UNIT 1

1. What are Computer Networks ? Briefly enumerate the goals for creating
computer networks.
Computer Networks:
A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices (such as computers,
servers, smartphones, and other devices) that are linked together to facilitate
communication and resource sharing. These networks can be local, covering a small
geographic area like a home or office, or global, connecting computers across
continents. Networks can be wired, using physical cables, or wireless, using radio
waves or infrared signals.
Goals for Creating Computer Networks:
Resource Sharing: One of the primary goals of computer networks is to enable the
sharing of resources like printers, files, and internet connections among connected
devices. This sharing optimizes resource utilization and reduces costs.
Reliability and Availability: Networks are designed to provide reliable access to
resources. Redundancy and backup systems ensure that even if one part of the
network fails, users can still access the necessary resources through alternative
paths.
Communication: Networks facilitate communication through various means such
as emails, instant messaging, video conferencing, and collaboration tools. This
fosters efficient communication within organizations and between individuals
globally.
Data Management: Networks allow centralized data management, enabling
efficient storage, retrieval, and backup of data. Centralized data management
ensures data consistency and security.
Remote Access: Networks enable remote access to resources and information. This
is particularly essential in today's globalized world where employees often need to
access company resources from different locations.
Security: Network security is a critical goal. It involves measures like firewalls,
encryption, and authentication protocols to safeguard data from unauthorized
access, attacks, and data breaches.
Scalability: Networks should be scalable to accommodate an increasing number of
users and devices. Scalability ensures that the network can grow to meet the
demands of expanding businesses or user bases.
Cost Efficiency: Networks streamline processes and reduce costs associated with
manual resource sharing and communication methods. By sharing resources,
organizations can optimize their investments in hardware and software.
Flexibility and Interoperability: Networks should be flexible, allowing integration
of various types of devices and technologies. Interoperability ensures that different
systems and devices can work together seamlessly.
Collaboration: Networks facilitate collaboration among individuals and groups,
allowing them to work together on projects, share ideas, and jointly contribute to
tasks regardless of their physical locations.
By achieving these goals, computer networks enhance efficiency, productivity, and
collaboration in various sectors, ranging from business and education to research
and entertainment.

2. Explain the evolution of Computer Networks.

The evolution of computer networks spans several decades and has witnessed
significant advancements in technology and communication protocols. Here's an
overview of the key stages in the evolution of computer networks:
**1. Early Networks (1960s-1970s):
ARPANET: The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET),
developed by the U.S. Department of Defense, is considered the precursor to the
modern internet. ARPANET was the first network to use the packet-switching
technique, allowing data to be broken into packets and sent independently across
the network.
Ethernet: Invented by Robert Metcalfe, Ethernet became a widely adopted
standard for local area networks (LANs). It allowed computers within a limited area
to communicate and share resources.
**2. TCP/IP and the Birth of the Internet (1980s):
TCP/IP Protocol Suite: The Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) became the standard communication protocol for linking diverse
computer networks. It allowed different networks to communicate and paved the
way for the formation of the internet.
Commercialization of the Internet: In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the internet
transitioned from being a research and academic tool to a global network
accessible to the public. This led to a surge in internet usage and the creation of the
World Wide Web (WWW) by Tim Berners-Lee.
**3. Internet Expansion and Dot-Com Boom (1990s):
Mass Internet Adoption: The 1990s saw a rapid increase in internet adoption
globally. Many businesses and individuals began to create websites, and email
became a primary mode of communication.
Dot-Com Boom and Bust: The late 1990s saw a period of intense speculation and
investment in internet-based companies, leading to the dot-com bubble. While
many companies failed, this era laid the groundwork for future internet-based
business models.
**4. Broadband and Wireless Networks (2000s):
Broadband Internet: High-speed internet connections, including DSL, cable, and
fiber optics, became widely available to consumers. This increased internet speeds
and enabled richer multimedia content and applications.
Wireless Networking: The proliferation of Wi-Fi technology allowed users to
connect to the internet without physical cables. Wi-Fi hotspots became common in
public places, and mobile devices increasingly relied on wireless networks for
internet access.
**5. Mobile and Cloud Computing (2010s):
Smartphones and Mobile Apps: The widespread use of smartphones and mobile
applications revolutionized how people access information and services. Mobile
networks, including 3G, 4G, and later 5G, provided high-speed internet access on
mobile devices.
Cloud Computing: Cloud computing services emerged, allowing users to store data
and access applications over the internet. This reduced the need for powerful local
hardware and facilitated collaborative work over the internet.
**6. Internet of Things (IoT) and 5G (2010s-Present):
Internet of Things: The proliferation of connected devices, ranging from smart
home appliances to industrial sensors, created the Internet of Things. These
devices communicate over networks, enabling automation and data collection.
5G Technology: The rollout of 5G networks began, providing significantly faster and
more reliable wireless connectivity. 5G technology supports the growing demand
for high-bandwidth applications and IoT devices.

3. What are the two broad classifications under which Networks can be divided?
Networks can be broadly classified into two main categories:
1. Local Area Network (LAN):
LANs are networks that are limited to a small geographic area, such as a single
building, office, or campus.
They are typically used for connecting computers and devices within the same
organization, enabling resource sharing and communication.
LANs can be wired (using Ethernet cables) or wireless (using Wi-Fi), and they offer
high data transfer rates within the confined area they cover.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN):
WANs are networks that cover a broad area, often spanning across cities, countries,
or even continents.
They connect multiple LANs and other types of networks together, allowing data
and resource sharing over long distances.
WANs can use various technologies, including leased lines, satellite links, and
internet connections, to establish connections between geographically separated
networks.
The internet itself is the largest and most well-known example of a WAN,
connecting millions of networks and devices worldwide.
These two classifications, LANs and WANs, provide a basic framework for
understanding the scope and coverage of different types of computer networks.

4. Mention different categories of computer networks (on the basis of scale) and
distinguish one from the other.
Different Categories of Computer Networks Based on Scale:
Personal Area Network (PAN):
A PAN is the smallest network type, typically within a range of a few meters.
It is used for connecting personal devices like smartphones, tablets, and laptops.
PANs often use technologies like Bluetooth and USB to establish connections.
Local Area Network (LAN):
LANs cover a small geographic area, such as a single building, office, or campus.
They connect computers and devices within the same organization, facilitating
resource sharing and communication.
LANs can be wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi).
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
MANs cover a larger geographic area, like a city or a campus.
They connect multiple LANs within a city and may use technologies like fiber optics.
MANs are suitable for connecting multiple offices of an organization within a city.
Wide Area Network (WAN):
WANs cover a vast geographic area, potentially spanning cities, countries, or
continents.
They connect multiple LANs, MANs, and other network types.
WANs utilize various communication links, such as leased lines, satellite
connections, and internet services.
The internet itself is the largest and most well-known WAN.
Distinguishing Characteristics:
Scale: The primary distinguishing factor is the geographic area covered. PANs are
for personal devices, LANs for localized connections within a building or campus,
MANs for cities, and WANs for wide-reaching global connections.
Ownership and Control: PANs are typically owned and controlled by individuals,
whereas LANs, MANs, and WANs are usually owned and managed by organizations,
internet service providers, or telecommunication companies.
Technologies: Different network technologies are employed based on the scale.
PANs might use Bluetooth or USB, LANs commonly use Ethernet or Wi-Fi, MANs
might incorporate fiber optics, and WANs utilize various wired and wireless
technologies.
Data Transfer Rates: Generally, the data transfer rates increase with the scale of
the network. PANs might have lower data rates suitable for personal devices,
whereas WANs require high-speed connections to handle large volumes of data
over long distances.

5. Mention important benefits of computer networks.

Important Benefits of Computer Networks:
Resource Sharing: Networks allow sharing of resources such as printers, files, and
internet connections, optimizing resource utilization.
Cost Efficiency: Networks streamline processes, reduce costs related to manual
tasks, and enable efficient use of resources, leading to cost savings.
Reliability: Networks can be designed with redundancy and backup systems,
ensuring reliable access to resources even if part of the network fails.
Remote Access: Networks enable remote access to resources and information,
facilitating work and collaboration from different locations.
Communication: Networks provide various communication tools like email, instant
messaging, and video conferencing, enhancing communication within
organizations and between individuals.
Data Management: Centralized data management in networks ensures efficient
storage, retrieval, and backup of data, maintaining data consistency and security.
Scalability: Networks can scale to accommodate a growing number of users and
devices, supporting the expansion of businesses and user bases.
Security: Networks implement security measures such as firewalls and encryption
to safeguard data from unauthorized access and cyber threats.
Collaboration: Networks facilitate collaboration by allowing individuals and groups
to work together on projects, share ideas, and contribute to tasks regardless of
their physical locations.

6. What are the various components of network structure ? Explain the functions
of each component.
Network Structure: Components and Functions
A network structure comprises several crucial components that enable seamless
communication and resource sharing among devices.
1. Devices:
Computers and Servers: Primary devices for end-users and data storage
respectively.
Routers: Direct data packets between different networks, ensuring efficient
transmission.
Switches: Connect devices within the same network, forwarding data based on
MAC addresses.
Access Points: Facilitate wireless connectivity by linking wireless devices to a wired
LAN.
Modems: Convert digital data into analog signals for transmission over analog
lines, connecting to networks like DSL or dial-up.
2. Media:
Cables: Transmit data using electrical signals (Ethernet) or light pulses (fiber optics)
for wired connections.
Wireless Signals: Utilize radio waves or infrared signals for wireless
communication, enabling freedom from physical cables.
3. Network Interface Cards (NICs):
NICs: Hardware components in devices that enable network connectivity,
translating digital data into suitable formats for transmission.
4. Protocols:
TCP/IP: Suite of protocols governing accurate data packet addressing and
transmission between devices.
HTTP/HTTPS, FTP, SMTP: Application layer protocols defining rules for specific
types of communication, like web browsing (HTTP), file transfer (FTP), and email
(SMTP).
5. Network Operating System (NOS):
NOS: Software managing network resources and user access. It handles file
services, user permissions, authentication, and security protocols, ensuring
efficient and secure network operations.
In essence, devices serve as endpoints for communication, routers and switches
enable efficient data routing, media transmit data in various forms, NICs facilitate
device connectivity, protocols establish communication rules, and NOS ensures
organized and secure network management. Together, these components form a
robust network structure, vital for modern communication and information
exchange.

7. Consider 2n - 1 IMPs connected by the following topologies :(a) Star (b) Ring (c)
Complete Inter-connection. For each, give the number of hops needed for the
average IMP - IMP packet. (No self traffic).

Certainly! Let's analyze the number of hops needed for the average IMP-IMP packet
in each of the given topologies:
(a) Star Topology:
In a star topology, all IMPs are connected to a central hub. To send a packet from
one IMP to another, it always has to go through the central hub. Therefore,
regardless of the number of IMPs (2n - 1), the average number of hops for an IMP-
IMP packet in a star topology is always 1, as the packet travels directly through the
hub.
(b) Ring Topology:
In a ring topology, each IMP is connected to two other IMPs, forming a circular
chain. To send a packet from one IMP to another, it travels through the ring until it
reaches the destination. In a ring of 2n - 1 IMPs, the packet would need to traverse
n - 1 hops on average to reach its destination. This is because, in the worst-case
scenario, the packet might need to travel half the circle, which would be (n - 1)
hops.
(c) Complete Inter-connection (Mesh) Topology:
In a complete inter-connection or mesh topology, every IMP is directly connected
to every other IMP. To send a packet from one IMP to another, it can take a direct
path. Therefore, the average number of hops for an IMP-IMP packet in a complete
inter-connection topology is 1, as the packet can travel directly to the destination
IMP without any intermediate hops.
To summarize:
Star Topology: 1 hop
Ring Topology: �−1n−1 hops
Complete Inter-connection Topology: 1 hop

8. What are the characteristics of digital and analog transmission? Mention the
advantages and disadvantages of each.
Digital Transmission:
Characteristics:
Representation: Digital transmission encodes data into binary format (0s and 1s)
for transmission.
Signal: It uses discrete signals with distinct voltage levels representing binary
values.
Noise Resistance: Digital signals are less susceptible to noise and interference,
making them more reliable over long distances.
Regeneration: Digital signals can be regenerated to their original strength,
enhancing the signal quality for long-distance transmissions.
Advantages:
Accuracy: Digital signals are highly accurate, as they can be transmitted and
received without distortion.
Error Detection and Correction: Digital systems can detect and correct errors,
ensuring data integrity.
Security: Digital transmissions can be encrypted, enhancing data security.
Flexibility: Digital signals can carry various types of data, including voice, video, and
text, making them versatile.
Disadvantages:
Bandwidth Requirement: Digital signals generally require higher bandwidth
compared to analog signals for transmitting the same information.
Complexity: Digital systems can be more complex and expensive to set up initially,
especially for high-speed applications.
Analog Transmission:
Characteristics:
Representation: Analog transmission uses continuous signals to represent data. It
can have an infinite number of values within a specific range.
Signal: Analog signals vary smoothly over time and amplitude.
Noise Resistance: Analog signals are more susceptible to noise and can distort
during transmission.
Regeneration: Analog signals degrade over distance and might need amplification
to maintain signal strength.
Advantages:
Simplicity: Analog systems are often simpler and less expensive to implement,
especially for low-speed applications.
Bandwidth Efficiency: Analog signals can carry multiple information types within a
limited bandwidth.
Natural Representation: Many natural phenomena, such as sound and light, are
analog. Analog signals can represent these phenomena more naturally.
Disadvantages:
Accuracy: Analog signals are susceptible to distortion and noise, leading to
potential data loss.
Limited Range: Analog signals degrade over distance and require amplification for
long-distance transmission.
Security: Analog transmissions are more vulnerable to interception and
eavesdropping due to their continuous nature.

9. Explain the characteristics of the three major classes of Guided media?

Guided media, also known as guided transmission media or wired media, refer to
the physical pathways through which signals are transmitted in a data
communication network. There are three major classes of guided media: twisted
pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Here are their characteristics:
1. Twisted Pair Cable:
Construction: Twisted pair cables consist of pairs of copper wires twisted together
to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk. The pairs are twisted
at different rates, creating different categories (such as Cat5, Cat6, etc.) with
varying data transmission speeds and capabilities.
Usage: Twisted pair cables are commonly used in Ethernet networks for both
residential and commercial applications. They can be found in phone lines, local
area networks (LANs), and in some cases, for high-speed internet connections.
Advantages:
Cost-Effective: Twisted pair cables are relatively inexpensive, making them a cost-
effective choice for network installations.
Flexibility: They are flexible and easy to install in various environments.
Widely Available: Twisted pair cables are widely available and come in different
categories to suit specific data transmission needs.
Disadvantages:
Limited Distance: Twisted pair cables have limitations on the maximum
transmission distance, especially at higher data rates.
Susceptible to Interference: They can be affected by electromagnetic interference
and signal loss, especially over long distances.
2. Coaxial Cable:
Construction: Coaxial cables consist of a central copper conductor, an insulating
layer, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer. The central conductor carries
the signal, while the metallic shield provides protection against interference.
Usage: Coaxial cables were traditionally used for cable television connections and
are still used in some modern broadband internet connections. They are also used
in certain types of LANs.
Advantages:
Higher Bandwidth: Coaxial cables offer higher bandwidth compared to twisted pair
cables, allowing for faster data transmission rates.
Less Susceptible to Interference: Coaxial cables provide better protection against
interference due to the shielding.
Disadvantages:
Bulkier and Less Flexible: Coaxial cables are bulkier and less flexible than twisted
pair cables, making installation in certain environments challenging.
Cost: They can be more expensive than twisted pair cables.
3. Fiber-Optic Cable:
Construction: Fiber-optic cables use light pulses to transmit data. They consist of a
core made of glass or plastic, surrounded by a cladding layer that reflects light back
into the core, and an outer protective layer.
Usage: Fiber-optic cables are widely used in high-speed data transmission
applications, including long-distance telecommunications, internet backbones, and
high-speed LANs.
Advantages:
High Bandwidth: Fiber-optic cables offer extremely high bandwidth, enabling very
fast data transmission rates over long distances.
Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference: They are immune to electromagnetic
interference, making them ideal for environments where EMI is a concern.
Long Distance Transmission: Fiber-optic cables can transmit data over much longer
distances without signal degradation compared to copper-based cables.
Disadvantages:
Fragility: Fiber-optic cables are more delicate than copper-based cables and can be
damaged if bent excessively or if there's excessive tension.
Cost: Fiber-optic cables and related equipment can be more expensive than
copper-based alternatives, although the costs have been decreasing with
technological advancements.

10.What are the four prominent wireless technologies? Briefly explain each.
There are several prominent wireless technologies, but four of the most significant
ones are Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, 4G LTE, and 5G. Here's a brief explanation of each:
1. Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity):
Description: Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that allows devices to
connect to a local area network (LAN) wirelessly, providing internet access and
enabling communication between devices within a specific range.
Usage: Wi-Fi is commonly used in homes, offices, public spaces, and businesses to
provide internet connectivity to smartphones, laptops, tablets, and other devices
without the need for physical cables.
Advantages: Wi-Fi offers high data transfer speeds, convenient connectivity
without cables, and support for multiple devices simultaneously within a specific
coverage area.
2. Bluetooth:
Description: Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication technology that
enables devices to exchange data over short distances.
Usage: Bluetooth is used for connecting devices such as smartphones, headphones,
speakers, keyboards, and smartwatches. It is widely used for wireless audio
streaming, file sharing, and connecting peripherals to computers and mobile
devices.
Advantages: Bluetooth is energy-efficient, supports wireless communication
between various devices, and is widely adopted in a range of consumer electronics
and IoT devices.
3. 4G LTE (Long-Term Evolution):
Description: 4G LTE is a mobile communication standard that provides high-speed
wireless internet access for mobile devices.
Usage: 4G LTE networks are used for mobile internet access on smartphones,
tablets, and other mobile devices. They provide faster download and upload
speeds, enabling seamless streaming, online gaming, and video conferencing on
the go.
Advantages: 4G LTE offers significantly faster data speeds compared to older
mobile network technologies, providing a better user experience for mobile
internet users.
4. 5G:
Description: 5G is the fifth generation of mobile communication technology,
designed to provide even faster data speeds, lower latency, and support for a
massive number of connected devices.
Usage: 5G networks are expected to power the future of mobile communication,
enabling applications such as augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR),
autonomous vehicles, and the Internet of Things (IoT).
Advantages: 5G offers ultra-fast data speeds, extremely low latency, and the ability
to connect a vast number of devices simultaneously, revolutionizing various
industries and enabling new technological innovations.
Each of these wireless technologies plays a crucial role in modern communication,
catering to different use cases and providing wireless connectivity solutions for
various devices and applications.
11.Compare and contrast the Fiber optic transmission with Microwave terrestrial/
satellite transmission.

Fiber Optic Transmission vs. Microwave Terrestrial/Satellite Transmission

Fiber optic transmission and microwave terrestrial/satellite transmission are
pivotal technologies in the realm of modern communication. Here's a concise
comparison:
Fiber Optic Transmission:
Medium: Uses glass/plastic fibers for transmitting data as light pulses.
Speed and Bandwidth: Extremely high speeds and vast bandwidth, measured in
gigabits/terabits per second.
Distance: Ideal for long distances without significant signal degradation; used in
undersea cables and long-haul networks.
Security: Difficult to tap without detection, providing high-level security.
Cost: Initial setup costs are high, but cost-effective for high-speed, high-bandwidth,
and long-distance communication.
Microwave Terrestrial Transmission:
Medium: Uses microwave frequency radio waves for data transmission between
fixed locations.
Speed and Bandwidth: Relatively high speeds (Mbps/Gbps) and sufficient
bandwidth for many applications.
Distance: Effective for medium to long-distance communications, e.g., point-to-
point connections between buildings or cell towers.
Security: Signals can be intercepted, requiring encryption for security.
Cost: Cost-effective for medium-distance connections; initial setup costs might be
higher than some wireless technologies.
Satellite Transmission:
Medium: Uses radio waves to communicate between ground stations and satellites
orbiting Earth.
Speed and Bandwidth: High data transmission speeds, but higher latency due to
signal travel to space and back; bandwidth shared among users.
Distance: Ideal for long-distance and global communications; used in broadcasting,
remote areas, and global internet access.
Security: Signals can be intercepted, necessitating encryption for data security.
Cost: High setup and operational costs due to specialized equipment and satellite
bandwidth.
Comparison:
Speed and Bandwidth: Fiber optics offer the highest speeds and bandwidth,
followed by microwave terrestrial links, while satellites offer lower speeds and
shared bandwidth.
Distance: Fiber optics are suitable for long-distance, microwave links for medium
to long distances, and satellites cover vast global distances.
Security: Fiber optics are highly secure, while both microwave and satellite links
require encryption for security.
Cost: Fiber optics have high initial setup costs but are cost-effective for high-speed,
long-distance communication. Microwave links offer a balance between cost and
performance for medium-distance connections. Satellite communication is
expensive both in setup and operation, essential for global coverage.
The choice depends on speed, distance, security needs, and budget constraints.
Each technology has its unique strengths, making them suitable for specific
applications and scenarios.
Top of Form

12.Broadly categorize and briefly explain the transmission impairments.

Transmission impairments are disturbances or disruptions in a signal as it travels
through a transmission medium, affecting the quality and integrity of the data
being transmitted. These impairments can occur in various forms and can
significantly impact the performance of communication systems. Broadly,
transmission impairments can be categorized as follows:
**1. Attenuation:
Description: Attenuation refers to the reduction in signal strength as it travels over
a distance through a medium. It is a natural phenomenon and occurs in all types of
transmission media.
Cause: Attenuation occurs due to the absorption of signal energy by the
transmission medium and is proportional to the distance traveled. Additionally,
higher frequencies are more susceptible to attenuation.
Effect: Attenuation weakens the signal, making it difficult to detect and interpret
data correctly at the receiver end. Repeaters or amplifiers are often used to
counteract attenuation in long-distance communications.
**2. Distortion:
Description: Distortion alters the shape of the signal waveform, affecting its
quality. It can occur due to various factors, such as electromagnetic interference,
multipath propagation, or nonlinearities in the transmission medium.
Cause: Distortion can result from reflections, echoes, or overlapping signals,
causing different parts of the signal to reach the receiver at different times and
amplitudes.
Effect: Distorted signals can lead to misinterpretation of data, especially in analog
signals. Equalization techniques and signal processing are employed to mitigate
distortion effects.
**3. Noise:
Description: Noise refers to any unwanted electrical or electromagnetic signals
that interfere with the original signal during transmission.
Cause: Noise can originate from various sources, such as thermal noise (random
electrical fluctuations), external electromagnetic interference, or crosstalk from
adjacent channels or wires.
Effect: Noise disrupts the integrity of the signal, making it difficult to distinguish
between the actual data and the unwanted signals. Error detection and correction
techniques are used to combat noise-induced errors.
**4. Delay:
Description: Delay refers to the time it takes for a signal to travel from the sender
to the receiver. Excessive delay can affect real-time applications and cause
synchronization issues in data transmission.
Cause: Delay can occur due to signal propagation through the transmission
medium, processing delays in devices, or routing delays in networks.
Effect: Delay can lead to latency in communication, especially problematic for
interactive applications like video conferencing or online gaming. Minimizing delays
is crucial for maintaining the responsiveness of the system.
Understanding and mitigating these transmission impairments are essential for
designing reliable and efficient communication systems, ensuring the accurate and
timely delivery of data between sender and receiver.

13.Describe various encoding techniques that are used to transmit digital data in
digital form.

Various encoding techniques are employed to transmit digital data in digital form.
These techniques ensure that the data is accurately represented and transmitted
over communication channels. Here are some common encoding methods:
**1. Unipolar Encoding:
Description: In unipolar encoding, all the signal levels are on one side of the time
axis (either above or below). Common unipolar encoding schemes include Non-
Return-to-Zero (NRZ) and Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted (NRZI).
Advantages: Simple and easy to implement.
Disadvantages: Prone to long sequences of consecutive 1s or 0s, leading to
synchronization issues.
**2. Polar Encoding:
Description: In polar encoding, signal levels are on both sides of the time axis, such
as in Return-to-Zero (RZ) encoding and Manchester encoding.
Advantages: Solves synchronization issues encountered in unipolar encoding.
Disadvantages: Requires more bandwidth compared to unipolar encoding due to
the additional signal transitions.
**3. Bipolar Encoding:
Description: Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels: positive, zero, and
negative. Common bipolar encoding schemes include Alternate Mark Inversion
(AMI) and Pseudoternary encoding.
Advantages: Provides better synchronization and allows for error detection.
Disadvantages: Requires more bandwidth than unipolar encoding and is
susceptible to baseline wandering.
**4. Multilevel Encoding:
Description: Multilevel encoding uses multiple signal levels, allowing the
transmission of multiple bits per symbol. One common multilevel encoding scheme
is Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).
Advantages: Higher data transfer rates by encoding multiple bits in a single symbol.
Disadvantages: More susceptible to noise and requires accurate detection of
multiple signal levels.
**5. Differential Encoding:
Description: Differential encoding represents data based on the changes between
successive signal elements. Differential encoding methods include Differential
Manchester Encoding.
Advantages: Provides better synchronization and reduces the impact of signal
inversion.
Disadvantages: Requires additional processing to decode differentially encoded
signals.
**6. Scrambling:
Description: Scrambling techniques introduce controlled redundancy into the data
stream, making it easier to maintain synchronization between the sender and
receiver.
Advantages: Enhances synchronization and reduces the likelihood of long
sequences of the same bit.
Disadvantages: Requires additional processing and decoding steps.
Each encoding technique has its advantages and trade-offs, making it suitable for
specific applications and communication requirements. The choice of encoding
method depends on factors such as data rate, channel characteristics, noise levels,
and synchronization needs in a particular communication system.

14.What are the encoding techniques used to transmit digital data in analog form?
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of each.
When transmitting digital data in analog form, modulation techniques are used to
encode digital information into analog signals. Here are some common encoding
techniques along with their advantages and disadvantages:
**1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
Description: ASK modulates the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier signal to
represent digital 1s and 0s. A change in amplitude represents a binary symbol
change.
Advantages: Simple implementation, bandwidth efficiency for low data rates.
Disadvantages: Susceptible to noise and interference, limited data rate due to
amplitude changes.
**2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
Description: FSK modulates the frequency of the carrier signal to represent digital
1s and 0s. Different frequencies represent different binary symbols.
Advantages: Better noise immunity compared to ASK, suitable for medium data
rates.
Disadvantages: Requires wider bandwidth than ASK, moderate complexity.
**3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
Description: PSK modulates the phase of the carrier signal to represent digital 1s
and 0s. Different phase shifts represent different binary symbols.
Advantages: More bandwidth-efficient than FSK, robust against noise, suitable for
high data rates.
Disadvantages: Moderate complexity, sensitive to phase errors.
**4. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM):
Description: QAM combines both amplitude and phase modulation. It uses a
combination of amplitude levels and phase shifts to represent multiple bits per
symbol.
Advantages: High data rate transmission, efficient use of bandwidth, robustness
against noise.
Disadvantages: Complex implementation, sensitive to noise and phase distortions,
requires precise signal detection.
**5. Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying (CPFSK):
Description: CPFSK is a form of FSK where the phase transitions are continuous
rather than abrupt. This reduces the abrupt changes in frequency.
Advantages: Smoother phase transitions, reduced bandwidth requirements
compared to standard FSK.
Disadvantages: Limited improvement in bandwidth efficiency, moderate
complexity.
**6. Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK):
Description: DPSK modulates the phase difference between successive symbols
rather than the absolute phase values. This simplifies the detection process.
Advantages: Robust against phase shifts, simpler demodulation process.
Disadvantages: Lower bandwidth efficiency compared to standard PSK, limited to
lower data rates.
**7. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK):
Description: QPSK uses four different phase shifts to represent two bits per symbol.
It is a specific case of QAM where only phase modulation is used.
Advantages: Balanced trade-off between bandwidth efficiency and complexity,
suitable for moderate data rates.
Disadvantages: Limited data rate per symbol compared to higher-order QAM,
moderate complexity.
Each encoding technique has its unique advantages and disadvantages, making
them suitable for different applications. The choice of modulation technique
depends on factors such as data rate requirements, noise levels, bandwidth
constraints, and the complexity of the communication system.

15.Briefly explain any two of the following: (a) Pulse Code Modulation (b) Delta
Modulation (c) Amplitude Shift Keying (d) Phase Shift Keying (e) Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation.

(a) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM):

Description: Pulse Code Modulation is a digital representation technique used to
convert analog signals into digital form. In PCM, the continuous analog signal is
sampled at regular intervals, each sample is quantized into a discrete value, and
then these values are encoded into binary digits. PCM is widely used in audio and
video applications, ensuring accurate reproduction of the original signal.

(b) Delta Modulation (DM):

Description: Delta Modulation is a form of analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog
signal conversion. It encodes the difference between the current sample and the
previous quantized sample (delta) into a digital form. DM is simpler than PCM and
is suitable for applications where rapid changes in the signal are more important
than absolute accuracy, such as in speech and low-bit-rate audio transmission.

(c) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):

Description: Amplitude Shift Keying is a digital modulation technique where the
amplitude of a carrier signal is varied to represent digital data. In ASK, different
amplitudes represent different binary states (0 or 1). It is a straightforward and
simple modulation technique used in applications like RFID systems, low-cost
wireless systems, and optical fiber communication.

(d) Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

Description: Phase Shift Keying is a digital modulation technique where the phase
of the carrier signal is altered to represent digital data. Different phase shifts
represent different binary states. Common PSK variations include Binary PSK
(BPSK), Quadrature PSK (QPSK), and Differential PSK (DPSK). PSK is widely used in
wireless communication, including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and satellite communication
systems.

(e) Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM):

Description: Quadrature Amplitude Modulation is a sophisticated digital
modulation technique that combines both amplitude and phase modulation. In
QAM, two carriers (in-phase and quadrature) are modulated with digital data and
then combined. By varying the amplitude and phase of these carriers, multiple bits
can be represented in each symbol. QAM is used in high-data-rate applications such
as digital television, cable modems, and DSL internet connections due to its
efficiency in using available bandwidth.

16. What is the use of Multiplexing and concentration? What are the different ways
of Multiplexing?Describe briefly.
Multiplexing:
Multiplexing is a technique used in data communication and networking to
combine multiple data streams into a single signal for transmission over a shared
medium. It allows efficient utilization of the available bandwidth by enabling
multiple signals to share the same communication channel simultaneously.
Multiplexing is essential in scenarios where there is a need to transmit data from
multiple sources to a single destination or vice versa.
Concentration:
Concentration is the reverse process of multiplexing. It involves collecting data
from multiple sources and directing them to a single destination. Concentration is
particularly useful in scenarios where data from various devices or users need to
be aggregated and sent to a central system or network.
Different Ways of Multiplexing:
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
Description: TDM divides the time into fixed intervals and allocates a specific time
slot to each data source. Data from different sources are transmitted sequentially
in their allocated time slots.
Advantages: Simple implementation, predictable timing, suitable for both analog
and digital signals.
Disadvantages: Inefficient for variable-length data, synchronization is crucial, and
unused slots cannot be utilized by other sources.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):
Description: FDM divides the available bandwidth into multiple frequency bands.
Each data source is allocated a unique frequency band within the channel for
transmission.
Advantages: Efficient use of bandwidth, suitable for analog signals, easy to
implement.
Disadvantages: Requires precise frequency control, susceptible to interference
between adjacent frequency bands.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):
Description: WDM is a variation of FDM used in optical fiber communication. It
divides the optical spectrum into different wavelengths, allowing multiple signals
to be transmitted simultaneously over the same fiber optic cable.
Advantages: High data rates, long-distance transmission, ideal for high-capacity
optical networks.
Disadvantages: Complex equipment, costly setup, limited scalability in some cases.
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM):
Description: CDM assigns a unique code to each data source. Data streams are
combined by modulating them with their unique codes. At the receiver, the signals
are demodulated using the corresponding codes to extract the original data.
Advantages: Secure communication, efficient use of bandwidth, resistant to
interference.
Disadvantages: Complex signal processing, susceptible to errors if codes overlap.
17. (a) State Nyquist's and Shannon's results for computing the maximum data
rates of a channel. TVchannels are 6 MHz wide. How many bits/sec can be sent if
four level digital signals are used. (b) What isthe maximum available data rate if a
binary signal is sent over a 3 KHz channel whose Signal-to-noiseratio is 30 dB ?

18. Briefly describe the properties, advantages and disadvantages of the various
transmission media being used in computer networks.
Transmission Media in Computer Networks:
Transmission media are the physical pathways that carry signals between
computers and other network devices. Different types of transmission media are
used in computer networks, including twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, fiber-optic
cables, and wireless communication.
1. Twisted Pair Cables:
Properties: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together. Common
categories include Cat5, Cat6, and Cat7.
Advantages: Inexpensive, easy to install, suitable for short to medium distances,
widely used in Ethernet networks.
Disadvantages: Limited bandwidth, susceptible to electromagnetic interference
and signal attenuation over long distances.
2. Coaxial Cables:
Properties: Consists of a central copper conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic
shield, and an outer insulating layer.
Advantages: Higher bandwidth than twisted pair cables, suitable for longer
distances, less susceptible to interference.
Disadvantages: Thicker and less flexible than twisted pair cables, more expensive,
installation complexity increases with distance.
3. Fiber-Optic Cables:
Properties: Uses glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as light pulses.
Advantages: High bandwidth, immune to electromagnetic interference, suitable
for long-distance and high-speed data transmission, secure.
Disadvantages: Expensive to install, delicate and can be damaged easily, requires
specialized equipment for splicing and termination.
4. Wireless Communication:
Properties: Uses radio waves or infrared signals for communication between
devices without physical connections.
Advantages: No physical cabling required, convenient and flexible, suitable for
mobile and remote devices, scalable, easy to set up.
Disadvantages: Limited bandwidth, susceptible to interference, signal attenuation
due to obstacles, security concerns (without proper encryption), and potential
health risks associated with radiofrequency radiation.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Twisted Pair Cables:
Advantages: Low cost, easy installation, suitable for short distances, widely
available.
Disadvantages: Limited bandwidth, susceptible to interference, distance
limitations.
Coaxial Cables:
Advantages: Higher bandwidth, longer distance capabilities, less susceptible to
interference compared to twisted pair cables.
Disadvantages: More expensive, less flexible, thicker, installation complexity
increases with distance.
Fiber-Optic Cables:
Advantages: High bandwidth, secure, immune to interference, suitable for long
distances and high-speed applications.
Disadvantages: Expensive, delicate, requires specialized equipment, difficult
installation and maintenance.
Wireless Communication:
Advantages: No physical cabling, convenient, flexible, suitable for mobile devices,
easy to set up.
Disadvantages: Limited bandwidth, interference-prone, signal attenuation due to
obstacles, security concerns, potential health risks.

19. Why is PCM sampling time set to 125 microsecs?

The Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) sampling time is typically set to 125
microseconds (μs) due to the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem. This theorem
states that in order to accurately represent an analog signal in digital form, the
sampling rate must be at least twice the maximum frequency of the analog signal.
This minimum sampling rate is known as the Nyquist rate.
For voice communication, the human ear can perceive frequencies up to
approximately 4 kHz. According to the Nyquist theorem, the minimum sampling
rate required to accurately capture voice signals is 2×4 kHz=8 kHz2×4 kHz=8 kHz.
To convert this into microseconds, the calculation is:
Sampling time=1Sampling rate=18000 Hz=125 μsSampling time=Sampling rate1
=8000 Hz1=125 μs
Therefore, the PCM sampling time is set to 125 microseconds to ensure that voice
signals, which are critical in telecommunications, are accurately represented in the
digital domain. This standard sampling rate of 8 kHz is commonly used in telephony
and audio applications to maintain voice quality while optimizing data transmission
and storage.

20. Compare the maximum data rate of a noiseless 4KHz channel using: (a) Analog
encoding with two bits per sample. (b) The T1 PCM system.

21. For the bit stream 0001110101 sketch (a) Manchestor encoding (b) Differential
Manchestor encoding.
Assume that the line is initially in the low state.
Given Bit Stream: 0001110101
(a) Manchester Encoding:
In Manchester encoding, each bit is represented by a transition in the middle of the
bit period. For "0", the signal transitions from high to low in the middle, and for "1",
it transitions from low to high. Let's represent the given bit stream using
Manchester encoding:
yamlCopy code
Original Bit Stream: 0001110101 Manchester Encoding: 01 10 10 01 01 10 01
10 10 01
In this representation, "0" is represented as a falling edge in the middle of the bit
period, and "1" is represented as a rising edge in the middle of the bit period.
(b) Differential Manchester Encoding:
Differential Manchester encoding ensures a transition at the middle of every bit
period. Whether it's a "0" or "1" depends on the presence or absence of a transition
at the beginning of the bit period. Let's represent the given bit stream using
Differential Manchester encoding:
yamlCopy code
Original Bit Stream: 0001110101 Differential Manchester Encoding: 10 01 01 10
10 01 10 01 01 10
In Differential Manchester encoding, "01" represents "0", and "10" represents "1".
In this encoding scheme, the signal always transitions at the middle of the bit
period, providing better synchronization capabilities.
Please note that these representations follow the conventions for Manchester and
Differential Manchester encoding where a transition in the middle represents a "1"
or "0" based on the specific scheme.

22. Distinguish between (a) Circuit Switching (b) Message switching (c) Packet
Switching as Message
Transport technologies.
(a) Circuit Switching:
Description: Circuit Switching establishes a dedicated communication path
between two devices for the duration of their conversation. This path remains open
and reserved exclusively for those devices until the conversation is complete.
Characteristics:
Dedicated path ensures constant bandwidth and predictable latency.
Ideal for real-time applications like voice calls.
Resources are exclusively allocated, even if no data is being transmitted.
Advantages:
Predictable and consistent communication quality.
Suitable for real-time applications with constant data flow requirements.
Disadvantages:
Inefficient use of network resources, especially if the conversation has idle periods.
Scalability issues in large networks due to resource allocation challenges.
(b) Message Switching:
Description: Message Switching involves sending complete messages from source
to destination through a store-and-forward mechanism. The entire message is
stored at each intermediate node before being forwarded to the next node along
the route.
Characteristics:
Messages are routed based on destination addresses.
Intermediate nodes store messages until the next hop is available.
Each message may take a different route to reach the destination.
Advantages:
Decouples sender and receiver, allowing asynchronous communication.
Tolerant to network failures and delays.
Disadvantages:
High storage requirements at intermediate nodes.
Variable delivery times for messages, leading to unpredictable latency.
(c) Packet Switching:
Description: Packet Switching breaks data into smaller packets, each with its own
header containing source and destination information. These packets are
transmitted independently over the network and reassembled at the destination.
Characteristics:
Packets are routed individually based on destination addresses.
Each packet may take a different route and may arrive out of order.
Intermediate nodes forward packets based on current network conditions.
Advantages:
Efficient use of network resources as bandwidth is shared among multiple users.
Scalable and adaptable to varying network loads.
Disadvantages:
Packet loss can occur due to network congestion or failures.
Variable latency and potential out-of-order delivery, requiring additional protocols
for reordering and error correction.

23. What do you think will be the media of future in communication networks?
Give reasons for your choices.

Predicting the exact future of communication networks is challenging, but several

trends suggest the direction in which communication media might evolve:
**1. Fiber-Optic Cables:
Reasons: Fiber-optic cables offer unparalleled data transmission speeds and high
bandwidth capacity. As demand for high-speed internet, streaming, and cloud-
based services continues to grow, fiber-optic cables are likely to be a prominent
choice. Moreover, advancements in fiber-optic technology, such as hollow-core
fibers and improved signal amplification techniques, might further enhance their
capabilities.
**2. 5G and Beyond Wireless Networks:
Reasons: 5G networks are already rolling out in many parts of the world, offering
significantly higher speeds and lower latency than previous generations. Beyond
5G, emerging technologies like 6G are expected to revolutionize wireless
communication. The need for faster, more reliable wireless connectivity, especially
in urban areas and for IoT devices, is likely to drive the evolution of wireless
networks.
**3. Satellite Communication:
Reasons: Satellite communication is becoming more crucial, especially for global
coverage, rural and remote areas, and IoT devices. Companies like SpaceX, Amazon,
and OneWeb are investing in satellite constellations, aiming to provide high-speed
internet access worldwide. Advancements in satellite technology, such as low Earth
orbit (LEO) satellites, are making satellite communication more viable and efficient.
**4. Quantum Communication:
Reasons: Quantum communication, including quantum key distribution (QKD),
offers unparalleled security by leveraging the principles of quantum mechanics. As
cybersecurity threats become more sophisticated, quantum communication
technologies might become essential for securing sensitive data transmissions.
Research and development in quantum networks are ongoing, with the potential
to revolutionize secure communication.
**5. Terahertz Communication:
Reasons: Terahertz frequencies offer vast bandwidth, enabling extremely high-
speed wireless communication. Research is ongoing to harness terahertz waves for
communication, promising data rates far beyond what is currently achievable. As
technology matures and challenges like signal attenuation are addressed, terahertz
communication might become a key player in future networks.
**6. AI-Enhanced Communication Networks:
Reasons: Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) algorithms are being
increasingly used to optimize network efficiency, predict failures, and enhance
security. AI-driven networks can adapt in real-time to changing demands,
improving overall performance and reliability. As AI technologies continue to
advance, their integration into communication networks will likely be a significant
trend.
The future of communication networks is likely to be a combination of these
technologies, tailored to specific use cases and geographic regions. Hybrid
networks that intelligently switch between different communication mediums
based on factors like data load, latency requirements, and geographical location
are also expected to become prevalent, ensuring efficient and reliable
communication services for diverse applications.