Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lecnotes2 Comp Geometry
Lecnotes2 Comp Geometry
Lecnotes2 Comp Geometry
940J
COMPUTATIONAL GEOMETRY
Lecture 2
Kwanghee Ko
T. Maekawa
N. M. Patrikalakis
Contents
Bibliography 16
1
Lecture 2
Example: If we translate by (1,2) and rotate the axes by θ = atan( 34 ), the hyperbola
x2 y2 2 2
4 − 2 = 1, shown in Figure 2.1(b), will become 2x − 72xy + 23y + 140x − 20y + 50 = 0.
2
2
Y multi-valued 4 Y
1 3
X
2
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2
asymptote line 1
-1
x+y+1=0 X
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-2
-1
-3 -2
y = + r 2 − x2
o x
y = − r2 − x2
√
Note: The derivative of y = x at the origin x = 0 is infinite, see Figure 2.3.
3
y
√ √
y= x; y 0 = 1/2 x; as x → 0, y 0 → ∞
Figure 2.3: Vertical slopes for explicit curves involve non-polynomial functions.
Folium
Example: of Descartes, see Figure 2.1, can be expressed as:
3t 3t2
r(t) = 1+t3 , 1+t3 − ∞ < t < ∞ ⇒ easy to trace
x(t) = x0 ⇒ solve for t ⇒ plug t into y(t) = y0 ⇒ need to solve a nonlinear equation
to check if a point lies on the curve.
√
Explicit curve y = x can be expressed as x = t2 , y = t (t ≥ 0).
4
Thus, the curve appears as the intersection of two surfaces.
F (x, y, z) = 0 ∩ G(x, y, z) = 0
• Explicit curves
If the implicit equations can be solved for two of the variables in terms of the third, say
for y and z in terms of x, we get
y = y(x), z = z(x)
Each of the equations separately represents a cylinder projecting the curve onto one of
the coordinate planes. Therefore intersection of the two cylinders represents the curve.
Example: Intersection of the two cylinders y = x 2 , z = x3 gives a cubic parabola.
r = r(t)
where r = (x, y, z), r(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t))
x = t, y = t2 , z = t3
Using v = tan 2t
s
t 1 − cos t 1 − cos t
v = tan = ⇒ v2 =
2 1 + cos t 1 + cos t
1 − v2 2v
⇒ cos t = 2
⇒ sin t =
1+v 1 + v2
Therefore the following parametrization will give the same circular helix.
!
1 − v2 2av −1
r= a , , 2btan v , 0≤v<∞
1 + v2 1 + v2
5
>>
>> a= 2;
>> b = 3;
>> u = [0 : 6 * pi / 100 : 6 * pi];
>> plot3(a * cos(u), a * sin(u), b * u)
>> xlabel(’X’);
>> ylabel(’Y’);
>> zlabel(’Z’);
>> print(’circHelix.ps’)
60
50
40
30
Z
20
10
0
2
1 2
0 1
0
−1
−1
Y −2 −2
X
6
z
r(t)
∆r
q
r(t + ∆t) y
Figure 2.5: A segment ∆r connecting two point p and q on a parametric curve r(t).
7
ds
dt is called the parametric speed. It is, by definition, non-negative (s being measured always
in the sense of increasing t).
If the parametric speed does not vary significantly, parameter values t 0 , t1 , · · · , tN corre-
sponding to a uniform increment ∆t = t k − tk−1 , will be evenly distributed along the curve, as
illustrated in Figure 2.6.
ds y
dt t5
t2 t3 t4
Parameter Space t1
t0
t x
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
Figure 2.6: When parametric speed does not vary, parameter values are uniformly spaced along
a parametric curve.
The arc length of a segment of the curve between points r(t o ) and r(t) can be obtained as
follows:
Z tq Z t√
s(t) = 2 2 2
ẋ (t) + ẏ (t) + ż (t)dt = ṙ · ṙdt (2.2)
to to
Derivatives of arc length s w.r.t. parameter t and vice versa :
ds √
ṡ = = |ṙ| = ṙ · ṙ (2.3)
dt
dṡ ṙ · r̈
s̈ = =√ (2.4)
dt ṙ · ṙ
···
··· ds̈ (ṙ · ṙ)(ṙ· r +r̈ · r̈) − (ṙ · r̈)2
s = = 3 (2.5)
dt (ṙ · ṙ) 2
dt 1 1
t0 = = =√ (2.6)
ds |ṙ| ṙ · ṙ
dt0 ṙ · r̈
t00 = =− (2.7)
ds (ṙ · ṙ)2
···
dt00 (r̈ · r̈ + ṙ· r)(ṙ · ṙ) − 4(ṙ · r̈)2
t000 = =− 7 (2.8)
ds (ṙ · ṙ) 2
8
Unit tangent vector
dr
ṙ dt dr
t= = ds
= ≡ r0 (2.10)
|ṙ| dt
ds
Definition : A parametric curve is said to be regular if | ṙ(t)| 6= 0 for all t ∈ I. The points
where |ṙ(t)| = 0 are called irregular (singular) points.
Note that at irregular points the parametric speed is zero.
Example: semi-cubical parabola r(t) = (t 2 , t3 ), see Figure 2.7
when t = 0, |ṙ(t)| = 0
t>0
x
0
t<0
Figure 2.7: A singular point occurs on a semi-cubical parabola in the form of a cusp.
Here are some useful formulae for computing the unit tangent vector:
9
• 2D Explicit curve y = f (x)
(1, f˙)
t= q
1 + f˙2
• Parametric speed
ds q
= |ṙ(t)| = ẋ2 (t) + ẏ 2 (t) + ż 2 (t)
dt
ṙ(t) = (−a sin t, a cos t, b)
(
p The curve is regular and has
|ṙ(t)| = a2 + b2 = c = const ⇒
good parametrization
• Arc length Z t Z tp
s(t) = |ṙ|dt = a2 + b2 dt = ct (2.12)
0 0
r0 (s + ∆s) − r0 (s)
r00 (s) = lim (2.17)
∆s→0 ∆s
As ∆s → 0 r0 (s + ∆s) − r0 (s) becomes perpendicular to the tangent vector i.e. normal
direction.
Thus
∆θ
∆θ ρ 1
|r00 (s)| = lim = lim = ≡κ (2.18)
∆s→0 ∆s ∆s→0 ∆θ ρ
10
1
r’(s) r’(s+∆s)
1
∆s
r’(s) r’(s+∆s)−r’(s)=∆θ
n ∆θ
r’(s+∆s)
ρ
∆θ
center of
curvature
Consequently
11
z
n
t
ez κ<0
y n
κ=0
inflection t
point
κ>0
n
x
t
(−ẏ, 1)
n = ez × t = p (2.27)
1 + ẏ 2
ÿ
κ = 3 (2.28)
(1 + ẏ 2 ) 2
b
t n t : osculating plane
n
b n : normal plane
y b t : rectifying plane
r(t)
x
Figure 2.10: The tangent, normal, and binormal vectors define an orthogonal coordinate system
along a space curve.
b=t×n (2.29)
We have
12
The osculating plane can be defined as the plane passing through three consecutive points
on the curve. The rate of change of the osculating plane is expressed by the vector
d dt dn
b0 = (t × n) = ×n+t× = t × n0 (2.30)
ds ds ds
dt
where we used the fact that ds = r00 = κn.
From n · n = 1 → differentiate w.r.t. s → 2n 0 · n = 0 → n0 ⊥ n
Thus n0 is parallel to the rectifying plane (b, t), and n 0 can be expressed as a linear com-
bination of b and t.
n0 = µt + τ b (2.31)
b0 = t × (µt + τ b) = τ t × b = −τ b × t = −τ n (2.32)
(abc) = a · (b × c) = (a × b) · c (2.34)
also
b ax ay az
a a (bxc)= bx by bz
c cx cy cz
t0 = κn (2.36)
0
b = −τ n (2.37)
13
How about n0 ?
Thus, the curve is completely determined by its curvature and torsion as a function of
parameter s. The equations κ = κ(s), τ = τ (s) are called intrinsic equations. The for-
mulae 2.39 are known as the Serret-Frenet Formulae and describe the motion of moving a
trihedron (t, n, b) along the curve.
Example: Determining the shape of a curve from curvature information and boundary
conditions only.
Given:
1
κ= = const
R
We find
dt n
= (2.40)
ds R
dn t
=− (2.41)
ds R
If we diffrentiate Equation 2.40 with respect to s,
d2 t 1 dn
2
= . (2.42)
ds R ds
Now, substitute Equation 2.42 into Equation 2.41
d2 t t
2
+ 2 = 0. (2.43)
ds R
dr
Recognizing that t = ds , we can change variables from t to r, transforming Equation 2.43
into
d3 r 1 dr
ds3 + R2 ds =0
! or ! !
d3 x(s) 1 d x(s) 0
ds3 + R2 ds = (2.44)
y(s) y(s) 0
14
Assume we are given suitable initial conditions or boundary conditions. For this example,
we will use:
1
x(0) = R x0 (0) = 0 x00 (0) = − (2.47)
R
y(0) = 0 y 0 (0) = 1 y 00 (0) = 0 (2.48)
C1 = C 3 = 0 C2 = R (2.49)
C10 = C20 =0 C30 =R (2.50)
a s a s b
r0 (s) = (− sin , cos , )
c c c c c
a s a s
r00 (s) = (− cos , − 2 sin , 0)
c2 c c c
a s a s
r000 (s) = ( 3
sin , − 3 cos , 0)
c c c c
a2 2 s 2 s a2
κ2 = r00 · r00 = (cos + sin ) = = constant
c4 c c c4
(r0 r00 r000 ) (r0 r00 r000 )
τ = =
r00 · r00 κ2
− ac sin sc a
c cos sc b
c
c4
= − ca2 cos sc − ca2 sin sc 0
a2
a
c3 sin sc − ca3 cos sc 0
c4 b a2 s s
= ( (cos2 + sin2 ))
a2 c c5 c c
b
= = constant
c2
Note: when b > 0, it is a right-handed helix;
when b < 0, it is a left-handed helix.
15
Bibliography
[1] P. M. do Carmo. Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ, 1976.
[3] M. M. Lipschutz. Theory and Problems of Differential Geometry. Schaum’s Outline Series:
McGraw-Hill, 1969.
16