Materiales Granulares

Half century shear strength in
granular materials
An in - depth literature review and practical applications
Marco Arrieta
September 2023
Calgary Geotechnical Society (CyGS)
Presenter’s Background
Marco Arrieta
• BSc Civil Engineer
• MSc Geotechnical Engineering
• PhD student, Uni of Oulu, Mining and
Mineral Processing Department
Geotechnical Engineer with 14+ years in open pit
mining. Committed to mentoring the new
generation of geotechnical professionals and to
have fun playing with granular materials (Dirt ☺)
Granular Material?
A granular material is a multiphase material made up of a large
collection of closely packed solid particles surrounded by a gas or a
liquid. Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology (Third Edition), 2002
Transmission of stress in a
granular materials
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granular_material
Granular Material?
The ancient Egyptians began building in The transport system of the Roman
limestone during 3100 BC. Empire was vast and key in their
expansion, they used cut and fill
technique.
Source: https://www.quora.com/When-did-ancient-Egyptians-start- Source: https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-

to-build-limestone-buildings of-mechanized-transportation-systems/roman-empire-c125ce/
Granular Material?
The ancient Egyptians began building in The transport system of the Roman
limestone during 3100 BC. Empire was vast and key in their
expansion, they used cut and fill
technique.
Source: https://www.quora.com/When-did-ancient-Egyptians-start- Source: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10342-006-0123-9

to-build-limestone-buildings
Shear Strength – Mohr-Coulomb
failure criterion, 1776
Represents the linear envelope that is obtained from a plot of the shear
strength of a material versus the applied normal stress.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohr%E2%80%93Coulomb_theory#cite_note-7
Where:
• τ is the shear strength
• σ is the normal stress
• C is the intercept of the failure
envelope with the τ axis (Cohesion)
• Tan φ is the slope of the failure
envelope (φ called friction)
Source: Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohr%E2%80%93Coulomb_theory#ci https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317605975_Failure_criteria_d
te_note-7 evelopment_using_triaxial_test_multistage_and_conventional
Shear Strength – Coulomb's equation"
by Karl von Terzaghi, 1942
Using the Mohr-Coulomb equation Terzaghi combined it with the
principle of effective stress. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_strength_(soil)
Where:
• τ is the shear strength
• σ' is the effective stress (σ-μ)
• σ is the normal stress
• μ is the pore water pressure
• C’ is effective cohesion
• φ' effective friction angle
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_strength_(soil) Source: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00366-011-0242-x

Shear Strength – A Commodity?
[ ] Knowledge Development
GAP?
[4] [5] [6]
[3] [12]
[9] [11] [13]
[1] [2] [7] [8] [10] [14]
Shear Strength – Foundational concepts
Newland & Allely (1957)
• Pioneered a non-linear function to represent granular material's
𝜏 = 𝜎𝑛′ 𝜑𝑏′ + 𝑖
shear strength, - 𝜎𝑛 : Normal stress
• Shear stress is influenced not just by frictional forces but also by - 𝜑𝑏 : Basic friction angle
particles angular displacement and inter-particle sliding resistance - i: average deviation angle of particle
De Mello (1977)
• Introduced an empirical power-curved envelope tailored for 𝜏 = 𝐴𝜎𝑛𝐵
rockfill materials in dams - A, B Fitting parameters
- 𝜎𝑛 Normal stress
Charles and Watts (1980)

• Made significant strides in the geotechnical realm, leveraging the 𝜏 = 𝐴𝜎𝑛𝐵
power law fitting envelope to redefine shear strength evaluation - A, B Fitting parameters
methodologies - 𝜎𝑛 Normal stress
• Significance of power models as cornerstones in granular materials
Shear Strength – Unveiling Granular Behavior
Barton and Kjaernsli (1981) 𝑆
•
𝜑′ = 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 𝜑𝑏
built upon Barton's 1973 empirical joint shear studies, shear 𝜎𝑛
strength criterion for rockfills.
- R: Equivalent roughness
• Grain interlock, uniform stress distribution, and particle fracture - S: Equivalent particle strength
dynamics, setting a new standard in rockfill analysis - 𝜎𝑛 : Normal stress
- 𝜑𝑏 : Basic friction angle
Gonzalez (1985), 𝜎𝑛𝑓

• Innovative approach. Introduced a logarithmic strength envelope. 𝜑′ = 𝜑0 − 𝑗𝑙𝑜𝑔10
• Rooted in empirical findings from large-scale triaxial and direct
𝜎𝑐0
shear box tests - j, Constant for specific materials and
conditions.
- 𝜎𝑛𝑓 : Normal stress.
- 𝜎𝑐0 : Unconfined Strength
Sarac & Popovic's (1985) 𝐵
• Meticulously dissected large-scale direct shear tests across diverse
𝜎𝑛
materials.
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝐴
𝜎0
• With an acute emphasis on embankment dam materials and stress
evaluations spanning 0.05 MPa to 2.0 MPa - A, B Fitting parameters
•
Gonzalez (1985), 𝜎𝑛𝑓

• Innovative approach. Introduced a logarithmic strength envelope. 𝜑′ = 𝜑0 − 𝑗𝑙𝑜𝑔10
• Rooted in empirical findings from large-scale triaxial and direct
𝜎𝑐0
shear box tests - j, Constant for specific materials and
conditions.
- 𝜎𝑛𝑓 : Normal stress.
𝜎𝑛
materials.
𝜎0
evaluations spanning 0.05 MPa to 2.0 MPa - A, B Fitting parameters
Shear Strength – The 1990s refining models
Charles (1991) 𝐶2
• Shear strength of densely packed rockfill 𝜑′ = 𝐶1 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ′ + 𝜑𝑏′
• Introducing a power regression model
𝜎3
• Based on data from drained triaxial tests - 𝜑𝑏 : Basic friction angle.
- C1, C2: Constants.
Doruk (1991)
′ 𝑎
• Performed an analytical study 𝑚𝜎3
• Bringing together datasets from both established literature and 𝜎1′ = 𝜎3′ + 𝜎𝑐
new findings on fragmented rocks 𝜎𝑐
• Modification to the Hoek & Brown criterion for rockfill materials by - m, a: Hoek &Brown parameters
setting the rockfill compressive strength to zero (S = 0)
𝛽
𝜎1′ 𝜎3′
Indraratna (1993-1994) =𝛼
• non-linear framework suited for various triaxial loading conditions. 𝜎𝑐 𝜎𝑐
• Emphasis the role of particle size distribution in shear strength
determination and the effect of applied confining pressure
- α, β: Site specific constants
Charles (1991) 𝐶2
• Shear strength of densely packed rockfill 𝜑′ = 𝐶1 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ′ + 𝜑𝑏′
• Introducing a power regression model
𝜎3
• Based on data from drained triaxial tests - 𝜑𝑏 : Basic friction angle.
- C1, C2: Constants.
Doruk (1991)
′ 𝑎
• Performed an analytical study 𝑚𝜎3
• Bringing together datasets from both established literature and 𝜎1′ = 𝜎3′ + 𝜎𝑐
new findings on fragmented rocks 𝜎𝑐
• Modification to the Hoek & Brown criterion for rockfill materials by - m, a: Hoek &Brown parameters
setting the rockfill compressive strength to zero (S = 0)
𝛽
𝜎1′ 𝜎3′
𝜎𝑛
materials. 𝜎0
evaluations spanning 0.05 MPa to 2.0 MPa
- A, B Fitting parameters

𝛽
𝜎1′ 𝜎3′
𝛽 𝐵
𝜎1′ 𝜎3′ 𝜎𝑛 Mathematically valid?
=𝛼 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝐴
𝜎𝑐 𝜎𝑐 𝜎0
- 𝜎𝑐 : Unconfined Strength
- 𝜎0 : Unconfined Strength
[ ] Knowledge Development
GAP?
[4] [5] [6]
[3] [12]
[9] [11] [13]
[1] [2] [7] [8] [10] [14]
Shear Strength – The contemporary epoch? sophisticated
frameworks for large-scale practical applications
Ding (2014)
• Effects of model scale and particle size distribution on macro-
mechanical properties using the Particle Flow Code in 3
Dimensions (PFC3D).
• The study tested four particle size ratios, emphasizing the
significance of model scale and particle distribution in PFC3D
Wu (2014)
• Integrated fractal theory into rockfill grading design, resulting in a
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑎𝜎𝑛𝑏
unified formula and a critical fractal dimension. 𝐷 6−2𝐷
- 𝑎 = 𝑘3𝑙 3
• Addressed influences of maximum diameter during grading - D: fractal Dimension
- k: Material Constant
𝐷 - L: Sample Diameter
- 𝑏=
3
Xu (2015)
• Presented a fractal model for particle crushing, advancing the 𝜏𝑓 = 𝑎𝜎𝑛𝑏
understanding of shear strength in granular materials 2 2𝐷−3
- 𝑏= - D: fractal Dimension
3 𝐷−1
Zhang Wu (2017)
• Fractal characteristics of compacted and crushed gangue surfaces Fractal
for engineering applications, linking fractal dimensions, stress, and
rock strength in their results
Moradi & Irannajad (2021)

• Studied the effects of feed rate and size distribution on the fractal
dimensions of crushed mineral products
Carrasco (2022)
• Relationship between particle size, shape, and the shear strength
of granular materials
• Emphasis the importance of considering particle shape in granular
material analyses
Fractal
Fu (2022)
• Delved into the fractal properties of soil–rock mixtures (SRM)
using fractal theory and the discrete element method (DEM)
• Provided insights into predicting SRM gradations at various scales,
highlighting scale-dependent shear behaviors
Fractal???
Fractal is a pattern that
repeats forever, and every
part of the Fractal,
regardless of how zoomed
in, or zoomed out you are,
it looks very similar to the
whole image
Fractal???
Barton???
whole image
Fractal???
whole image
Fractal???
whole image
Fractal???
whole image
Fractal???
whole image
Fractal???
whole image
Fractal???
whole image
Shear Strength – Practical tools?
•
•
• Grain interlock, uniform stress distribution, and particle fracture
dynamics, setting a new standard in rockfill analysis
Equivalent Roughness (R)

15 14 13 12 11 10
9
8
ORIGIN ROUNDEDNESS SMOTHNESS
7
6
6=R
5
V.ROU
GH
4
ROU
GH
3
SM
V.S OO
MO TH 2
OTH
1
n=25
0
15 20 25 30 35 40 45
n (%)
•
dynamics, setting a new standard in rockfill analysis
1.0
Plane Test
Triaxial Test
0.8
S/σc
0.6
0.4
S/σc=0.25
0.2
D50=89.8mm
10 100
D50 (mm)
•
Large Open Pit Guidelines (2017)
𝜏 = 𝐴𝜎𝑛𝐵
H = 50m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 50m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 100m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 50m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 100m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 150m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 50m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 100m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 150m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 200m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 50m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 100m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 150m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
H = 200m
Unit W = 25 KN/m3
σn = 1.25 MPa
Key Remarks – Be careful?
𝛽 𝐵
𝜎1′ 𝜎3′ 𝜎𝑛 Mathematically valid?
=𝛼 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝐴
𝜎𝑐 𝜎𝑐 𝜎0
- 𝜎𝑐 : Unconfined Strength
- 𝜎0 : Unconfined Strength
Key Remarks – Shape is relevant?
Fractal???
whole image
Learnings? ☺/Disappointed? 
THANKS/GRACIAS

Materiales Granulares

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Half century shear strength in

Source: https://www.quora.com/When-did-ancient-Egyptians-start- Source: https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-

Source: https://www.quora.com/When-did-ancient-Egyptians-start- Source: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10342-006-0123-9

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_strength_(soil) Source: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00366-011-0242-x

Charles and Watts (1980)

Gonzalez (1985), 𝜎𝑛𝑓

Gonzalez (1985), 𝜎𝑛𝑓

Shear Strength – The 1990s refining models

Moradi & Irannajad (2021)

Equivalent Roughness (R)

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