voltage systems?

Exercises:
1. Why pilot supervision is necessary?

2. What means are provided to prevent operation of differential system of pilot wire
protection on load, in case of pilot open circuit condition?

References:

1. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 1

by A. R. Van C. Warrington.

2. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 2

by A. R. Van C. Warrington.

3. Switchgear and Protection

by Sunil S. Rao

4. Protective Relay application guide

by GEC

5. J & P Switchgear handbook

by Lythal
 Motor Protection

11.1 Introduction :
The contingencies against which motors are to be protected by relay protection can be
classified into three categories.

a. Conditions imposed by external power supply network.

b. Internal faults in the motor.

c. Mechanical over load or failure in the driven equipment.

A motor protection scheme, like any other scheme, should be "discriminative" i.e.
capable of distinguishing healthy conditions such as starting, running at 100% rated load
continuously and yet operating within the motor's withstand time under contingencies
such as stalling, overloads etc.

11.2 Faults / Abnormalities :

The abnormal conditions can be classified as follows :

11.2.1. Abnormal supply conditions :

1. Loss of supply voltage

2. Unbalanced supply voltage

3. Phase sequence reversal of supply voltage

4. Over-voltage and Under voltage

5. Under frequency

6. Interruptions in phases

7. Single phasing

8. Short circuit in supply cable

11.2.2 Internal faults in motor :

1. Phase to phase faults

2. Phase to earth faults

3. Failure of phase (open circuit)

4. Mechanical failure

11.2.3 Mechanical overloads :

1. Sustained overloads

2. Prolonged starting of locked rotor

3. Stalling

The abnormal conditions are summarised below:

1. Prolonged Overloading: It is caused by mechanical loading, short time cyclic

overloading. Overloading results in temperature rise of winding & deterioration of
insulation resulting in winding fault. Hence motor should be provided with overload
protection.

2. Single Phasing : One of the supply lines gets disconnected due to rupturing of a fuse or
open circuit in one of the three supply connections. In such cases the motor continues to
run on a single phase supply. If the motor is loaded to its rated full load, it will draw
excessive currents and damage is caused. The single phasing causes unbalanced load
resulting in excessive heating of rotor due to negative sequence component or unbalanced
current.

3. Stalling : If the motor does not start due to excessive load, it draws heavy current. It
should be immediately disconnected from supply.
4. Stator Earth Faults : Faults in motor windings are mainly caused by failure of
insulation due to temperature rise.

5. Phase-to-phase faults : These are relatively rare due to enough insulation between
phases. Earth faults are relatively more likely.

6. Inter-turn faults : These grow into Earthfaults. No separate protection is generally

provided against inter-turn faults.

7. Rotor faults : These are likely to occur in wound rotor motors, due to insulation failure.

8. Failure of bearing : This causes locking up of rotor. The motor should be disconnected
immediately.

9. Unbalanced supply voltage : This causes heating up of rotor due to negative sequence
currents in stator winding.

10. Supply Undervoltage : The undervoltage in supply causes increase in motor current
for the same load.

11. Fault in starter or associated circuit : The choice of protection is dependent upon the
size of the motor, its importance in the plant, nature of load.

11.3 Overload protection :

The overload protective devices can be grouped as :

1. Those which respond to motor current, e.g. bimetal relays, electric alloy relays,
electromagnetic relays, static relays.

2. Those which respond to winding. temp., e.g. resistor devices embedded in slots,
thermostats, thermistors etc.

11.3.1 The current sensing Overload protecting devices can sense the following abnormal
conditions :
1. Overload, Over voltage,

2. Single phasing

3. Locked rotor, stalling

4. Heavy starting

5. Heavy braking

11.3.2 The following conditions can be sensed by embedded thermal devices :

1. Temp. rise due to higher ambient temp.

2. Temp. rise due to failure of cooling

3. Temp. rise due to other causes

The purpose of Thermal Overload protection is to protect the motor insulation from
excessive thermal stresses. During abnormal conditions the temp. can exceed the safe
limit and the life of insulation may reduce. It is estimated that insulation life is halved for
each 80 C rise in continuous operating temperature.

The following criteria, if satisfied fully, will ensure that adequate protection against
overheating will be available:

1. The motor should be isolated in 40 to 50 minutes in the event of small overloads of the
order of 10% whereas 100% load should be allowed continuously (for continuous duty
motors).

2. If the motor design is suitable, the Overload relay should allow the motor to restart
when 'hot' i.e. soon after an accidental or a manual trip, or after restoration of supply.

3. The relay should take into account the detrimental heating effects on the motor rotor
due to negative sequence currents arising due to unbalance in supply voltage. In most
induction motors, it is found that, the negative sequence currents produce 3 times the
heating that would be produced by equal positive phase sequence currents. Further, the
negative sequence to positive sequence impedance ratio of a motor is same as its normal
full load current to 3 phase short circuit current. This ratio is generally 1 : 6, which means
that even 5% negative voltage, can produce 35% negative sequence current.

4. The relay should have low overshoot so as to discriminate between starting and stalling
conditions. DOL starting of motors warrant this, as the ratio of starting to running
currents is of the order of 6 : 1. Definite time overcurrent relays are normally satisfactory
for this purpose.

11.3.3 Thermal relay for motor protection :

An electric motor has a pair of "thermal withstand" characteristic. One curve is for cold
conditions, and the other curve is for 'hot' i.e. running conditions. These two curves
express the relationship between the motor current expressed as a percentage of rated full
load and the corresponding withstand time.

Operating time
Times Current

Fig.No.11.3.3a Thermal withstand curves

It should also be ensured whether the motor is "stator critical", or "rotor critical", at a
current corresponding to the locked rotor conditions. The withstand times (duration)
obtainable from the curves should relate to actual heating that is likely to be produced in
the motor with rotor stationary and zero resistance in the rotor. The withstand time should
be for stator or rotor, whichever is critical.

Having decided on the most suitable relay setting the 'relay cold' and 'relay hot' withstand
curves should be plotted on the same graph. It should also be ensured that the relay
characteristics follow the motor characteristics as closely as possible over the entire
operating range of the 'cold' conditions.

11.3.4 Thermal bimetallic relays :

A thermal bimetallic relay ( BMR ) works on a principle that the bimetal deflects when
heated and if one end of the bimetal is fixed the other deflects in proportion to the heat
input.

In an Overload relay intended to protect a 3-phase motor, there are three bimetals for
sensing line or phase currents. The bimetal deflects when heated and on reaching a
predetermined condition, trips a mechanism (open a contact). The amount of deflection
required to trip is the setting of the relay.

A compensating bimetal is used to ensure a consistent trip time in case of variation in

ambient temperature.

11.3.5 Relay characteristics :

Designers make their thermal overcurrent relays with heat storage characteristics similar
to those of the motor, but faster. So that the relay will always reach the tripping
temperature before the motor reaches the danger temperature.

The relay characteristics should be below the motor damage curve. If it is much below
the motor damage curve, it can lead to unwanted trippings. The relay characteristic
chosen should be as close as possible to the motor damage curve.

Most of the relays operate on differential mechanism. In this mechanism the protection
against single phasing is substantially better at minimum setting. The following tips will
therefore, be useful to select a relay to achieve the protect against single phasing.

1. Select a relay such that motor current lies towards maximum setting.
2. This necessitates that the relay family should be such that there is a consistent overlap
between two successive ranges.

3. Setting ratio of the relay range should be maximum. Relays available today have a
setting ratio of 1 : 3 to 1 : 66.

Setting ratio = Max. relay set current Min. relay set current

4. Relay should be set at actual current drawn by the motor.

11.3.6 Thermistor protection for motors :

These are semiconductor devices whose resistance varies with temperature. They are of
two types.

1. NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) , in which the resistance decreases with

temperature rise.

2. PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) , in which the resistance increases with

temperature rise.

Compared with the protective systems using NTC thermistors, the PTC thermistors have
the advantage that the response temperature can be more accurately adjusted, and that
tripping is effected if a conductor breakage occurs in the protective system.

Under normal conditions, the resistance of the temperature detectors is very low and the
coil in the tripping unit remains energised. As soon as the specified temperature (about
1200 C for class E insulated motors) is reached, the resistance of thermistor increases
rapidly. The coil in the tripping unit drops off to disconnect the motor from supply.

The thermistor devices provide excellent motor protection. They are small in size,
embedded in the windings ends and do not require any additional protective devices.
20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Fig. No. 11.3.6a : Change in resistance with temperature of a PTC thermistor.

11.4 Over current and earth fault protection :

The protection against phase faults and earthfaults can be given by :

1. HRC fuses
2. High-set instantaneous over-current relays
3. Differential protection

Differential protection becomes economical for motors above 1200 hp. Below this rating
high set instantaneous protection is preferred.
The overload protective device and short circuit protect devices employed for motor
protection shall be well co-ordinated. The range of current between 15 to 10 times rated
current is generally termed as over load range. The motor switching device for AC-3 duty
can successfully make and break over load currents in this range. Fault currents
exceeding 10 times the rated current can be considered as short circuit currents and these
should be covered by short circuit protecting devices.
The phase to phase fault short circuit in starter winding causes burn-out of coils and
stampings. Hence the motor should be disconnected from supply very quickly. Fast over
load relays are provided for phase to phase short circuit protection.
The relays giving short circuit protection to the motor should not act during starting
currents. The setting of instantaneous over current relays for phase faults should not be
below the starting characteristic of the motor.
Therefore, the short circuit protection characteristic is set just above the maximum
starting current of the motor.
While switching on the motor, starting current has a dc component and an ac component.
The over current relay set for short circuit protection should not operate due to dc
component. To avoid to high setting, it is usual practice to provide a definite time lag of 2
to 4 cycles for over current protection against phase faults. Thereby, the relay does not
operate for initial high value of dc component. After 3-4 cycles, value of dc component in
starting current reduces and the relay does not pickup due to the same.
With higher setting of over current relays above starting characteristic, (say above 5 to 7
times FLC), the fault current may be less than the pickup value of relay. This can happen
for phase to phase faults means the neutral point of the star connected motor. Although
the probability of such a fault is less, the fault can cause extensive damage as it will not
be cleared instantaneously.
In slip ring motors the starting current is limited to about 1.25 times FLC by means of
resistance in rotor circuit. Hence over load relays set to about 1.4 to 1.6 times FLC
provide satisfactory protection against phase faults.
11.5 Stator Earth fault protection :
Earth fault protection is set to disconnect the motor from supply as soon as possible so
that the damage to winding and laminations is minimum.
Core balance (employing Zero Sequence CT) type protection is a convenient method of
protection of motors from earthfault.
Fig.No.11.5a Connections for Core Balance CT [Zero Sequence CT]
for earthfault protection of motor.
This method is especially suitable for system neutral earthed through a resistance. In such
systems, the earthfault currents are so low (due to resistance earthing ) that phase over
load relays cannot be set to pick-up for earthfault.
If the supply source is earthed an inverse, very inverse, or instantaneous induction type
relay is connected in the CT neutral. These sources usually have neutral impedance to
limit the ground current so that sensitive ground relay settings are required.
Occasionally, the high inrush current of DOL starting of large motors will cause the
ground relays to operate. This results from unequal saturation of the CTs which causes a
false residual current in the secondary or relay circuits. Two instead of 3 phase relays or
different settings among the 3-4 relays tend to increase the effect. This problem is best
solved by using a window type C.T. which has a simple secondary winding surrounding
all the 3 phase conductors. This eliminates the false residual and permits applying a very
sensitive instantaneous earth fault relay. An alternative is to use a directional o/c relay
with the current of voltage polarising coil connected in the ground source neutral or
across the neutral resistor.
11.6 Negative phase sequence protection :
Negative phase sequence currents caused by unbalanced voltage results in a rotating
magnetic field in the opposite direction. This field induces double frequency induced
currents in the rotor body and conductors giving rise to heat due to copper losses.
The rotor gets heated and the temperature of motor winding may reach above safe limit.
The voltage unbalance can occur due to any of the following reasons :
1. Single phase loads on distribution service line
2. Drop out fuse in power factor correcting plant
3. Short circuit within or outside the motor
4. Single phasing
The unbalance protection provided to a motor should prevent prolonged unbalanced
condition, but should not disconnect the motor for permissible unbalance of short
duration. The permissible loading depends upon the percentage unbalance and the ratio of
positive sequence impedance to negative sequence impedance.
The unbalance protection can be based upon the following methods :
1. Bimetallic relays arranged to trip faster for unbalanced currents.
2. Single phase relays sensing over current in heavily loaded phases.
3. Phase unbalance relays.
The first two methods are suitable for smaller motors. For larger motors, additional
unbalanced current relays are provided. The secondary currents of CTs are fed to a
negative phase sequence ( NPS ) filter. The output of the NPS filter is given to a over
current unit or static level detector. The setting is based on the Z1 / Z2 ratio and
permissible time for percent unbalances.
11.7 Protection against single phasing :
A three-phase induction motor continues to run even if one of the supply lines is
disconnected. Such a condition can be caused by blowing of fuse in the supply circuit or
due to improper contact in a switch or a contactor. The whole power is then supplied
through the two windings and they are likely to get overheated. The single phasing causes
unbalanced stator currents. The negative sequence component of unbalanced current
causes heating of rotor and temperature rise. For small motors, separate protection against
single phasing is generally not necessary as the thermal relays sense the increased current
in healthy phases due to single phasing and thereby offer adequate protection. In case of
large motors even a small unbalance can cause damage of motor winding due to
overheating. Further, if motor is stalled due to loss of one phase, severe damage to rotor
is possible while starting. Therefore, a separate single phasing protection is desirable.
During single phasing, the current in healthy phases increases by 3 times. This increases
the heating in motor windings. The unbalanced stator currents have a negative sequence
component. This component causes magnetic flux rotating in opposite direction to the
main flux. Thereby double frequency currents are induced in rotor body and rotor
conductors. Rotor heating caused by these currents is very high. This heating is not
detected by replica type thermal relays protecting the stator winding. Hence single
phasing causes major damage to motor. The phase over current relays act slowly. Hence
it cannot give instantaneous protection against single phasing.
In some applications like elevator motors, the motor should be disconnected
instantaneously when single phasing occurs. The phase unbalance relays are provided for
large motors. But they have a time lag depending upon the magnitude of unbalance.
Single phasing preventers are used for small motors. These are connected to secondaries
of line CTs. These contain a negative phase sequence filter. The output of negative phase
sequence filter is fed to level detector which sends tripping command to the starter or
circuit breaker when the negative phase sequence current exceeds a pre-set limit.
Fig. No. 11.7a Connections of single phasing preventer
11.8 Phase unbalance protection :
This protection serves to detect unbalanced or unsymmetrical loading on the three phase
motors, to prevent thermal overloading of the rotor winding due to negative sequence
field.
The protection has an inverse time and stepped characteristic ideally suited to combat
against overheating by negative sequence currents.
The negative sequence relay consists of a network with a relay and four impedance Z1,
Z2, Z3 and Z4 of equal magnitude connected in bridge formation as shown in
Fig.No.11.8a. Z1 and Z2 are non inductive resistances, while Z3 and Z4 are composed of
both resistance and reactance. The values of Z3 and Z4 are so adjusted that the currents
flowing in these lag behind those in the impedances Z1 and Z2 by 60. The relay is
assumed to have negligible impedance.

Fig.No.11.8a Basic circuit arrangement for NPS filter relay.

11.9 Stalling Protection :
When a motor stalls, either due to trouble with the connected load or low voltage, both
the stator and rotor windings will be overheated. Some form of protection should be
provided to shut the motor down before the locked rotor current persists long enough to
cause damage, but it must not shut the motor down during a normal start. It is not always
possible to provide adequate locked rotor protection with the over load device without
upsetting the overload protection.
The best protection is provided by a thermal device which operates only during a stalled
condition. The relay provides this feature by means of an attracted armature relay which
switches a separate thermal unit into the circuit if the current is 3 times the motor full
load current. Tripping will occur if the motor current fails to fall to normal value within
the time current characteristic of the thermal unit. The characteristic curve of the thermal
unit is shown in the Fig.No.11.9a for starting (cold) and running (hot) conditions. The
relay can also be arranged to give restart once after a stall, and to lock out if there is a
second stall.
Operating
time in
secs.
O Operating current
= I12 + 6I22
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x Setting
Fig. No. 11.9a : I2t (Semi- log ) characteristic for motor protection.
The thermal element also incorporates an indicating device which integrates the current
during the starting period. The trip setting can be set at a slightly higher value than the
indicated value during starting, against a stalled condition.
11.10 Overheating Protection :
The main causes of stator overheating are ventilation failure, overloading, short-circuited
laminations and failure of core bolt insulations.
Two methods are commonly used for detecting overheating ; both are used in large
motors. One method is to compare the inlet and outlet temperatures of the ventilating
medium, which may be air, hydrogen or water. The other method uses temperature
indicating devices embedded in the slots at different points in the winding ; a selector
switch checks each one in turn long enough to operate an alarm relay.
The embedded temperature devices may be either thermocouples, thermistors or
resistance temperature detectors (R.T.D.s).
In small machines a replica type temperature relay is used which has a bimetallic strip
heated by secondary current from the stator; the housing of the bimetallic strip should be
designed to have a heating and cooling characteristic similar to that of the machine.
Short-circuit in laminations can be detected by a temperature indicator before damage
only if the indicator is located near enough to the hot spot.
11.11 Undervoltage Protection:
Running on undervoltage will generally cause overcurrent which will cause overload or
temperature relays to trip: an exception to this is a fan motor whose load drops sharply
with speed preventing the current from increasing. It is usual to provide undervoltage
protection having an inverse time characteristic which will override temporary voltage
drops.
11.12 Abnormal Conditions and Related Protections for motor.

Abnormal Alternate forms of Protection from

Remarks
Condition which choice is made

- Overload release
- Overload protection given
- Thermal Overload relays
for almost all motors.
Overloads - Inverse Overcurrent relays
- Should not trip during
- maintenance circuit breaker
starting currents.
with built in trip coils.
 - Differential protection

- HRC fuses becomes economical for

Phase faults - High set instantaneous over motors above about 1200hp.

&Earth faults current relays - Below this high set

- Differential Protection instantaneous protection is

preferred.

- Under voltage release - Under voltage relay is no

Undervoltage
- Under voltage relays more used for protection

Unbalanced - Negative phase sequence

- Only in special applications
Voltage relays

Reverse phase - Generally at supply point

- Phase reversal protection
Sequence - Prevents reversal of running

- Usual thermal overload

- Recently developed static
Single phasing relays
single phase preventer
- Special single phase preventer

- Thermal relays

Stalling - Instantaneous overcurrent

Relays

- Instantaneous overcurrent
Rotor faults - Only for wound rotor motors
relays
Switching - 100 ohm, 0.1 F connected
- RC surge modifiers
Surges between phase & ground.

Exercises
1. Describe the principle of operation of Thermal Relays used for motor

protection.
1. Describe the causes of motor failure of both electrical and mechanical

origin.
1. Distinguish between overload protection, Short Circuit Protection and

Earth fault protection of motor.

Validation Questions
1. State whether correct or wrong.
a) Undervoltage of supply reduces starting current of motor.
b) Undervoltage of supply increases starting time of motor.
c) Squirrel cage motors can fail by rotor insulation failure.
d) Differential protection does not sense over loading of motors.
References:
1. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 1
by A. R. Van C. Warrington.
2. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 2
by A. R. Van C. Warrington.
3. Switchgear and Protection
by Sunil S. Rao
4. Protective Relay application guide
by GEC
5. J & P Switchgear handbook
 Differential Protection

9.1 Introduction

A differential relay is characterised by its ability to distinguish between an internal fault

requiring isolation of the faulty section and an external fault requiring non-operation of
the relay. Therefore, differential relays are so designed that they tend to operate on
internal faults and restrain on external faults.

Thus, a differential relay has a definite zone of protection.

The characteristics of a relay which governs its operating tendency is known as the
operating characteristics while that governing its restraining tendency is known as
restraining characteristics.

9.2 Applications of Differential Protection

Most differential relays are current differential relays in which the vector difference
between the current entering and leaving the protected element is used for relay
operation.

Differential protection is used in the following applications -

1. Protection of Generator:

It is a standardised practice to provide differential protection for generators above 10

MVA rating. Differential protection is the primary protection for the generator stator.
Percentage differential relaying is the best for the purpose and it should be used wherever
economically justified. It is not necessarily the size of the generator which determines
how good the protection should be ; the important thing is the effect on the rest of the
system due to a prolonged fault and how great the hardship would be if the generator was
damaged or out of service for a long time.

2. Protection of Transformer:

Differential protection acts as the first line of defence for power transformers against
internal short circuits. It is a standardised practice to provide differential protection for
power transformers above 5 MVA rating.

3. Protection of Generator - Transformer unit

4. Protection of Feeder

5. Protection of Transmission line

6. Protection of large motors

7. Protection of Bus-zone.

9.3 Basic Principle

A differential relay responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical
quantities. This means,

1. The differential relay has at least two actuating quantities.

2. The two or more actuating quantities should be similar, i.e. current / current, voltage /
voltage.

3. The relay responds to the vector difference between the two actuating quantities which
includes magnitude and / or phase difference.

The vector difference is achieved by suitable connection of current transformer or voltage

transformer secondaries.
Differential relays can be categorised based on their principle of operation into two
categories:

1. Circulating current (Merz Price) Differential Relay.

2. Voltage Balance differential relay.

9.4 Circulating current(Merz-Price) differential relay

9.4.1 Principle Of Operation

The principle of operation depends on the simple circulating current principle where the
difference of the currents through the two CT secondaries flows through the relay under
normal conditions and under fault conditions outside the protected section.

If a fault occurs in the protected zone, the current entering the protected element is no
more equal to that leaving the element since some current flows to the fault. This
differential current flows through the differential coil and the relay operates provided the
operating force is more than the restraining force.

This is commonly known as Merz-Price circulating current principle.

Pilot wires are generally necessary between relaying points (location of CTs) and the
provision of these is a major consideration in these forms of protection.

In practice, the relay is connected across the pilot wires and if the connections are not at
equi-potential points, the burdens on the two CTs are unequal although the current in the
two CTs is the same. This may cause the heavily loaded CT to saturate during through -
fault condition. This results in dissimilarities in the output of the CTs and can cause
spurious operation of the relay.

The problem can be tackled in two ways

1. By biasing the relay

2. By using a high impedance relay with a low current setting.

9.4.2 Characteristic

9.4.2.1 Operating characteristics

The features governing the operating characteristics of a differential relay are

Current Setting: The operating current setting of a differential relay determines its
sensitivity on internal faults.

Operating Time: The operating time of a differential relay depends on the type of the
differential relay and the magnitude of the differential current expressed as a multiple of
the current setting. This operating time normally varies from about 25 milliseconds to
about 500 milliseconds at twice the current setting.

9.4.2.2 Restraining Characteristics

In order that the differential relay does not operate during conditions other than genuine
internal faults, the following restraining characteristics are necessary:

1. Stability for external faults, difference in pilot wire length and tap changing for
transformer application.

2. Stability on magnetising inrush currents in case of transformer application.

3. Stability during over excitation inrush for transformer application.

9.4.2.2.1 Stability for external faults and under tap changing for transformer application

A differential relay may maloperate on external faults due to the following

Current transformer saturation : Current transformer on both the sides of the protected
sections should not saturate for external faults. However, if CT on one side saturates, it
will cause spill current to flow through the relay resulting in its maloperation.

Current transformer mismatch: Current transformer ratios on both the sides of the
protected section should match perfectly. However, this may not be possible for all the
cases. Moreover, while this mismatch may not cause maloperation during normal
condition, it may cause maloperation of the relay for external faults.

Moreover, the tap changer range provided on the protected transformer will automatically
result in CT mismatch.

To ensure that the differential relay remains stable for the above conditions, it is normally
provided with a bias feature.

This feature is usually expressed in terms of percentage bias and is defined as differential
current x 100.

through current

9.4.2.2.2 Stability on magnetising inrush in case of transformer application

When a transformer primary is switched ON to a supply source and the secondary is kept
open, a transient magnetising inrush current flows only on the primary side. This appears
as an internal fault for a differentially connected relay.

Depending on the position of this transformer in the power system, this magnetising
inrush current may attain a value of 10 - 12 times the full load current with a fairly long
time constant of upto 60 secs.

This magnetising inrush current is predominantly second harmonic in nature.

In order to ensure that the relay does not operate on magnetising inrush current, the relays
are provided with harmonic restraint feature.
9.4.2.2.3 Stability during over excitation inrush in transformer application

Modern power transformers are designed to operate at around 90% of their saturation
flux level at rated voltage. During abnormal conditions, short duration over voltages can
occur causing saturation of the transformer core. This can cause increase in the excitation
current of transformer of the order of 10 - 100 times the normal value of the excitation
current for a voltage rise of 20 - 30%. This condition will also appear as an internal fault
for a differentially connected relay.

In order to ensure that the relay does not maloperate during this condition, some relays
are provided with restraint against higher harmonics.

1. Types of circulating current (Merz-Price) Differential

Relay
The following types of circulating current Differential relays are used depending on the
equipment to be protected.
1. Unbiased inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relay.
2. Percentage bias differential relay.
3. Differential relay with harmonic restraint feature.
4. High impedance type differential relay.

9.4.3.1 Unbiased inverse definite minimum time relay

When a power transformer is not equipped with tap-change equipment and the current
transformers on each winding are properly matched electrically and magnetically, an
unbiased relay is used as shown in Fig.No. 9.4.3.1a.
Fig.No. 9.4.3.1a
The main disadvantages of this scheme are the need to adopt high current setting due to
current transformer mismatch and the longer duration of fault clearance. Further, the
relay may maloperate under external fault conditions when a small unbalance under
normal condition will be multiplied to a great extent on through faults.
9.4.3.2 Percentage bias differential relay
This type of relay has bias windings to provide stability on external faults and an inherent
time delay to overcome magnetising inrush currents. A typical connection of such a relay
is shown in Fig.No. 9.4.3.2.a.
Ampere turns = ( I1 + I2 ) x N
2
Fig.No. 9.4.3.2a
In this relay the operating coil is connected to the midpoint of the restraining coil. The
total number of ampere turns in the restraining coil becomes the sum of ampere turns in
its two halves,
I1 N I2 N I1 + I2
i.e. ----- + ----- which gives the average restraining current of -------- in
222
N turns.
For external faults both I1 and I2 increase and thereby the restraining torque increases
which prevents the mal-operation.
The operating characteristics of such a relay is shown in Fig.No. 9.4.3.2b.
Differential
operating
current
I1 - I 2

Fig.No. 9.4.3.2b
The ratio of differential operating current to average restraining current is a Fixed
Percentage. Hence the relay is called ' Percentage Differential Relay '.
The relay is also called ' Biased Differential Relay ' because the restraining coil is also
called a biased coil as it provides an additional flux. The percentage of biased differential
relay has a rising pick-up characteristics. As the magnitude of through current increases,
the restraining current increases.
The percentage bias settings provided in these relays normally vary from 20 to 40
percent. The operating current settings provided in these relays normally vary from 40 to
100 percent. The operating time is usually adjustable from 0.1 to 0.3 seconds at 5 times
the current setting to overcome the inrush phenomenon. A disadvantage of this type of
relay is its long operating time on internal faults.
9.4.3.3 Differential relay with Harmonic restraint feature
To achieve high speed operation on internal faults without sacrificing stability on
magnetising inrush, harmonic restraint feature is incorporated in differential relay. This
feature is based on the fact that second harmonic component predominates the
magnetising inrush currents of a transformer and is negligible in fault currents. The
differential relay filters out the second harmonic component and uses it for restraining its
operation.
This type of relay is also provided with percentage bias for stability on external faults.
The normal bias settings vary from 15 to 50 percent. The operating time of this type of
relay is usually less than 40 milliseconds at twice the current setting. The operating
current setting generally varies from 10 to 50 percent.
These relays are also provided with high set instantaneous overcurrent units to take care
of very heavy internal faults. The overcurrent units have a fixed setting of above 8 times
the rated current.
9.4.3.4 High impedance type differential relay
The relay branch is made high impedance either by using a voltage operated high
impedance relay or by connecting external series resistance (stabilising resistance) in case
of current operated differential relay.
Fig.No.9.4.3.4a shows the differential protective scheme using a high impedance relay.

A sensitive DC polarised relay is used in series with a tuning circuit which makes a relay
responsive only to the fundamental component of the differential current of CTs. The
tuning circuit makes the relay in sensitive to DC and harmonics, thereby making it more
stable on heavy external faults. To prevent excessive voltages on internal faults, a non
linear resistance (thyrite) and high set overcurrent relay connected in series with thyrite
are employed. The high set relay provides fast operation on heavy faults. Its pick up is set
high to prevent operation on external faults.
Exercises:
1. Draw neat sketches illustrating the principle of circulating current differential
protection. Indicate polarities of CTs and direction of current for internal faults.
2. State the difference between circulating current, differential protection and balanced
voltage. Differential protection with reference to behaviour of CTs.
Validation Questions:
1. State whether the following statements are correct or not:
a) Overcurrent relay element is used in differential protection system.
b) Differential protection can sense earth faults within its protected zone.
c) Differential protection is used as a back-up protection.
d) Differential protection responds to vector difference between voltage and current.
References:
1. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 1
by A. R. Van C. Warrington.
2. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 2
by A. R. Van C. Warrington.
3. Switchgear and Protection
by Sunil S. Rao
4. Protective Relay application guide
by GEC
5. J & P Switchgear handbook
by Lythal
 Bus Zone Protection

13.1 Introduction:

Busbars are essential in both power system and industrial switchgear. Bus zone
protection should be fast in order to limit damage to installation due to overheating of
conductors and to maintain system stability .

Bus zone protection should be stable i.e. it should not operate for external faults. If it
operates for external faults, it would result in unnecessary tripping of all feeders of a
large station. Reliability of operation is equally necessary because failure to clear a bus
fault can result in extensive damage to the equipment, danger to the personnel and
disruption of services.

13.2 Faults / Abnormalities:

Internal bus faults are less frequent than line faults. Most of the bus faults occur due to
equipment insulation failure, flashover due to lightning, human errors and miscellaneous
faults like circuit breaker failures, falling of objects, etc. More than 50% of these faults
are ground faults.

13.3 Types of Busbar Protection

The most commonly used busbar protections are

1) System protection covering busbars

2) Differential protection

13.3.1 System Protection Covering Busbar

These are primarily local or remote backup protection such as over current, earth fault
relays, distance protection and directional protection.
13.3.1.1 Overcurrent and Earth fault Protection:

The graded overcurrent and earth fault protection on incoming feeders act as a back up
protection to the busbar. As shown in Fig. No.13.3.1.1a, fault on bus A can be sensed by
overcurrent relay (O) of the incoming circuit and is disconnected by opening of incoming
circuit breaker.

Fig.No.13.3.1.1a

This type of protection should not be used as a primary protection of Busbars because to
isolate the bus faults, all incoming lines connected to the bus must be opened. Since such
disconnection may include generating sources as well as transmission lines, it is
important to have correct operation of bus zone protection for internal faults only. Hence,
bus zone protection by overcurrent relays of other zones is not a reliable and satisfactory
solution. Such protection can provide back up protection but primary protection being
generally differential protection.

13.3.1.2 Distance Protection:

Referring to Fig.No.13.3.1.1a, the protection of bus A is covered in second step of

distance protection of bus B. For a fault at bus A, distance protection B would operate.

In this system also, the protection is slow, there can be unwanted disconnection of all
incoming parallel circuits. Hence, this distance protection at B can be used only as a back
up protection of Bus A.

13.3.1.3 Directional protection:

The principle of directional comparison was adopted in olden days. The scheme
comprised directional current relays in source circuits and overcurrent relays in load
circuits.

The contacts of these relays are suitably interlocked in such a way that if power flows
towards the bus bar from source circuit and current flowing away from the bus bars is
sufficiently low, the entire bus zone protection acts and all the circuit breakers on load
side and source side are tripped.

The contact system of such protection was quite complex and system was too slow and
directional comparison scheme is not preferred for buses of high fault power.

13.3.2 Differential protection:

The differential protection is the primary protection for busbar against both phase and
earth faults.

Fig.No.13.3.2a shows the scheme for differential current protection of the bus zone. The
operating principle is based on Kirchoff's Law. The algebraic sum of all the currents
entering and leaving the bus zone must be zero, unless there is a fault therein. The relay is
connected to trip all circuit breakers. In case of a bus fault, the algebraic sum of current
will not be zero and the relay will operate.

The main drawback of this type of differential scheme is that there may be a false
operation in case of an external fault. This is due to saturation of one of the CTs of
faulted feeder. When CT saturates, the output is reduced and sum of all the CT secondary
currents will not be zero. To overcome this difficulty, impedance relay or bias differential
scheme can be employed.

13.3.2.1 High impedance relay scheme:

The relay branch is made high impedance either by using a voltage operated high
impedance relay or by connecting external series resistance (stabilising resistance) in case
of current operated differential relay.

Fig.No.13.3.2.1a shows the differential protective scheme using a high impedance relay.
A sensitive DC polarised relay is used in series with a tuning circuit which makes a relay
responsive only to the fundamental component of the differential current of CTs. The
tuning circuit makes the relay in sensitive to DC and harmonics, thereby making it more
stable on heavy external faults. To prevent excessive voltages on internal faults, a non
linear resistance (thyrite) and high set overcurrent relay connected in series with thyrite
are employed. The high set relay provides fast operation on heavy faults. Its pick up is set
high to prevent operation on external faults.

13.3.2.1.1 Use of non-linear resistor

Under severe in zone fault condition all the associated CTs have similar polarities and
tend to drive current through the differential relay. The relay branch being high
impedance may develop high voltage forcing the CTs into saturation , with highly
distorted but peak output voltage wave form. The peak voltage given by the formula

VP = 2 [ 2 VK ( Vf - VK ) ] 1/2

where VK = knee point voltage of the CT and

Vf = prospective voltage in the absence of saturation

= If /n ( RS + Rr )

If = fault current

n = CT ratio

Rs = Stablising resistance

Rr = Relay resistance

If the peak voltages exceeds 3000 volts, it will stress the secondary insulation of the CTs,
relays and associated pilot wires. It is therefore customary to provide non-linear resistor
across the relay branch to limit the voltage to a safe value. At high peak voltages, the
non-linear resistance offers low resistance thereby clamping the voltage to a low value.

13.3.2.1.2 C.T. Supervision

The stability of differential protection is hampered and the relay becomes unstable for
any open circuit or cross connection of the CT secondary. From this point of view
continuous supervision of CT secondary is required as an additional safeguard.

The supervision relay is an AC voltage relay connected across the differential relay
branch, having a sensitive setting range (usually 2 -14 volts ) and a fixed time delay to
prevent transient operation on internal faults. The relay is connected to give an alarm and
short CT secondary bus wires on operation.

13.3.2.1.3 Check feature

Since stability is the critical parameter of busbar protection, additional check feature is
usually provided in high impedance scheme to enhance security against possible
maloperation.

The check feature is operated from a separate CT and operating on all incoming and
outgoing feeders connected to the bus and is a virtual duplication of the main differential
system. The output of the main and the differential relays are wired in series so that
tripping is affected by simultaneous operation of both the schemes.

13.3.3 Low Impedance Scheme (biased)

Low impedance busbar differential relay is primarily a biased differential relay where the
through current biased increases the pickup threshold of differential relay on external
fault to ensures stability .

The low impedance relay is more tolerant to CT mismatch and can share common CT
cores with other protections.

Exercises:

1. Describe the principle of high impedance differential protection based on voltage drop.
2. Explain the necessity of check feature in bus zone protection.

Validation Questions:

1. Give a sketch of differential protection of a station bus.

References:

1. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 1

by A. R. Van C. Warrington.

2. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 2

by A. R. Van C. Warrington.

3. Swotchgear and Protection

by Sunil S. Rao

4. Protective Relay application guide

by GEC

5. J & P Switchgear handbook

by Lythal
Current Transformers
5.1 Introduction

Whenever the values of current in a power circuit are too high to permit convenient direct
connections of measuring instrument or relays; coupling is made through transformers.
Such measuring transformers are required to produce a scaled down replica of the input
quantity to the accuracy expected for the particular measurement. They are termed as
Current Transformers.

The design and the use of these transformers are quite different from that of the well-
known power transformer. In current transformers, primary current is not controlled by
the condition of the secondary circuit. Hence, primary current is a dominant factor in the
operation of current transformer. Current transformers are classified into two groups.

1. Protective current transformers; used in association with relays, trip coils, pilot wires,
etc.

1. Measuring current transformers; used in conjunction with ammeter, wattmeter etc.

As a rule, the ratio error is very important in protective current transformer and phase
angle error may be less important.
5.2 Terms and Definitions related to CT.
Rated Primary Current: The value of the primary current on which the performance of
the current transformer is specified by the manufacturers.
Rated Secondary Current: The value of the secondary current marked on the rating plate.
Rated short-time current: It is defined as the rms value of the AC current which the CT
can carry for rated time without any damage due to thermal and electro dynamic stresses.
Exciting Current: The rms value of the current taken by the secondary winding of a CT
when sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency is applied to secondary with primary winding
open circuited.
Rated primary saturation current: The maximum value of primary current upto which the
required accuracy is maintained.
Rated Saturation Factor: The ratio of the rated primary saturation current to the rated
primary current.
Over current factor: The ratio of rated short time current to rated primary current.
Burden: The value of load connected across the secondary of CT expressed in VA or
ohms at rated secondary current.
Rated Burden: The burden assigned by manufacturer at which the CT performs with
specified accuracy.
Rated Transformer Ratio: The ratio of the rated primary current to rated secondary
current.
Ratio Error: The percentage error in the magnitude of the secondary current defined in
terms of primary current.
KnIs - Ip
Percentage error = ----------------- x 100
Ip
where Kn = Rated transformation ratio
IS = Actual Secondary Current for primary current IP
Ip = Actual Primary Current
Phase angle error: The phase angle between primary current vector and reversed
secondary current vector .
Composite Error: The rms value of the difference [Knis - ip] integrated over one cycle
under steady condition given by,
100 T 1
Composite error = ----- x -- [ Knis - ip]2 dt
Ip 0 T
where Kn = Rated transformation ratio
Ip = Primary current, rms
ip = Instantaneous primary current
is = Secondary current instantaneous
T = Time of one cycle in second.
Rated accuracy limit primary current: The highest value of primary current assigned by
the manufacturers of the CT , upto which the limit of composite error are complied with.
5.3 Accuracy Class
The class assigned to the current transformers to the specified limits of a ratio error and
phase angle error.
For relaying purpose the ratio error becomes important. Generally the load on secondary
side of a CT is at such a high lagging power factor that the secondary current is almost in
phase opposition with the magnetising currents and therefore, phase angle is negligible.
Ratio error is very significant because the currents are very high during short circuit
conditions.
In general, the percentage ratio error increases with increase in primary current.
The current transformer used for protection are marked as follows;
5 P 10
The first number specifies the composite error
P stands for protection class
10 stands for Accuracy Limit Factor
5.4 Burden on CT
It can be expressed as an apparent power at rated secondary current and power factor.
This power factor is not the power factor of a system load.
The circuit connected to the secondary winding is termed as burden of the CT. If the term
load is used, it refers to the primary current.
Burden is expressed in terms of impedance of the circuit connected to the secondary and
its resistance and reactance. The British method is to specify the burden of the CT in VA
at rated secondary current at specified power factor.
5.5 Vector Diagram of CT

Fig.No.5.5a
Kn = Transformation ratio IP = Primary Current
IS = Secondary current I0 = Exciting Current
IM = Magnetising component Ie = Component of I0 in
of I0 . quadrature with I0.
= Main core flux = Angle between I0 and
= Angle of burden = Phase angle between
primary current and reversed secondary current.

5.6 Magnetising curve of a CT :

Fig.No.5.6a shows a typical excitation characteristic of a CT.

Fig.No.5.6a
The excitation curve may be sub divided into four divisions: Ankle Point, Linear region,
Knee Point and Saturation.
Knee point is defined as the point where 10% increase in flux density causes 50 %
increase in exciting ampere turns. Protective current transformer generally operates on a
linear region or above while the measuring CT has the flux density in the region of ankle
point only.
It is difficult to avoid saturation during short circuit conditions. The effect of saturation is
reduced output from the CT and hence reduced speed of overcurrent relay.
In differential relays, the saturation disturbs the balance and the stability of protection is
affected.
CT saturation curve is generally plotted in secondary volts versus exciting current
measured in secondary.
5.7 Open Circuited Secondary of CT
An important aspect of CT operation is, the voltage appearing across open circuited
secondary. Normal voltage across secondary of a 30VA CT with current 5 ampere is 30/5
= 6 volts.
However, if by mistake, secondary is open circuited the voltage of a secondary rises to a
very high value. The peak value may reach upto a few KV. Open circuiting of secondary
results in zero secondary current, hence reduced back emf. The working flux increases
and the core gets saturated. The secondary e.m.f. increases due to increased flux.
5.8 Polarity of CT
Polarity gives the relative instantaneous directions of current in primary and secondary
leads. As per British Standards, the polarity of the CT is marked as shown in the Fig.
No.5.8a.

Fig.No.5.8a
If instantaneous current flows from P1 to P2 as marked by the arrow, then in the
secondary, the instantaneous current flows from S1 to S2 through ammeter as shown by
arrow IS.
5.9 CT for circulating current differential protection
Fig. 5.9a shows the basic circulating current differential protection.
Fig.No.5.9a
In any differential protection the balance between secondary currents should be
maintained with close tolerance. The CTs should be designed and selected such that the
stability is not lost during transient and sub transient through faults.
Under static conditions the core of the CTs must be large enough not to saturate at
maximum fault current. In other words the flux density required to produce the maximum
voltage drop across the secondary burden must be below the knee point voltage of the
CT.
5.10 CT for overcurrent phase fault protection
While selecting CTs for overcurrent phase fault protection by IDMT relays, it should be
ensured that CTs are so selected that they do not saturate upto at least 20 times current
setting of relays. This is achieved by selecting CT of low burden and by selecting ratio of
appropriate high value.
5.11 CTs for directional relays
Phase angle errors are particularly important for CTs used for directional relays. These
should not saturate for maximum through fault current also.

Exercises
Q.No.1. What do you mean by burden of a CT & how is it specified ?
Q.No.2. Why should the secondary of the CT not be open circuited while the primary is
loaded ?
Q.No.3. What is the effect of : (a) Over current protection
(b) Differential protection
Q.No.4. State specifications to be mentioned while selecting CTs.
Validation Questions
Prob.1. Calculate the output of CT of 5 Amp. rated secondary current when the burden
consist of a relay requiring ( 10 VA at 5A ) + a lead resistance of 0.9 ohms.
References:
1. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 1
by A. R. Van C. Warrington.
2. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 2
by A. R. Van C. Warrington.
3. Switchgear and Protection
by Sunil S. Rao
4. Protective Relay application guide
by GEC
5. J & P Switchgear handbook
by Lythal

PotentialTransformer

6.1 Introduction
Voltage transformer are used for measurement and protection. Accordingly either
measuring type or protective type are used. They may either be single phase or three
phase. Voltage transformers are necessary for directional protection, distance protection,
under frequency, under voltage and power relays etc. The primary of voltage
transformers are connected directly to power circuit between phase and ground or phases
depending upon rated voltage and application. The volt ampere rating of voltage
transformer is smaller as compared with that of a power transformer.
There are 2 types of constructions:
1. Electro-magnetic voltage transformer : Here the primary and the secondary are wound
on magnetic core like in a usual transformer.
2. Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CVT) : Here the primary voltage is applied to a series
capacitor group. Voltage across one of the capacitors is taken to an auxiliary voltage
transformer. The secondary of auxiliary voltage transformer is taken for measurement or
protection.
6.2 Terms and definitions related to voltage transformers
Rated primary voltage: The primary voltage marked on the rating plate of the voltage
transformer. The method of connection of primary winding to system and system voltage
to be considered while selecting the VT of correct primary voltage rating.
Rated secondary voltage: It is the value of secondary voltage marked the rating plate.
Residual voltage: Vector sum of three line to earth voltage i.e.
VR = VAN + VBN + VCN
Residual VT: A 3 phase VT or a group of three single phase residually connected VTs in
which the residual voltage appears across secondary terminal when 3 phase voltages are
applied to primary windings.
Rated transformation ratio: The ratio of rated primary voltage to rated secondary voltage.
Ratio Error: Percentage error is defined as
kVs - VP
% ratio error = 100 x -----------------
VP
where k = Nominal ratio
Vs = Secondary voltage
VP = Primary voltage
Voltage Factor: The upper limit of the operating voltage expressed in per unit of voltage.
6.3 Accuracy Classes
Standard specifying the following limits of errors for voltage terms used for protection.
Limits & phase errors for voltage transformers

0.9 to 1.1 times rated primary voltage 0.25

Accuracy Classes Application
to 1.0 times rated output at 0.8 lag p.f.

Voltage Error % Phase Error minutes

[+ or -] [ + or -]

3.0 3.0 120

Protection
5.0 5.0 300
Residual VT only
10.0 10.0 --

6.4 Burden on Voltage Transformer:

Burdens are specified in VA at a rated secondary voltage at a particular PT.
The total burden of the VT should be less than the rated burden of the VT.
6.5 Connections
There are 3 types of connections.
1) V - V
2) Star - Star
3) Star - Open
6.5.1 V - V Connection
This connection is used only for measurement and not usually for protection. 2 VTs are
used. Primary is connected in V and secondary is connected in V. In this connection zero
sequence voltages do not appear.
6.5.2 Star - Star Connection
Either 3 separate VTs or single 3 limb VT is used. Primaries and secondaries are both
connected in star.
Each primary phase winding is connected between phase and earth of supply circuit
which is transformed into secondary.
The neutral point of loads is connected to neutral point of secondaries. The neutral point
of secondaries are solidly earthed.
6.5.3 Star - open Delta
The primary windings are connected in Star and the star point is earthed. The secondaries
are connected in series with the load as shown in Fig.No.6.5.3a
Fig.No.6.3.5a
The residually connected VT may have 3 single phase unit or 3 phase 5 limbed unit.
Accuracy class of residually connected VT is 5 or 10.

Exercises
Q.No.1. Explain with a clear sketch the connection of VTs in Star - Star
for under voltage protection.
Q.No.2. Describe the residual connection of VT.
Validation Questions
Prob.1. State the preferred accuracy classes for VTs for the use of
protection.

References:
1. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 1
by A. R. Van C. Warrington.
2. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 2
by A. R. Van C. Warrington.
3. Switchgear and Protection
by Sunil S. Rao
4. Protective Relay application guide
by GEC
5. J & P Switchgear handbook
by Lythal
Overload Protection
7.1 Introduction

Overloading causes the machine to draw more current and these excessive currents result
in overheating of the machine. Temperature rise of the conductors reduce its current
carrying capacity which results in further temperature rise due to increase in winding
resistance. The rate of temperature rise is determined by losses and thermal time constant
of the machine. Thermal stresses deteriorates the insulation of the machine and
consequently the life and efficiency of machine are reduced.

The permissible overloads and their duration depends upon the type of cooling and
insulation class of the machine. Higher overloads are permissible for shorter durations.

7.2 Applications

In generators, overheating of stator may be caused by overloading and failure of cooling

system or other core faults. Modern generators employ two methods to detect
overheating. In one method, inlet and outlet temperatures of cooling medium are
compared for detecting overheating. In other methods, the temperature sensing elements
are embedded in stator slots to sense the temperature. For small generators, a bimetallic
strip heated by secondary current of the CT is placed in stator. Rotor temperature can be
measured by measuring the winding resistance. An ohmmeter type instrument , energised
by the rotor voltage and current and calibrated in temperature is employed for the
purpose.

In transformers, protection against overloads depends upon winding temperature which is

usually measured by thermal image technique. In this technique, a temperature sensing
device is placed in the transformer oil near the top of the transformer tank. Generally, this
device is a silicon resistor or silistor. It is incorporated with the heating element and kept
in a thermal moulded material. the whole unit forms a thermal replica of the transformer
winding. It is in the shape of small cylinder and it is placed in the pocket in the
transformer tank about 25 cm below tank top. The silistor is used as an arm of a
resistance bridge supplied from stabilised dc source. An indicating instrument is
energised from the out of balance voltage of the bridge.

For overload protection of motors, bimetal relays, eutectic alloy relays, electromagnetic
relays, static relays are us. Other winding temperature sensing device such as resistors
embedded in slots, thermostats, thermistors etc. are used to supervise the winding
temperature and trip the switching device.

7.3 Principle of operation

Thermal bimetallic relays, Heat sink relays and thermistors are generally used for
overload protection.

The thermal element of the relay is usually a bimetallic strip wound in a spiral shape to
obtain a greater length, resulting in greater sensitivity. A bimetallic element consists of
two metal strips of different coefficients of thermal expansion, joined together. When it
heats up, one strip expands more than the other. This results in bending of the metallic
strip. The thermal element can be heated directly by passing the actuating current through
strip , but usually a heater coil is employed .When the bimetallic element heats up, it
bends and deflects, thereby closing the relay contacts. For the ambient temperature
compensation, a dummy bimetallic element shielded from heater coil and designed to
oppose the bending of main bimetallic strip is employed. When the strip is in spiral form,
the unequal expansions of the two metals causes the unwinding of spiral, which results in
closure of the contacts. The setting of the relay is normally varied by adjusting the
contact traverse or by having a tapped saturating transformer between the main current
transformers and the thermal elements. Fig.No.7.3a shows a simple arrangement to
indicate operating principle. The rate of heating determines the rate of movement and
hence the tripping time, giving an inverse time characteristic.

Fig.No.7.3a : A typical bimetallic thermal relay

For protection of 3-phase motors, three bimetallic strips are used . They are energised by
currents from the three phases. These contacts are arranged in such a way that if any one
of the spirals moves differently from others due to unbalance exceeding a certain value ,
their contacts meet and cause the circuit breakers to trip. These spirals also protect the
motors against overloading.

Thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors are also used for overload protection
of machines.

A thermocouple consist of a junction of two selected materials; the junction is connected

in electric circuit. The difference in temperature between the hot junction and cold
junction induces emf. This emf is measured by a sensitive moving coil element.

Resistance temperature measuring devices employ the principle that the resistance of
conductors increases with the temperature. The change in resistance is used for
measurement of temperature. The element forms an arm of a balancing bridge. In normal
conditions, the bridge is balanced. When temperature exceeds a certain limit, the bridge
becomes unbalanced. The out of balance current energises a relay which trips a circuit
breaker.

Another temperature sensing device used to detect overload and unbalance currents is
heat sink thermistor. The heat sink thermistor forms one arm of a sensitive balanced
Wheat stone bridge and a temperature compensation thermistor forms another. The heat
sink thermistor is heated either by line currents or its derivatives. The change in
resistance of heat sink thermistor gives a signal across the output terminals of the bridge
circuit due to unbalance. This is used to operate another relay which gives the trip and
alarm signal.

Fig.No.7.3b shows a heat sink relay thermal element Th1 is the heat sink thermistor, Th2
the ambient temperature compensation thermistor and R2, R3, R4, and R5 are the balancing
resistors. The two heaters H1 and H2 fed by positive and negative sequence components
of the line currents respectively , operate on the heat sink thermistor. Unbalance in the
bridge circuit and hence operation is caused when resistance of the thermistors changed
due to combined heating of the two heaters, and the voltage across the relay exceeds the
setting value of the relay. The operating time depends on the rate of heat input to Th 1 and
consequently on the amount of overload, giving the inverse time characteristic.

As the total heating effect of the positive and negative phase sequence currents are taken
into account, a true thermal image of motor is obtained even under unbalanced
conditions. This ensures that the motor is tripped only when thermal limits are likely to
be stressed.

H1 : Heater energised by positive sequence filter

H2 : Heater energised by negative sequence filter

Th1 : Main thermistor

Th2 : Ambient temperature compensation thermistor

Fig.No.7.3b : A typical circuit diagram of Heat Sink Relay

The additional heating effects due to unbalance currents or single phasing, in rotating
machines is a result of double frequency currents induced in rotor circuit due to presence
of negative phase sequence currents in stator circuit. The effect of single phasing and
unbalance is best catered for in a heat sink type relay by breaking up the line currents in
their sequence components and impressing the heating effects of each component
separately on heat sink. This enables a closer match of relay and machine thermal
withstand characteristics than it is possible to achieve in the bimetallic relays.

'Eutectic Alloy Relay' operate on a different principle. In such relays, a special alloy
'Eutectic alloy' is used. This alloy is filled in a tube. When heated to a certain
temperature, the alloy melts. A heater coil, which is in series with motor circuit encircles
the tube filled with Eutectic alloy. When the motor is overloaded, the alloy melts and
thereby the ratchet is released and the contacts open by spring mechanism. Under normal
conditions, the Eutectic alloy is solid and the control circuit is not closed. As soon as
Eutectic relay operates, the coil is disconnected and the alloy cools and solidifies. Control
circuit can be reset manually.
Winding thermostat is also used for overload protection. It comprises a tube containing a
bimetal operated snap switch. It is embedded in motor winding. The snap switch
normally closed contacts are used to trip motor contactor or circuit breaker.

7.4 Characteristics

Overload protection of electrical apparatus is achieved generally by thermal relays, where

maximum utilisation of their withstand capabilities is desired. However, these relays also
detect certain unbalanced conditions as unbalanced voltages or currents which cause
additional heating effects, mainly in rotating machines.

Fig.No.7.4a : Comparison of Thermal Characteristic of Bimetallic and Heat Sink Thermal

Relays.

The following information assist in the correct application of thermal relays against
overload :

a) Thermal withstand characteristics of apparatus .

b) Starting characteristics in time-current characteristic form.

c) Current transformer ratio.

d) Relay particulars, i.e. setting range, characteristics, relay thermal limit and tolerances

e) Maximum fault current available at relaying point.

f) Ambient conditions.

Exercises:

1. What are the different methods of identifying overloading of an electrical equipment.

2. State the principle of operation of bimetallic overload relay.

Validation Questions:

1. What is the basic characteristic of thermal withstand capability of a motor?

References:

1. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 1

by A. R. Van C. Warrington.

2. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 2

by A. R. Van C. Warrington.

3. Switchgear and Protection

by Sunil S. Rao

4. Protective Relay application guide

by GEC

5. J & P Switchgear handbook

by Lythal

Overcurrent & Earthfault Protection

8.1 Introduction
As the fault impedance is less than the load impedance, the fault current is more than the
load current. If a short circuit occurs, the circuit impedance is reduced to a low value and
therefore a fault is accompanied by large currents.

Protections which respond to an increase in the current above the pickup value caused
due to short circuits, are known as overcurrent protections. Short circuits can be phase
faults, earth faults or winding faults. Short circuit currents are generally several (5 to 20)
times the full load current.

Hence, fast fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits.

When a machine is protected by differential protection, over-current protection is

provided in addition as a backup and in some cases to protect the machine from sustained
through faults.

Several protective devices are used for over-current protection such as:

1. Fuses.

2. Series connected trip coils operating on switching devices.

3. Overcurrent relays in conjunction with current transformers.

8.2 Applications of Overcurrent Protection

The primary requirements of over-current protection are :

1. The protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible overcurrents and
current surges during switching. To achieve this, a time delay is normally provided. If
time delay cannot be permitted, high set instantaneous relaying is used.

2. The protection should be co-ordinated with the neighbouring overcurrent protections

so as to discriminate.
Overcurrent protection has a wide range of applications and is provided for the
following :

1. Motor protection.

2. Transformer protection.

3. Generator protection.

4. Line protection.

5. Protection of Utility Equipment.

8.2.1 Motor protection

Over current protection is the basic type of protection used against short circuits in stator
windings of motors where differential protection is uneconomical. Inverse time and
instantaneous phase and ground overcurrent relays can be employed for motors having
ratings above 1200 h.p. For smaller size motors where the cost of CTs and protective
relays is not economically justified, HRC fuses are employed. The guiding factor for
overcurrent relays for motors is that they should not operate due to the momentary excess
currents during the normal starting conditions but they should provide adequate
protection to the motor during abnormal starting conditions as well as during sustained
overloads in running conditions.

Instantaneous overcurrent relays having a setting range of about 200 to 800 percent or
400 to 1600 percent of motor full load current may be used to provide protection against
phase faults on the motors. The setting should be high enough to prevent maloperation
under motor starting conditions.

Instantaneous earth fault protection having a minimum setting about 10 to 20 percent of

rated current transformer secondary current may also be provided on motors which are
connected to systems earthed through a resistance or reactance. Such relays may be
operated in series with a stabilising resistance to prevent maloperation under starting.
8.2.2 Transformer protection

Transformers are provided with overcurrent protection against faults, only when the cost
of differential relaying cannot be justified. However, overcurrent relays are provided in
addition to differential relays to take care of through faults.

Small transformers below 500 KVA installed in distribution systems are generally
protected by drop-out fuses, as the cost of relays plus circuit breakers is not generally
justified.

8.2.3 Generator protection

Overcurrent relays have a limited application in protective schemes for generators as they
cannot provide as good a protection for the generators as differential relays. They are
principally applied to provide back-up protection for sustained external faults, that is, on
the bus bars or on the feeders. However, they also act as back-up to the differential
protection on internal faults where bus-bars can feed into the faults.

Simple inverse definite minimum time lag (IDMTL) overcurrent relays are in general,
unsatisfactory for phase-to-earth fault back-up protection because certain methods of
earthing of the generator ( distribution transformer earthing or voltage transformer
earthing ) limit the maximum available earth fault current to a value below the normal
settings of inverse time relays.

When used as a back-up protection for sustained external phase faults, the selection of the
relay and their settings must be very carefully considered. The synchronous impedance
(which will vary anywhere between 110 to 250 percent), limits the sustained fault current
fed by the generators to about the same as, or less than, the rated load current.

Due to the rapid decrement of the short circuit current as shown in Fig. 8.2.3.a, the relay
should be so set that it allows sufficient margin over the rated overload capacity of the
machine, and at the same time, is capable of operating at the short-circuit value at full
decrement.
12

X"d CURRENT

10

X'd CURRENT

WITH VOLTAGE REGULATOR (11kV CIRCUIT)

3.3 kV CIRCUIT NO REGULATOR

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Time in seconds
Fig.No.8.2.3a

With an automatic voltage regulator used with the machine the sustained fault current
would be higher than the maximum load current. In such cases, a simple attracted
armature electro magnetic type of overcurrent relay in conjunction with a definite time
delay relay is used to protect the generator. The overcurrent setting may be about 125 to
150 percent of the full load current of the generator and the definite timing may be
between 3 to 6 seconds, depending on the individual case ( I2 t characteristics of the
generator).

As a back-up for the unit protection of the generator in case of internal phase faults the
setting mentioned earlier is quite satisfactory in cases where the bus-bar fault MVA is
appreciably greater than the sustained fault MVA fed by the machine. As a protection
against such faults, it is necessary to de-excite the machine by the overcurrent relay.

Where generators are not fitted with automatic voltage regulators, the sustained fault
currents fed by the generator on an external fault may be less than the maximum load
current. In these cases, a voltage restraint or a voltage controlled inverse time provides
the necessary discrimination between generator feeding the normal loads and the
generator feeding sustained external fault currents.

8.2.4 Line Protection

The lines or feeders can be protected by :

1. Instantaneous over-current relays.

2. Inverse time over-current relays.

3. Directional over-current relays.

Overcurrent protection for feeders is of two types :

1. Non-directional time and current graded schemes.

2. Directional time and current graded schemes.

Time graded overcurrent relays are normally used for backup protection in large
transmission systems or where a time lag can be permitted and instantaneous operation is
not necessary. In distribution feeders, they play a more important role and may be co-
ordinated.

Overcurrent relays are also used against ground faults is transmission lines.

Very high voltage transmission lines (220 KV and above) are equipped with the fastest
and most reliable carrier-pilot or high speed distance protection. Whereas for 33 KV
circuits directional time lag over-current relays or high speed distance relays are used.
Radial feeders working on 22 KV or lower are usually equipped with time lag
overcurrent relays supplemented by instantaneous relays. Sometimes only HRC fuses are
used on these lines.

8.2.5 Protection of Utility equipment

The furnaces, industrial installations, commercial, industrial and domestic equipment are
all provided with overcurrent protection.

8.3 Principles and characteristics

8.3.1 Principle of operation

An overcurrent relay operates when the load current exceeds the preset value. The value
of the preset current above which the relay operates is known as the pickup current.

A scheme which incorporates overcurrent relays for protection of an element of a power

system is known as overcurrent scheme or overcurrent protection. An overcurrent scheme
may include one or more overcurrent relays.

8.3.2 Characteristics

It is necessary to be able to time grade overcurrent relays with fuses and possibly other
devices using heating effect. The short time heating effect is dependent on

I2 t = k

It is therefore, desirable that the characteristic of the relay should match this law at higher
currents.

All devices affected by heating have a maximum continuous rating and, in our case, this
is the maximum current that can be supplied for infinite time. For correct matching, this
current should match the pick-up current of the relay and at pick up the time of operation
should approach infinity.
Thus, the law of the relay would be

KM

t = -----------

I2

---- - 1

Ip2

where t = time of operation of the relay.

I = Current seen by the relay.

Ip = Current setting of the relay.

K = Constant.

M = Time multiplier setting.

The family of overcurrent relay has to discriminate between different applications namely
, protection against over heating (I2 t = K), fuses (I3 t = k), power rectifiers (I8 t = k),etc.,.

Thus, the general form of inverse characteristics of an overcurrent relays is given as

KM

t = --------------

( I / I P )n

The operating time of all overcurrent relays tends to become asymptotic to a definite
minimum value with increase in the value of current. This is inherent in electro magnetic
relays due to saturation of the magnetic circuit. So by varying the point of saturation
different characteristics can be obtained.

Thus different time current characteristics can be obtained by varying the values of K and
n. Some standard characteristics are :

1. Definite time characteristics.

2. Instantaneous characteristics.

3. Inverse characteristics.

4. Inverse definite minimum time-lag (IDMTL)

5. Very inverse characteristics.

6. Extremely inverse characteristics.

7. Long time inverse characteristics.

8. Special characteristics.

These characteristics are obtained by induction disc and induction cup relays.

The torque of these relays as shown in the earlier chapters is proportional to 12Sin where 1
and 2 are the two fluxes cutting the disc or cup and is the angle between them.

Where both fluxes are produced by the same quantity, as in current or voltage operated
relays, then below saturation the torque is proportional to I2, the coil current and hence
the torque

T = K I2.

8.3.2.1 Definite time characteristics

As stated earlier, below the saturation level of the core, the operating torque of an electro
magnetic induction relay is given by T = K I2.

The core is made to saturate at a very early stage with the result that by increasing I, K
decreases so that the time of operation remains same over the working range irrespective
of the magnitude of current above the pick up value flowing through the coil.

Thus, the characteristics governing the operation of a definite time overcurrent relay is

k
t = ---
I0

These are also known as time-delay relays and the desired definite operating time can be
set with the help of intentional time delay mechanisms such as drag magnet, dash pots,
bellows, escape mechanisms, back-stop arrangements, etc.

8.3.2.2 Instantaneous characteristic

An instantaneous relay also operates in a definite time when the current exceeds its
threshold value and the operating time is constant, irrespective of the magnitude of
current. But there is no intentional time delay incorporated. Sometimes terms like high
set or high speed are used for very fast relays having operating times less than 0.1 sec.

This characteristic can generally be satisfied by a relay of the nonpolarized attracted

armature type. This relay has a special advantage of reducing the time of operation to a
minimum for faults very close to generating sources, where the fault current is the
greatest.

For instantaneous overcurrent protection, attracted armature type, moving iron type,
permanent magnet moving coil type, static HRC and drop out fuses may be used.

8.3.2.3 Inverse characteristics

If the core of an induction cup or an induction disc type electromagnetic relay is made to
saturate at a later stage, the characteristic assumes a shape governed by the equation

k
t = ---
I1

Such a characteristic is known as an inverse characteristic in which the operating time

decreases with the increase in the actuating current above the pick up value.

For inverse time current characteristics, electro magnetic induction cup or disc type,
permanent magnet moving coil type, static relays may be used.

8.3.2.4 Inverse Definite Minimum Time Lag (IDMTL)

Now if the core is made to saturate at a later stage, the time current characteristic remains
inverse over some range and then, assumes the definite time form.

At low values of operating current the shape of the curve is determined by the effect of
the restraining force of the control spring while at high values the effect of saturation
predominates.

An inverse time characteristic is obtained if the value of the plug setting multiplier (PSM)
is below 10. For values of plug setting multiplier between 10 and 20, the characteristic
tends to become a straight line i.e., towards the definite time characteristic.

Different time multiplier settings (TMS) are obtained by varying the travel of the disc or
cup required to close the contacts. The higher the time multiplier setting, the greater will
be the spring restraining force. In order to make the relay operate at a constant value of
minimum trip current for any TMS, graded holes are cut in the disc or a disc with spiral
cut edge is used. Thus, as the disc moves in the tripping direction, winding up the spring,
more and more conducting metal of the disc comes into play in the active air gap of the
electromagnet to increase the electric torque, thus compensating the increasing spring
torque.
8.3.2.5 Very inverse characteristic

If the core saturation occurs at a still later stage the characteristic remains inverse over a
greater range and after saturation tends to definite time. The equation which governs this
characteristic is also

k
t = --------
In - 1

When the value of n varies from 1.02 to 2. The curve gets more and more inverse or
steeper with increasing n.

Very inverse time current relays are recommended for the cases where there is a
substantial reduction of fault current as the distance from the power source increases.
They are particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep characteristic.

8.3.2.6 Extremely inverse characteristic

To simulate an extremely inverse characteristic the saturation of the core has to occur at a
very late stage and the equation governing this curve is roughly of the form

k
t = ---
I2

The electromagnetic relay which gives the steepest time current characteristic amongst
those discussed earlier is an extremely inverse relay.

8.3.2.7 Long time inverse characteristic

These are relays which follow the same characteristic as a very inverse relay but with a
larger time lag.

120
 t = --------
I-1

8.3.2.8 Special characteristics

Overcurrent relays having their time-current characteristics steeper than those of

extremely inverse relays are required for certain industrial applications. To protect
rectifier transformers a highly inverse characteristic of

k
t = ---
I8

is required.

Enclosed fuses have a time current characteristics according to the law

k
t = -----
I3.5

Thus, none of the above discussed relays can be graded with them.

Static or micro-processor based relays are to designed to give these characteristics. A

micro processor based relay can easily give straight line characteristics of the form

k
t = ----
In

for any value of n. These characteristic are straight line characteristic

on log t / log I graph.

According to the British Standards, the following are the important characteristics of
overcurrent relays.

0.14

1) IDMTL t = ----------

I0.02 - 1

13.5

2) Very inverse t = -------

I-1

80

3) Extremely inverse t = --------

I2 - 1

120

4) Long time inverse t = --------

I-1

Where t is the operating time in secs , and

I is the fault current in Amperes.

The IDMTL characteristic is the only characteristic specified by Indian Standards (IS :
3231 - 1965), the rest are all relative curves. Table 8.3.2.8a shows the time current
characteristic of an IDMTL relay.
 Operating Current expressed as a Operating Time in seconds at the
multiple of the setting. maximum time setting (TMS=1.0).

20 2.2

10 3.0

5 4.3

2 10.0

Table. No. 8.3.2.8a

8.4 Current transformers ( CT s ) and Zero Sequence CTs

8.4.1 Current transformers ( CT s)

While selecting CTs for overcurrent phase fault protection by IDMTL relays, it should be
ensured that CTs are so selected that they do not saturate upto at least 20 times current
setting of relay. This is achieved by selecting CT of low burden and by selecting CT ratio
of appropriate high value. The high ratio CT will have high primary current and would
saturate at a higher value of short-circuit current.

For graded time lag overcurrent protection, it is a practice to employ high ratio CTs in
some location and low ratio CTs on other locations.

The low ratio CTs are likely to get saturated for fault currents and high ratio CTs are not.

Saturation of CT core gives rise to predominant third harmonic current in the secondary.
The effect of this harmonic on induction disc relays is to increase the time of operation.
Thus during fault conditions, the relay connected to low ratio CTs are likely to take more
operating time than high ratio CTs. Hence discrimination based on graded time lag is not
satisfactorily achieved. Generally for overcurrent operation, CT class of 5P10, 5P15,
10P5 and 10P10 are used.

8.4.2 Zero sequence CTs

For earth fault applications, zero sequence CTs are also used other than residually
connected CTs and neutral connected CTs.

In this type of CT, a single ring shaped core encircles the conductors of all the three
phases. A secondary coil is connected to a relay unit.

The cross-section of ring-core is ample, so that saturation is not a problem. During no

earth-fault condition, the components of fluxes due to the fields of three conductors are
balanced and the secondary current is negligible. During earth faults, such a balance is
disturbed and current is induced in the secondary.

8.5 Overcurrent protection

Overcurrent protection can be achieved by means of three over-current relays as well as

by two overcurrent relays as shown in Fig. No. 8.5a and Fig. No. 8.5b respectively.

Fig. No. 8.5a

Referring to Fig. No. 8.5a, the three current transformers and relay coils connected in star
and the star point is earthed. When short circuit occurs in the protected zone the
secondary current of CTs increases. This current flows through relay coils and the relay
picks-up. The relay contacts close, thereby the trip circuit is closed and the circuit breaker
operates.

Such a scheme responds to phase faults and earth faults including single-phase to earth
fault. Therefore, such schemes are used with solidly earthed systems where phase to
phase and phase to earth faults are likely to occur.

Fig. No. 8.5b

Overcurrent protection against phase faults can be provided by two overcurrent relays as
shown in Fig. No. 8.5b. But generally this protection is used as combined overcurrent and
earthfault protection with a third relay connected in the residual circuit.
8.6 Earthfault protection

Since earth faults are relatively frequent, earth fault protection is necessary in most cases.
When separate earth fault protection is not economical, the phase relays senses the earth
fault currents. However, such protection lacks sensitivity. Hence separate earthfault
protection is generally provided. Earth fault protection senses earth fault current.
Following are the methods of earth fault protection.

1) Residually connected earth fault relay.

2) Earth fault relay connected in the Neutral to Earth Circuit.

3) Earth fault protection with Core Balance or Zero Sequence CT.

8.6.1 Residually connected earth-fault relay

Refer Fig.No.8.6.1a

In absence of any earth-fault, the vector sum of the three line currents is zero.

Hence the vector sum of the three secondary currents is also zero.

Ias + I bs + I cs = 0

The sum ( Ias + I bs + I cs ) is called residual current (Iresidual).

Fig. No. 8.6.1a

The earth-fault relay is connected such that the residual current flows through it. In the
absence of earth fault,

I residual = Ias + I bs + I cs = 0

Therefore, the residually connected earthfault relay does not operate. However, in
presence of earth fault the condition is disturbed and (Ias + Ibs + Ics) is no more zero.
Hence I residual flows through the earth fault relay. If the residual current is above the pick-
up value, the earth-fault relay operates.

In the scheme discussed here the earth-fault at any location near or away from the
location of CTs can cause the residual current flow. Hence the protection zone is not
definite. Such protection is called unrestricted earth-fault protection. For selectivity
directional earth-fault protection is necessary (dealt in details in section 8.8).

8.6.2 Earth-fault relay connected in the Neutral to Earth

circuit

Another method of connecting an earthfault relay is illustrated in Fig. No. 8.6.2a The
relay is connected to secondary of a CT whose primary is connected in neutral to earth
connection. Such protection can be provided at various voltage levels by connecting
earthfault relay in the neutral-to-earth connection of that voltage level.

Fig. No. 8.6.2a

The fault current finds the return path through the earth and then flows through the
neutral-to-earth connected relay. The magnitude of earth fault current is dependent on
type of earthing (resistance, reactance or solid) and location of fault.

In this type of protection, the zone of protection cannot be accurately defined. The
protected area is not restricted to the transformer / generator winding alone. The relay
senses the earthfaults beyond the transformer / generator winding. Hence such protection
is called unrestricted earth-fault protection.

The earthfault protection by relay in neutral to earth circuit depends upon the type of
neutral earthing. In case of large generators, voltage transformer is connected between
neutral and earth. The earthfault relay is connected to the secondary of VT.

8.6.3 Earthfault protection with Core Balance (Zero Sequence) Current transformer
 Fig.No.8.6.3a

Another method to detect earthfault is by using a Core Balance or Zero Sequence CT.
Refer Fig.No.8.6.3a.

During normal conditions, when an earthfault is absent,

Ia + Ib + Ic = 0

Hence the resultant flux is zero and the relay does not operate. But during an earthfault,
the earthfault current flows through the return neutral path.

For example for single line ground fault in phase a,

If = 3Ia0 = In

where If = the fault current,

Ia0 = zero sequence current of phase a and

In = current in the neutral to ground circuit.

Hence the zero sequence component Ia0 produces a flux in the core and the relay operates
for a fault current greater than its pick up value.

8.7 Combined overcurrent and earthfault protection

It is convenient to incorporate phase fault relays and earth fault relay as a combined
protection. Such a protection is known as combined phase fault and earthfault protection
and is as shown in Fig. No. 8.7a.

Fig. No. 8.7a

The increase in phase current causes corresponding increase in the respective secondary
currents. The secondary current flows through the respective relay units. The earth fault
relay is residually connected.

Very often only two-phase relays are provided instead of three as shown in Fig.No.8.7b,
because in case of phase faults, current in at least two phases must increase.

Fig. No. 8.7b

8.8 Directional Relays

8.8.1 Directional Overcurrent Protection

If fault current flows in both the directions at a particular location of a relay, directional
overcurrent protection is used. To understand the direction of fault, system voltage is
used as reference. The directional relays are basically power relays but they do not
measure the active power simply because of the fact that the power system is
predominantly reactive except the load.

The directional control may be obtained by current polarisation or voltage polarisation.

8.8.1.1 Maximum Torque Angle (MTA)

For electro magnetic relays MTA is the angle between the current applied to the relay and
the voltage applied to the relay which produces maximum torque.

For static relays where torque has no relevance, MTA is the angle between the current
and voltage applied to the relay for maximum sensitivity.

8.8.1.2 Relay connection

This is an arrangement for energising the relay with specific current and voltage. The
connection is characterised by the angle by which the unity power factor current leads the
relay applied voltage.
8.8.1.2.1 300 connection (00 MTA)

In this, the R-phase relay is energised with R-phase current and VRB voltage.

Fig. No. 8.8.1.2.1a

As per Fig. No. 8.8.1.2.1a , the unity power factor applied current leads the applied
voltage VRB by 30 0 , hence the name 30 0 connection.

In this relay the flux generated by the voltage coil will lag the applied voltage V RB by 900.
So, maximum torque will be generated when the current in the relay coil will lag I R by
300 i.e. when the applied current coincides with the applied voltage, thus 00 MTA.

In this connection the positive torque is available for a current region of 600 leading
current to 1200 lagging current.

8.8.1.2.2 60 0 connection ( 0 0 MTA )

In this, the R-phase relay is energised with IRY current and VRB voltage.

Fig. No. 8.8.1.2.2a

As per Fig. No. 8.8.1.2.2a the unity power factor applied current IRY leads the applied
voltage VRB by 600 and hence the name 600 connection.

In this relay the flux generated by the voltage coil will lag the applied voltage V RB by 90o.
So the maximum torque will be generated when the current in the relay coil will lag I RY
(unity power factor current) by 600 i.e when applied current coincides with the applied
voltage and thus 00 MTA.

In this connection, a positive torque is available for a current region of 300 leading to 150
0
lagging.

8.8.1.2.3 90 0 - 30 0 connection ( 30 0 MTA )

In this, the R-phase relay is energised by IR current and VYB voltage shifted 300
anticlockwise to VYB'.

Fig. No. 8.8.1.2.3a

As per Fig. No. 8.8.1.2.3a the unity power factor applied current IR leads the applied
voltage VYB by 90 0 and the shifted voltage VYB' leads the applied voltage VYB by 300 .
Hence, the name 900 - 300 connection.

In this relay the flux generated by the voltage coil lags the VYB' by 900. So the maximum
torque will be generated when the current in the relay coil will lag IR by 60 0 i.e., when
the applied current coincides with shifted voltage VYB' thus 30 0 MTA.

In this connection the positive torque is available for a current region of 300 leading
current to 150 0 lagging current.

8.8.1.2.4 90 0 - 45 0 connection

In this type of connection. the R-phase relay is energised by IR current and VYB voltage is
shifted 450 anticlockwise to VYB'.

As per Fig. No. 8.8.1.2.4a , the unity power factor applied current IR leads the applied
voltage VYB by 90 0 and the shifted voltage VYB' leads the applied voltage VYB' by 450.
Hence, the name 900 - 450 connection.

In this relay, the flux generated by the voltage coil lags VYB' by 90 0. So the maximum
torque will be generated when the current in the relay coil will lag IR by 450 i.e., when the
applied current coincides with the shifted voltage VYB', thus 450 MTA.

In this connection, a positive torque is available for a current region of 45 0 leading

current to 135 0 lagging current.

8.8.2 Directional Earthfault Protection

The current coil of directional earth fault relay is actuated by the residual current and the
voltage coil is actuated by residual voltage.

Directional earth fault relays sense the direction in which earth fault occurs with respect
to the relay location; and it operates for a fault in a particular direction only. The
directional earth fault relay (single phase unit) has two coils. The polarising quantity is
obtained either from residual current

(Iresidual =Ia +Ib +Ic ) or residual voltage (VRES =Van +Vbn + Vcn).

The residual current is obtained either from residually connected CTs of all the 3 phases
or from CT mounted in the neutral connection. The residual voltage VRES is obtained from
the open delta connection five limb PT or from 3 PTs connected to form open delta
whose primary is star connected.

The residual voltage is zero when the system does not have any earth fault.

In the event of any earth fault in R-phase, VRES will be equal to the decrement in R-ph
voltage as shown in Fig.No.8.8.2a.

Fig.No. 8.8.2a

In this case the flux generated in the voltage coil lags VRES by 900. Thus the maximum
torque will be generated when the current in the relay coil coincides with VRES i.e., 0 0
MTA.

When the system neutral is earthed through a resistance, the earth fault impedance is
predominantly resistive and relay with 0 0 MTA can be effectively used for the detection
of the directional earth fault.

If the neutral is solidly earthed, the earth fault impedance is predominantly reactive so the
earthfault current IRES lags VR by 90 0 and thus VRES by around 80 0 and the generation of
torque in this case will be minimum with a relay of 0 0 MTA. Thus in this application a
phase shifting device is utilised in the circuit of VRES to get an MTA of 30 0 or 45 0.
Exercises:

1. State the various applications of overcurrent relaying. Distinguish between "inverse

characteristics" and "definite characteristic".

2. Describe directional earth fault protection.

Validation Questions:

1. How do directional overcurrent relays help in discrimination in protection of:

- Parallel feeder

- Ring main.

References:

1. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 1

by A. R. Van C. Warrington.

2. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 2

by A. R. Van C. Warrington.

3. Switchgear and Protection

by Sunil S. Rao

4. Protective Relay application guide

by GEC

5. J & P Switchgear handbook

by Lythal
 Selection of Protective Systems

16.1 Introduction:

Protective system for different kinds of electrical plants are selected on the basis of
different practices and recommendations which are described in the following chapters.
There are usually several ways of protecting any given equipment, some of which are
complementary to one another.

16.2 Selection charts for various equipments:

16.2.1 Generator Protection:

The recommendations in Table 16.2.1 cover the protection of generators rated above 1
MVA. For machines of lower ratings, guidance may be obtained from the table, but
consideration must be given to the cost and functional importance of the plant.

Reverse power protection should always be applied to engine-driven generators operated

I parallel with others or synchronised with a power system.

It is usual to fit thermal devices to monitor the temperature on all machines rated above 5
MVA.

Protective systems intended to cover internal faults should completely isolate the
generator by closing the power drive stop valve, tripping the main a.c. circuit breaker and
removing the field excitation.

Steam & gas turbine

Water turbine driven Diesel Engine
driven

Above 5 Above 5
Protective System 1-5 MVA 1-5 MVA Driven
MVA MVA

Differential     

Restricted  -  - 

earth fault

Overcurrent     

Phase   - - -

unbalance

Rotor earth fault -  -  -

Reverse power     

Over-voltage -    
Field failure  -  - 

undercurrent

Field failure -  -  -

impedance

Pole slipping -  -  -

Rotor temperature -  -  -

Stator earth fault     

Table 16.2.1

16.2.2 Power Transformer Protection:

The recommendations in Table 16.2.2 cover power transformers but not auto-
transformers. The application of the protective systems must be considered with respect
to each winding. Unloaded tertiary windings are frequently not separately protected, or
are protected only by an earth fault relay energised by a current transformer in a single
earthing connection.

Thermal devices are used with the larger transformers.

For Parallel-connected transformers, or for those in which power can flow in either
direction, it is essential that protection against internal faults effect complete isolation of
the transformer.

Winding and/or power Winding and/or power

Protective System system neutral earthed system neutral insulated

Above 1 Above 1
Upto 1 MVA Upto 1 MVA
MVA MVA

Longitudinal differential -  - 
Overcurrent    

Restricted earth fault   - -

Earth fault   -

Overfluxing -  - 

Overheating -  - 

Buchholz    

Table 16.2.2

16.2.3 Busbar Protection:

The recommendations in Table 16.2.3 cover busbars.

The Switchgear and its associated connections are usually included in the zone of
protection.

Unrestricted systems of protection (distance, overcurrent and earth fault systems) provide
a measure of busbar protection, although it is not possible to give instantaneous
protection, since discrimination must be maintained between sections of feeder
protection.

Power System neutral

Earthed Insulated

Protective System 350 MVA & Above 350 MVA & Above

below 350 MVA below 350 MVA

Overcurrent    

Differential -  - 

Earth fault    

Table 16.2.3
16.2.4 Transformer Feeder Protection:

The recommendations in Table 16.2.4 cover transformer feeders, but not auto-
transformer feeders. For the latter type, linking EHV transmission systems, it is usual to
protect the auto-transformer and feeder separately with the addition of intertripping. Oil-
immersed transformers of more than 1 MVA are usually fitted with Buchholz protection
in addition to the electrically operated protection.

If power can flow in either direction, it is essential that protection against internal faults
effect complete isolation of the transformer feeder.

Intertripping is required in association with the following protective systems:

i) Buchholz

ii) Winding temperature

iii) Restricted earth fault

iv) Separate longitudinal differential protection over the power transformer.

Winding and/or power system

neutral

Protective System Earthed Insulated

Time delayed overcurrent  

/ overcurrent and earth

fault.

Instantaneous high set  

overcurrent
Time delayed earth fault  -

Instantaneous restricted  -

earth fault

Neutral displacement  

Longitudinal differential  

Intertripping  

Table - 16.2.4

16.2.5 Feeder Protection:

The recommendations in Table 16.2.5 cover feeder.

For the most important circuits, unit type protection is frequently used, unrestricted
overcurrent and earth fault protection being either discarded or reduced to a subsidiary
role. Such combinations are not shown in the table.

Power System Neutral

Protective System Earthed Insulated

Time delayed overcurrent  

Time delayed earth fault  -

Sensitive earth fault  

Longitudinal differential  

Table 16.2.5

16.2.6 Synchronous Motor protection:

The recommendations in Table 16.2.6 represent the protective requirements of

synchronous motors and compensators, including ancillary equipment such as reactors
and auto-transformers.

The response of protective systems to internal faults should effect complete isolation of
the plant by tripping both the main and the field circuit breakers.

Underpower and reverse power protection is required to prevent a restoration of supply

following an interruption, with the machine out of synchronism with the system.

Over-voltage protection will operate on loss of supply if the motor is over-excited.

Underfrequency protection will respond to the falling frequency on loss of supply in the
case of a motor driving a low inertia load such as a compressor which will cause the
motor speed to fail quickly.

Rotor earth fault protection is normally applied to large machines (those rated at 10 VMA
and above) and may only give an alarm.

Protective System 50 to 1000 h.p. Above 1000 h.p.

Differential - 
Thermal overload  

Instantaneous high set  -

overcurrent

Instantaneous earth fault  

Phase unbalance  

Under and reverse power  

Over-voltage - 

Field failure - 

Rotor earth fault - 

Underfrequency - 

Table 16.2.6

16.2.7 Induction motor protection:

The recommendations in Table 16.2.7 cover important induction motors supplied through
circuit breakers.
When specifying protection, consideration should be given to the cost and functional
importance of the motor.

Overload protection has a characteristic inversely proportional to the square of the

current, matching the heating curve to the motor. The characteristic must be chosen so
that the motor can at least be started normally without tripping.

Short circuit protection can be incorporated in the for of high set elements. Instantaneous
earth fault protection can also be included, and should be applied if the power system
neutral is earthed.

Reactors or auto-transformers used for motor starting are generally included in the zone
of protection.

Motors of 1000 h.p. and above should be provided with differential protection.

If differential protection is not applied, high set instantaneous overcurrent relays should
be provided to cover terminal short circuits.

A rotor short circuit on a wound rotor machine might cause excessive starting current, an
instantaneous relay set to three or four times normal full load current can be used to
detect and trip this condition.

Phase unbalance protection should be applied to all large induction motors.

Power System neutral

Protective System Earthed Insulated

Differential  -

Inverse time overload  

Instantaneous high set  

overcurrent

Instantaneous earth fault  -

Phase unbalance  

Reverse phase sequence  

and undervoltage

Table 16.2.7

Validation Questions:

Q.No.1 Select protections to be provided for a 30MVA, 100kV / 11kV , Dyn-1

transformer. Also specify the CTs and the PTs required.

Q.No.2 Select protections for a 22kV , 3C x 300 sq.mm feeder catering a load of 5MVA
and connected between a generating bus and a load bus.

Exercises:

Prob.No.1 List down the protections provided in a 41.25MVA , 11kV generator with
explaining the need for each of them.
 Introduction / Terminology / Standards

1.1 Faults - Causes And Effects

The capital investment in the power system for generation, transmission and distribution
of electrical power is so great that proper precautions must be taken to ensure that the
equipment not only operates to peak efficiency, but is also well protected.

The normal path of electric current is from the power source i.e. generator to the load
through transformers, transmission lines etc. The flow of current is confined to this path
by the insulation. The breakdown of the insulation either by the effect of temperature,
ageing or by physical accidents may lead the current through an abnormal path, generally
known as short circuit or fault. Whenever this occurs, the destructive capabilities of the
enormous energy of the power system may cause extensive damage to the equipment,
severe drop in voltage and loss of revenue due to interruption in services.

In addition to the fault mentioned above, other types of abnormal conditions specific to
different equipments can be seen by the equipment which may lead to their
breakdown/accidents namely overloading of an equipment, under voltage / over voltage
seen by the equipment, under frequency / over frequency of the same equipment etc.
phase loss to a multiphase equipment etc.

1.2 Importance of protective system

The purpose of protective relay and protection system is to operate so as to disconnect
only the faulty equipment from the system as quickly as possible. Thus, minimising the
trouble and damage caused to the equipment.

It would be ideal if protection systems would anticipate and prevent faults. The other way
of dealing with faults is to sense the fault and effect isolation of the faulty equipment as
early as possible.

In protection technology, both the methods are utilised. They can be broadly named as:

1. Anticipatory Protective devices.

2. Effect-based Protective devices.

In both the cases, electrical / non electrical parameters are sensed and in the event of the
identified parameters reaching the threshold value, the protective device is called for
operation

1.3 Evolution of protective relaying

In very early days of industry, small generators were used to supply local loads and fuses
were the only automatic devices used to isolate the faulty equipment. They were effective
and their performance was quite satisfactory for small systems.

However, they suffered from the disadvantage of requiring replacement before the supply
could be restored. The inconvenience was overcome with the introduction of circuit
breakers and relays.

1.3.1 Electro-magnetic relays

Attracted armature type electro-magnetic relays were first introduced. They were fast ,
simple and economical. Their use will continue in future as auxiliary relays due to their
simplicity and low cost.
Later on, induction disc type inverse time current relays were developed in early 1920 to
meet the selectivity requirements.

For directional and distance relays, induction cup type units were widely used throughout
the world. Induction type unit was fast and accurate due to its higher torque / inertia ratio.
Electro magnetic relays have continued to be used because of their simplicity and low
cost. Their maintenance can be done by less qualified personnel.

1.3.2 Electronic relays

Electronic relays using vacuum tubes first appeared in 1928 and continued upto 1956.
They were not accepted because of their complexity and short life of vacuum tubes and
incorrect operations under transient conditions.

The first transistorised relays were developed in 1949, soon after the innovation of
transistor. Static relays have the advantage of low burden on the CT and PT, fast
operation, absence of mechanical inertia and contact travels, long life and less
maintenance. As static relays proved to be superior to electro magnetic relays, they were
used for protection of important lines, power station and sub station but they did not
replace electro magnetic relays. Static relays were treated as an addition to the family of
relays. In most static relays the output or slave relay is a D.C. relay which is electro
magnetic one. This can be replaced by a thyristor circuit but is used because of low cost.

1.3.3 Micro processor based relays

With the growing size and complexity of modern power networks fast, accurate and
reliable protective schemes is the demand. Increasing interest is being shown in the use of
on-line digital computers for protection. But their cost 15 to 20 times more than that of
conventional protective schemes. With the advent of development in the field of micro
processors, power engineers are presently interested in the application of these powerful
tool to the problem of protective relays.
The inherent advantage of micro processor based scheme over the existing static relays
with one or very limited range application, is their flexibility. The application of micro
processor to protective relays will also result in the availability of faster, more accurate
and reliable relaying units. A micro processor increases a flexibility of a relay due to its
programmable approach. It can provide protection at low cost and compete with
conventional relays. A number of relaying characteristics can be realised using the same
interface. Individual type and number of relaying units is reduced to a great extent
resulting in a very compact protective scheme.

Terminology

1. Operating Torque: That which tends to close the contacts of the relay.
2. Restraining torque: That which opposes the operating torque.
3. Pick-up (level): The threshold value of the actuating quantity (current, voltage, etc.)
above which the relay operates.
4. Drop-out or reset (level): The threshold value of the actuating quantity below which
the relay is de-energised and returns to its normal position or state.
5. Characteristic: The locus of the pick up or reset.
6. Reinforcing relay: One which is energised by the contacts of the main relay and with
its contacts in parallel with those of the main relay, relieves main relay of their current
carrying duty.
7. Seal in relay: It is similar to a reinforcing relay but is designed to remain in the circuit
until the circuit breaker trips.
8. Primary relays: Those which are connected directly in the protected circuit.
9. Secondary relays: Those which are connected to the protected circuit through current
transformers and potential transformers.
10. Primary Protection: If a fault occurs, it is the duty of the primary protective scheme to
clear the fault. It acts as a first line of defence.
11. Back-up protection: The back-up protection is designed to clear the fault in case the
primary protection fails to trip.
12. Operating time: It is the time which elapses from the instant the actuating quantity
exceeds the relay pick up value to the instant the relay closes its contacts.
13.Reset time: It is the time which elapses from the moment the actuating quantity falls
below its reset value to the instant the relay comes back to its normal position.
14. Setting: The value of the actuating quantity at which the relay is set to operate.
15. Selectivity or Discrimination: It is the quality of the protective system by which it
distinguishes between those conditions for which it should operate and those for which it
should not.
16. Consistency: The accuracy with which the relay can repeat its electrical or time
characteristics.
17. Flag or target: A visual device, usually spring or gravity operated for indicating the
operation of a relay.
18. Burden: Power consumed by a relay at its rated operating quantity.
19. Reach: The remote limit of the zone of protection provided by the relay (used mostly
in connection with distance relays to indicate how far along a transmission line the
tripping zone of the relay extends ).
20. Overreach: A relay may operate even when the fault point is beyond its reach or
protected length ( used generally with reference to distance protection ). This is called
overreach.
21. Under-reach: A relay may fail to operate even when the fault is within its reach. This
is called under-reach.
22. Blocking: The prevention of tripping of the relay is called blocking.
23. Protective system: It is a combination of protective equipment to secure isolation of
the faulty element under predetermined conditions, usually abnormal or to give an alarm
signal or both.
24. Auxiliary relays: They assist the protective relay in multiplying information. They
relieve the protective relays of duties like tripping, time lag, sounding an alarm, etc.
25. Instantaneous relay: One which has no intentional time delay.
26. Time delay relay: One which is designed with a delaying means. Such relays are used
in protection schemes as a means of time discrimination.
27. Sensitivity: Sensitivity of a protective scheme refers to the smallest value of actuating
quantity at which the protection starts operating.
28. Stability: This is the ability of the protective system to remain inoperative under all
conditions except designed for; viz. external faults, transient, etc.
29. Unit system of protection: A unit system of protection is one which is able to detect
and respond to faults occurring only within its own zone of protection. It is said to have
absolute discrimination. The zone is clearly identified by means of CT boundaries.
30. Relay: Relay is a device by means of which an electric circuit can be controlled
(opened, closed or monitored) by sensing a change in the same circuit or some other
circuit.
31. Fault clearing time: The time elapsed between the instant of occurrence of fault and
instant of final arc extinction in circuit breaker.
32. Electromagnetic relays: Such relays operate on the electromagnetic principle, (i.e. an
electromagnet attracts magnetic moving part or a force is exerted on a current carrying
conductor when placed in the magnetic field) or on force produced by the principle of
induction. Moving iron, moving coil, attracted armature, induction disc and induction cup
type relays come under this group of relays.
33. Static relays: These are solid state relays and employ semiconductor diodes,
transistors, thyristors, logic gates, ICs, etc. The measuring circuit is a static circuit, i.e.
there are no moving parts.
34. Microprocessor based or Numeric Relays: A microprocessor can be used to perform
all functions of a relay. It can measure electrical quantities, make comparisons, perform
computations and send tripping signals, etc. It can realise all sorts of relaying
characteristics even irregular curves which can not be realised by electromagnetic or
static relays easily.
35. Inverse time relay: A relay in which the operating time is inversely proportioned to
the magnitude of the operating current.
36. Definite time relay: A relay in which the operating time is independent of the
magnitude of the actuating current.
37. Inverse Definite Minimum Time Lag (IDMTL) Relay: A relay which gives an inverse
time characteristics at lower values of the operating current and definite time
characteristics at higher values of the operating current.
38. Induction relay: A relay which operates on the principle of induction. Examples are
induction disc relays, induction cup relays, etc.
39. Moving coil relay: This type of relay has a permanent magnet and a moving coil. It is
also called a permanent magnet d.c. moving coil relay. The actuating current flows in the
moving coil.
40. Moving iron relay: This is a dc polarised moving iron type relay. There is an
electromagnet, permanent magnet and a moving armature in its construction.
41. Printed disc relay: This relay operates on the principle of a dynamometer. There is a
permanent magnet or an electromagnet and a printed disc. Direct current is fed to the
printed circuit of the disc.
42. Induction disc relay: In this type of relay, a metal disc is allowed to rotate between
two electromagnets. The electromagnets are energised by alternating currents. The fields
produced by the two magnets are displaced in space and phase. The torque is developed
by the interaction of the flux of one of the magnets and the eddy currents induced in the
disc by the other.
43. Induction cup relay: This relay has two, four or more electromagnets, in the stator,
energised by the relay coils. The rotor consists of a hollow metallic cylindrical cup. Eddy
currents are produced in the metallic cup. These currents interact with the flux produced
by the other electromagnet and torque is produced, which rotates the rotor in the gap
between the stationary iron and the electromagnets.
44. Thermal relay: This relay utilises the electro-thermal effect of the actuating current
for its operation.
45. Overcurrent relay: A relay which operates when the actuating current exceeds a
certain preset value (its pick up value).
46. Undervoltage relay: A relay which operates when the system voltage falls below a
certain preset value.
47. Directional or reverse power relay: A directional relay is able to detect whether the
point of fault lies in the forward or reverse direction with respect to the relay location and
act accordingly. It is able to sense the direction of power flow, i.e. whether the power is
flowing in the normal direction or in the reverse direction.
48. Distance Relay: A relay which measures impedance or a component of impedance at
the relay location is known as a distance relay. It is used for the protection of a
transmission line. As the impedance of a line is proportional to the length of the line, a
relay which measures impedance or its component is called a distance relay.
49. Impedance relay: A relay which measures the impedance at the relay location is
called an impedance relay.
Modified impedance relay: It is an impedance relay having a shifted characteristics. The
voltage coil includes some current biasing.
51. Frequency sensitive relay: This is a relay which operates at a predetermined value of
system frequency. It may be an under-frequency relay or an over-frequency relay.
52. Differential relay: A relay which operates in response to the difference of two
actuating quantities is known as a differential relay.
53. Earth fault and phase fault relays: Relays used for the protection of an element of a
power system against earth faults and phase fault respectively.
54. Negative sequence relay: A relay for which the actuating quantity is the negative
sequence current. This type of relay is used to protect rotating machines against
overheating due to unbalanced currents.
55. Zero sequence relay: A relay for which the actuating quantity is the zero sequence
current. This type of a relay is used for earth fault protection.

Standards for Protectivee Relays

3.1 Indian Standards

IS 3842 (Part 1) : Application guide for electrical relays for AC system; Part1
Overcurrent Relays for feeders and transformers.

IS 3842 (Part 2) : Application guide for electrical relays for AC system; Part2,
Overcurrent Relays for Generator and Motors.

IS 3842 (Part 3) : Application guide for electrical relays for AC system, Part3, Phase
unbalance relays including negative phase sequence relays.
IS 3842 (Part 4) : Application guide for electrical relays for AC system, Part4, Thermal
relays.

IS 3842 (Part 5) : Application guide for electrical relays for AC system, Part5, Distance
Protection Relays.

IS 3842 (Part 6) : Application guide for electrical relays for AC system, Part6, Power
Relays.

IS 3842 (Part 7) : Application guide for electrical relays for AC system; Part7, Frequency
Relays.

IS 3842 (Part 8) : Application guide for electrical relays for AC system Part8, Voltage
Relays.

IS 3842 (Part 9) : Application guide for electrical relays for AC system, Part9, Relays for
Bus Zone Protection.

IS 3842 (Part 10) : Application guide for electrical relays for AC system, Part10, Relays
for transverse differential protection..

IS 3842 (Part 12) : Application guide for electrical relays for AC system, Part12,
Differential relays for transformers.
 Relay Testing & Commissioning

14.1 Introduction:

The testing of protective scheme has always been a problem, because protective gear is
solely concerned with fault condition, and can not be readily tested under normal system
operating conditions. The system is aggravated by the increasing complexity of protective
schemes and relays.

Protective relay testing may be divided into three stages,

1. Factory test

2. Commissioning test
3. Periodic maintenance test.

The first two stages prove the performance of the protective equipment during its
development, manufacture and in operational environmental. The last stage, properly
planned, ensures that its performance is maintained throughout the life of protective gear.

14.2 Factory test:

The responsibility of relay manufacturer is to provide adequate and efficient testing of all
protective gears before it is accepted and commissioned. Since the prime function of the
protective relay is to operate correctly under abnormal power condition, it is essential that
their performance be assessed under such conditions. Test simulating the operating
conditions are conducted at the manufacturer's works during the development and
certification of the equipment.

14.3 Commissioning Test:

The commissioning test, normally carried out, are summarised below:

a. General inspection.

b. Insulation resistance Test

c. Test on current transformers

d. Test on voltage transformer

e. Secondary injection test

f. Primary injection test

g. Trip & Alarm circuit test

14.3.1 General Inspection:

Make a general inspection of the equipment, checking all connections, wires on relay
terminals, levels on terminal board and so on.

14.3.2 Insulation resistance Test:

All the deliberate earth connections on the wiring to be tested should first be removed, for
example earthing links on current transformers, voltage transformers, and d.c. supplies.

Some insulation testers generate impulses with peak voltages exceeding 5kV. In these
instances any transistorised equipment should be removed from its case while the
external wiring insulation is checked.

The insulation resistance should be measured to earth and between electrically separate
circuits.

The readings should then be recorded and compared with subsequent routine tests to
check for any deterioration of the insulation.

The insulation resistance measured depends on the amount of wiring involved, its grade,
and the site humidity. Generally, if the test is restricted to one cubicle, a reading of
several hundred mega-ohms should be obtained. If long lengths of site wiring are
involved the reading could be only a few mega-ohms.

14.3.3 Test on current transformers

The following tests are to be carried out on current transformers:

i) Polarity test: Each current transformers are to be individually tested to verify the
primary and secondary polarity markings are correct.

ii) Ratio test: This test is usually carried out during primary injection test to ascertain the
ratio of the CT.

iii) Testing of magnetising curve: Several points should be checked on each current
transformer magnetisation curves. This can be done by energising the secondary winding
from the local main supply through a variable auto transformer and plotting excitation
current v/s. excitation voltage keeping the primary circuit open.

14.3.4 Test on voltage transformers

i) Polarity Test: Each voltage transformers are to be individually tested to verify the
primary and secondary polarity markings are correct.

ii) Ratio Test: This check is usually carried out by energising the primary of voltage
transformer with a variable a.c. source and by measuring the secondary voltage.

iii) Phasing Test: The secondary connection for a three phase voltage transformer for a
bank of three single phase voltage transformers must be carefully checked for phasing.
With the primary circuit alive, the secondary voltages between the phases and neutral
must be measured for correct magnitude. The phase rotation should then be checked with
a phase rotation meter connected across the three phases.

14.3.5 Secondary injection test

This test and the equipment necessary to perform them are generally described in the
manufacturers' manual for the relays.

The secondary injection test are carried out on all types of relays, viz.

i) Overcurrent and earth fault relays: While testing this, the test current should first be set
approximately with the relay coil shorted out to prevent unnecessary heating. The coil
can then be unshorted for the final adjustment of the test current. Instantaneous
overcurrent relays should be checked as follows:

1) Measure the minimum current that gives operation at each current settings.

2) Measure the maximum current at which resetting takes place.

3) Check the correct functioning of the plug bridge short circuiting device.
To check the performance of inverse time or definite time relays, the above test for
instantaneous relay may be performed in full at the maximum and minimum setting and
finally at the chosen setting. In addition, the following are performed:

1) Measure the operating time at suitable values of current and check the time / current
curves at two or three points with the time multiplier setting (TMS) at one.

2) Measure the resetting time at zero current with the TMS at 1.

ii) Differential Relays:

When testing unbias differential relay, the current setting should be checked using the
overcurrent test set, slowly raising the current until the relay operates. This should be
done on all current setting and finally at the required settings. The result should be
recorded for future reference and they should agree approximately with the
manufacturers declared current setting.

The current setting of generator / transformer biased differential relay should be checked
as above with the overcurrent test set. Injection should be made into one bias coil and out
of the operating coil as shown in figure 14.1

In addition to this, a check can be made at, one or more points on the bias characteristic
with the overcurrent test set as shown in figure 14.2a. The current selector switch should
be set to give the approximate total current required, i.e. bias current + operating current.

Resistance earth should be set at zero and the current then applied. The resistance earth
should then be increased until the split of through current and operating current just
causes the relay to operate. The ratio of operating current, [measured by ammeter A1] to
current [measured by ammeter A2] should approximate the value in the corresponding
point on the manufacturer's published bias card for the relay. The bias of the relay can be
checked in this manner upto approx. 5 times rated through current. Beyond this point,
saturation in the operating coil circuit, distorts current wave form and gives unreliable
test results. If higher bias check points are required, the circuit shown in fig. 14.2b must
be used, with series resistances R1 & R2 to control the current in both operating and bias
current.

iii) Pilot Wire Relays:

The various current setting for pilot wire relays can be checked using the over current test
set to obtain the correct settings, the pilot wire must be connected through the relay at
each end of the lines and the correct pilot compensation must be set on the relays.

The correct settings of the relays then be checked by injection in to each phase in turn:
see fig. 14.3 a.

The results obtained should approximate to the manufacturer's declared current setting for
the length and type of pilots in use. The stability of the protection can be checked by
using the feeder conductor to connect the summation current transformer at each end of
the feeder in series. Secondary injection can then be made as shown in figure 14.3b.
Several times, the relay rated current can be made to circulate through the summation
transformer primary, a corresponding current circulates through the pilot. This test is very
useful as it is practically impossible to produce the same magnitude of the circulating
current in the pilot when carrying out the primary injection test.

iv) Negative Phase sequence relay:

The current setting of this types of relay is usually express in terms of negative phase
sequence current only. This current setting can be checked with the over current test set
by injection into the relay. If the relay is provided with an external filter network,
injection must be made at the test block connected between the main current transformer
and filter units.

The relay is checked by injecting into each pair of phases in turn; since this simulates
phase to phase fault condition only 1/Rt.3 of the injected current is negative phase
sequence current. If the relay has an inverse time/current characteristic, points on the
curves can be checked as previously described for the standard inverse time overcurrent
relay.

v) Directional Relays:

The directional characteristics of many types of relays can be checked with the
equipment shown in figure 14.4. This method uses a phase shifting transformer,
permitting the phase angle of the relay voltage to be varied with respect to the varied
current, enabling the directional characteristics and maximum torque angle of the relay to
be checked.

It is important to keep the phase angle meter working near to its rated voltage and current
to maintain accurate results. For this reason, the voltage coil connection is made to the
primary circuit of the variable voltage transformer which generally has negligible phase
angle error.

14.3.6 Primary injection test

This type of test involves the entire circuit; current transformer secondaries, relay coil,
trip and alarm circuits, and all intervening wirings.

Primary injection is usually carried out by means of a portable injection transformer

arrange to operate from the local main supply and having several low voltage heavy
current windings. These can be connected in series or parallel according to the current
required and resistance of the current circuit.

Primary injection is carried out on all types of relays of the circuits, viz.:

i) Overcurrent and earth fault relays:

If the scheme includes directional, differential or earth fault relays, the polarity of main
current transformers must be checked. The circuit for testing the polarity with the single
phase set test is shown in fig. 14.5. To carry out this test, a temporary short circuit is
placed across the phases of the primary circuit on one side of the current transformer,
while single phase injection is carried out on the other side. The ammeter connected in
the residual circuit will give:

- a reading of few milli ampere with rated current if the current transformers are correct
polarity,

- a reading proportional to twice the primary current, if they are of wrong polarity.

The single phase injection should be carried out for each pair of phases.

Because the amount of primary current available is limited, the operating time of the
relay can not be checked at high setting. While phase to phase injection is satisfactory for
testing overcurrent relays, single phase injection should be used to check the residually
connected earth fault relay.

ii) Differential relays:

a) Generator Differential protection: The sensitivity of this type of circulating current

scheme can easily be checked by means of the primary injection test fig. 14.6 Primary
current is passed through one of the main current transformers and slowly raised until the
relay just operates. This gives the true effective fault current necessary in the primary to
cause operation and includes the relay current plus the magnetising current of the current
transformer shunting the relay. It is advisable while checking the sensitivity to measure
the voltage across the relay coil and stabilising resistance and so check the approx.
voltage developed by the main current transformer that causes relay operation.

The sensitivity check should be carried out by injecting through the transformer primary
of each phase in turn to check all the units of the relay.

Another method of checking is to use the machine itself to supply the primary current, the
current magnitude being carefully controlled by means of machine excitation form a very
low value upto that necessary to permit the required current.
In this method, care must be taken since the suitability of the machine will depend upon
the type of the excitation circuit and the degree of control available.

To check the differential protection sensitivity, the main circuit breaker is left open and
three phase short circuit is applied to simulate an internal fault as shown in fig. 14.7.
To check the stability of generator differential protection scheme, a short circuit should
be made as shown in fig. 14.8.

The machine excitation is to be slowly raised until full load current is circulating in the
primary connection. The ammeter connected in series with the relay operating coil should
be used initially on a range that will take twice the current transformer rated current and
short circuit should be applied across the relay coil until it has been established that the
main transformers are connected correctly. Wrongly connected or open circuited current
transformer will produce a substantial reading on the ammeter.

b) Transformer bias differential protection: The sensitivity can be checked with the single
phase primary injection test set in the way described for generator differential protection.
This test can be carried out by injecting through one current transformer to simulate earth
fault or through two current transformer to simulate phase to phase faults as shown in fig.
14.9.

To check the stability of the protection, full load current must be passed through the main
current transformer primary winding. The best source of power for this test is a generator.
To do this, 3 phase short circuit is created on one side of the transformer external to the
zone of protection as shown in figure 14.10

If there is no generator available to circulate full load to the transformer, it may be

possible to supply the transformer from the local bus bar through a step down
transformer. The main transformer short circuit impedance must be known in order to
calculate the voltage required to circulate full load current. If it is not possible to circulate
full load current to the transformer, the stability of the protection will have to be checked
when the transformer first put on load.
With the load current flowing through the transformer windings, the protective relay
should remain stable and the reading on the ammeter, in the relay operating circuit should
be very small, provided that the main transformer ratios associated with each transformer
windings has been chosen correctly and the transformer tap changer is nominal tap. It is
advisable to measure the spill current through the relay operating coil during the load test
with the tap changer set on its maximum or minimum tap. The spill current expressed as
a percentage of the load current used in this test, indicates the minimum amount of bias,
the relay needs to maintain stability for through faults.

If the relay operates on load with the bias set correctly, the circuit diagram should be
examined to check that the current transformer connection have been made according to
the vector group reference of the transformer being protected.

iii) Restricted earth fault relays: This is some times combined with the transformer bias
differential protection, but is generally energised from separate current transformers.

The sensitivity of the protection can be checked by injecting with the single phase test set
through each of the main transformers in turn as shown in fig. 14.11

While carrying out this test, it is advisable to measure the voltage across the relay coil
and stabilising resistance, and so to check the approximate voltage developed by the main
current transformer to cause relay operation.

The stability of the scheme can be checked by injecting the neutral current transformer
and each phase current transformer in turn as shown in fig. 14.12

With full primary load current flowing, the relay should remain stable and the reading on
the ammeter connected in series with the relay coil, should be only a few milli ampere.

iv) Pilot wire protection: The sensitivity can be checked by injecting with a single phase
test set through each current transformer primary in turn as shown in fig. 14.13 This
checks the earth fault sensitivity of each phase and also checks that the correct wires have
been connected to the pilot wire summation transformer.
Phase "A" injection should require the least primary current to cause operation where the
phase "C" the most. Single phase injection then be carried out to each pair of current
transformers as shown in fig. 14.14

This checks the phase to phase fault sensitivity, and the primary current necessary to
cause operation of the relay should be smallest when injecting into A-C, but largest when
injecting into A-B. The sensitivity of the relay should be lower when injecting phase to
phase than when injecting through one phase.

The stability of the pilot wire protection is best checked with the load current flowing
down the feeder since it is generally impractical to cause several hundred ampere to flow
along the feeder from the single phase primary injection test set.

v) Bus bar protection: Since the current transformers are connected to form a circulating
current scheme, it is usual that they have the same ratio and be connected with the correct
relative polarity. The most convenient way to check the ratio and polarity is to choose
one circuit as a standard and after testing its current transformer, it is easy to check the
remaining circuits.

To check that the current transformers of the standard circuit have the same ratio, and are
in accordance the ratio marked on the name plate, primary current should be injected to
each transformer in turn as shown in fig. 14.15.

The ratio of the reading on ammeter in A1 to that on A2 should approximate closely to

the declared current transformer ratio. It is advisable during the test, to short circuit the
relay operating coil and stabilising resistors, as they are not continuously rated to
withstand injected current.

To check the polarity of the standard circuit current transformer, current injection should
be carried out through the primaries of the two current transformers in the group.

Having checked the standard circuit for ratio and polarity, it remains only to check the
current transformer of each other circuits against the standard one. This is carried out by
short circuiting the zone bus wires and injecting primary currents through the standard
circuit current transformers and the current transformers of the each of the remaining
circuits in turn as shown in fig. 14.16.

The primary current is injected into one pair of phases of the standard circuit, with a three
phase temporary short circuit applied on the test circuit. The ammeter A1 connected at
the test links provide the ratio checks while ammeter A2 check the polarity.

The current measured by Ammeter A1 should be the same, the current measured by
ammeter A2 should be only a few milli ampere if the polarity is correct. To verify the
ratio and polarity of all the transformers in the test circuit, primary injection should be
carried out between A & B and then between B & C.

The sensitivity test should be carried out for each zone and for overall check feature. The
effective minimum primary current that causes relay operation should approximate
closely to those forecast by the supplier of the protection scheme.

vi) Negative phase sequence relays:

The sensitivity of these relays can be checked by using the primary injection test set as
shown in Fig. 14.17. Injecting through each pair of phases in turn. It should be
appreciated that these relays are calibrated in negative phase sequence current only, and
that since the injection is simulating a phase to phase fault only 1/Rt.3 of the injected
current is negative phase sequence current.

A further check can be made when the circuit is first put on load. If the load is balanced
and the phase rotation of the currents supplied to the relay is correct, the relay should not
operate. To prove that the relay will operate for negative phase sequence currents, two of
the main current transformer secondary phase inputs to the relay should be reversed. In
this test, all the phase current entering the relay is negative phase sequence current, and if
the relay setting is below the load current value, the relay will operate.

vii) Directional Relays:

The most satisfactory method of checking the directional feature of directional
overcurrent, distance and other types of wattmetric relays is to use the load current.

With phase fault directional overcurrent relays, the tests should be made when the load
current is appreciable and its direction is in no doubt. The relay contacts should be closed
when the load current is in the operating direction and open when the load current is in
the reverse direction. The direction of the load current to the relay can be reversed by
cross-connecting the voltage or current leads of the test plug. These tests alone are not
conclusive, and it is therefore recommended that the power factor presented to the relay
be measured during the load test with a phase angle meter.

Directional earth fault relays are usually energised from the broken-delta winding of a
three phase voltage transformer and the residual circuit of the main current transformers.
Under normal load conditions, this type of relay is not energised, and it is therefore
necessary to simulate operating conditions; one phase of the voltage transformer primary
is disconnected and short circuited while the current transformers of the other two phases
are disconnected and short circuited. This simulates an earth fault on the phase from
which the voltage transformer is disconnected.

With load current flowing in the operating direction the relay contacts should close.
Again, it is recommended that the power factor presented to the relay be measured during
the test.

14.3.7 Trip & Alarm circuit test

During the primary and secondary injection tests, the trip and alarm circuits are usually
rendered inoperative by the removal of isolating links, relay trip latches and so on. It is
therefore essential that when the primary and secondary injection tests have been
completed, the tripping and alarm circuits be checked.

This is done by closing the protective relay contacts by hand and checking that the
correct circuit breakers are tripped, that the alarm circuits are energised, that the correct
flag indications are given and that there is no maloperation of other apparatus that may be
connected to the same master trip relay or circuit breaker.

14.4 Periodic Maintenance Test:

Although the protective gear may be in sound condition when first put into service, many
troubles can develop which remain unchecked and unravelled because of its infrequent
operation. It is therefore advisable to inspect and test the protective gear at regular
intervals.

The maintenance tests may sometimes have to be made when the protected circuits is on
load. The particular equipment to be tested should be taken out of commission and
adequate back-up protection provided for the duration of the tests. Such back up
protection may not be fully discriminative, but it is sufficient for it to be capable of
clearing any fault on the apparatus whose main protection is temporarily out of service.

It is desirable to carry out maintenance on protective gear at times when the associated
power apparatus is out of service.

Once primary injection tests have been carried out during the initial commissioning, they
need not be made again unless some maloperation has occurred and the protective gear is
in suspect.

Secondary injection tests should be carried out to check the relay performance, and if
possible, the relay should be allowed to trip the circuit breakers.

Insulation tests should also be carried out on the relay wiring to earth and between
circuits, using a 1000 volt Megger. These tests are necessary to detect any deterioration in
the insulation resistance.

Exercises:

1. Explain the importance of testing of relays.

2. Describe the procedure of CT polarity check.

3. Describe with neat sketch of stability check of differential protection of a Dy11

transformer. Ratio polarity of CTs are to be shown.

Validation Questions:

1. What are the causes of relay deterioration?

2. Describe briefly the following tests on a relay:

a) Commissioning tests

b) Maintenance tests

References:

1. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 1

by A. R. Van C. Warrington.

2. Protective Relays Their Theory and practice Volume - 2

by A. R. Van C. Warrington.

3. Switchgear and Protection

by Sunil S. Rao

4. Protective Relay application guide

by GEC

5. J & P Switchgear handbook

by Lythal