Bridge Equipment Question Bank

(For 2nd Mates and Phase-II)

1. BNWAS

Q1. What is the purpose of BNWAS? Describe the alarm sequence of BNWAS.
Answer
Purpose of BNWAS:
The purpose of a bridge navigational watch alarm system is to monitor bridge activity and
detect operator disability which could lead to marine accidents. The system monitors
awareness of the Officer of the Watch (OOW) and automatically alerts the Master or
another qualified person if, for any reason, the OOW becomes incapable of performing
OOW duties by series of indications and alarms.

BNWAS Alarm Sequence:

BNWAS has three stages of audio alarm which is generated in a sequential manner.
Once operational, the alarm system remains dormant for a period of between 3 and 12
min (Td) which can be set by the master. At the end of this dormant period, the alarm
system should initiate a visual indication on the bridge.
1st Stage Alarm: If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a first stage audible
alarm on the bridge 15 s after the visual indication is initiated.
2nd Stage Alarm: If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a second stage
remote audible alarm in the back-up officer’s and/or Master’s location 15 s after the first
stage audible alarm is initiated.
3rd Stage Alarm: If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a third stage remote
audible alarm at the locations of further crew members capable of taking corrective actions
90 s after the second stage remote audible alarm is initiated.

Q2. What are the basic functional / operational requirements of BNWAS?

Answer
Functional requirements of BNWAS:
1. Alarm sequencing :
BNWAS has three stages of audio alarm which is generated in a sequential manner.
Once operational, the alarm system remains dormant for a period of between 3 and 12
min (Td) which can be set by the master. At the end of this dormant period, the alarm
system should initiate a visual indication on the bridge.
1st Stage Alarm: If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a first stage audible
alarm on the bridge 15 s after the visual indication is initiated.
2nd Stage Alarm: If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a second stage
remote audible alarm in the back-up officer’s and/or Master’s location 15 s after the first
stage audible alarm is initiated.
3rd Stage Alarm: If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a third stage remote
audible alarm at the locations of further crew members capable of taking corrective actions
90 s after the second stage remote audible alarm is initiated.

2. Emergency call facility: BNWAS has a facility to immediately activate the second, and
subsequently third, stage remote audible alarms by means of an ”Emergency Call” push
button or similar.

3. Security of system: The operation of BNWAS is secured by means of a key or password

so that access to the controls should be restricted to the Master only.
4. Reset Functions:
a. Reset points should be easily accessible.
b. All reset points should physically be located in areas of the bridge providing proper
look out.
c. By a single operator action, the reset function should cancel all visual/audio alarms
and initiate a further dormant period.
d. Reset input may be generated by external inputs from other equipment capable of
registering physical activity and mental alertness of the OOW.
 e. A continuous activation of any reset device should not prolong or alter the dormant
period or cause a suppression of the sequence of indications and alarms.

5. Accuracy: The duration of dormant period, alarms and indications may have a tolerance of
5% or 5 sec, whichever is less.

6. Power supply: BNWAS should normally be operated on mains. In case of mains failure, a
power back up should be provided for an operation time of at least 6 hrs.

7. Malfunction Alarms and indications: If a malfunction of, or power supply failure to the
BNWAS is detected, this should be indicated.

8. OPERATIONAL MODES OF BNWAS

BNWAS should incorporate the following three operational modes:

a) Automatic: The BNWAS is automatically activated when the vessel is navigating by

means of heading or track control system (autopilot / track-pilot) and inhibited when
this system is deactivated.
b) Manual ‘ON’: The BNWAS is always in operation.

c) Manual ‘OFF’: The BNWAS is turned off completely.

Q3. What are the operational deviations allowed in a shipboard BNWAS?

Answer
ALLOWABLE DEVIATIONS OF BNWAS
1. In vessels other than passenger vessels, the second or third stage remote audible
alarms may sound in all the above locations at the same time. If the second stage
audible alarm is sounded in this way, the third stage alarm may be omitted.
2. In larger vessels, the delay between the second and third stage alarms may be set to a
longer value on installation, up to a maximum of 3 min, to allow sufficient time for the
back-up officer and/or Master to reach the bridge.
3. The alarm system should be capable of achieving the timings of dormant period, visual
and audio alarms with an accuracy of 5% or 5 sec, whichever is less

Q4. What are the carriage requirements of shipboard BNWAS? What are the modes of
operations?
Answer
CARRIAGE REQUIREMENTSOF BNWAS
1. Cargo ships of 150 GT and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size
constructed on or after 1 July 2011;

2. Passenger ships, irrespective of size and, constructed before 1 July 2011, not later
than the first survey after 1 July 2012;

3. Cargo ships of 3000 GRT and upwards constructed before 1 July 2011, not later than
the first survey after 1 July 2012;
 4. Cargo ships of 500 GT and upwards but less than 3000 GT constructed before 1 July
2011, not later than the first survey after 1 July 2013; and

5. Cargo ships of 150 GRT and upwards but less than 500 GRT constructed before 1 July
2011, not later than the first survey after 1 July 2014.

OPERATIONAL MODES OF BNWAS

BNWAS should incorporate the following three operational modes:

1. Automatic: The BNWAS is automatically activated when the vessel is navigating by

means of heading or track control system (autopilot / track-pilot) and inhibited when
this system is deactivated.
2. Manual ‘ON’: The BNWAS is always in operation.

3. Manual ‘OFF’: The BNWAS is turned off completely.

2. LONG RANGE IDENTIFICATION AND TRACKING

Q1. What is the purpose of LRIT? Explain the working of LRIT.

Answer
Purpose of LRIT:
IMO requires that every SOLAS ship shall transmit their position reports comprising of
ships ID, position and date/time of position, to their respective flag states automatically,
without human intervention, at an interval not exceeding six hours. This reporting is meant
to –
1. Enhance maritime security
2. Enhance maritime pollutioncontrol, and
3. Assist insearch and rescue operations.

Working of LRIT:
LRIT is a global system and hence uses satellite communication systems. A ship may use
any satellite equipment to transmit PRs but in most cases, one of the Sat-C comprising of
the GMDSS equipment is designated to transmit LRIT position reports. A LRIT system
comprises of the following seven basic components:

1. Shipborne LRIT equipment:Ship-borne LRITequipment to transmit position reports at

intervals not exceeding 6 hrs. The PR comprises of
 • ship’s ID (Ship’s LRIT equipment Id)
• position (Lat/Long from GPS), and
• date/time of position.
After testing of the system ASP issues certificate of compliance to the ship.
2. Communication Service Provider (CSP): The ship transmits these reports at fixed
intervals to ASP via CSP.CSP comprises of all elements of a communication channel
required to transfer ships’ data to ASP in a safe manner.
3. Application Service Provider (ASP):ASP is an entity appointed by the flag state
entrusted to configure, test and certify ship’s LRIT system. It also monitors all the ships
with regard to their LRIT PR reporting.
The ASP, after adding some more data to ship’s PR, passes it to the National Data
centre securely.
Data added by ASP: Ship’s name, IMO No., MMSI, ASP ID, DC ID, various
timestamps.
4. LRIT Data Centre (DC): The primary purpose of an LRIT Data Centre (DC) is to collect
and store the LRIT information received from ships and make it available to authorized
entities – Flag State, Port State, Coastal State and SAR agencies, as instructed by
their administrations. The DCs are connected to the International Data Exchange
(IDE).
5. International Data Exchange (IDE): IDE is an internet based server located at Lisbon,
Portugal and facilitates exchange of LRIT data among authorized used across the
world on the need-to-know basis.
6. Data Distribution Plan (DDP): DDP is the server based rules of exchange of LRIT data
among DCs. As per agreement at IMO among contracting governments, a government
is entitled to receive LRIT data within 1000 miles from its shores, provided this does
not infringe upon areas under control of another state.
7. LRIT Coordinator: LRIT Coordinator is a person or group of persons appointed by
IMO to Co-ordinate between governments for successful and smooth operation of
LRIT system worldwide.

Q2. With regard to LRIT, write short notes on functions of:

i) ASP ii) Data Centre
Answer
ASP – The ASP, short for Application Service Provider, is an entity appointed by the flag
state.
The ASP receives the LRIT position reports transmitted by the ship via the CSP, adds
certain additional information to each report for audit purposes, and forwards the reports to
the Data Centre nominated by the ship’s Flag State. The information to be added to each
LRIT report by the ASP includes:
- IMO and MMSI number for the ship
- Name of the ship
- Its own unique identification code (ASP Id)
- Unique identification code for the LRIT Data Centre; and
- A number of time stamps used for tracking and audit purposes.
 In addition, the ASP is responsible for testing and configuring the ship’s communications
terminal, both when the terminal is new and during continued LRIT reporting, including
executing “on demand” transmissions of LRIT data.
The ASP is responsible for identifying when a terminal has ceased automatic reporting for
any reason and resetting its reporting function when required.

LRIT DATA CENTRE – The primary purpose of an LRIT Data Centre (DC) is to collect and
store the LRIT information received from ships and make it available to authorized entities
as instructed by their administrations.
Each Contracting Government chooses a data Center to which all the ships flying its flag
should send their LRIT information. The data Center should be connected to the
International Data Exchange.
There are three types of DCs
1. National DC, providing service to only one Contracting Government
2. Cooperative DC, providing services to a number of Contracting Government s
3. Regional DC, providing services to a number of Contracting Government s through a
regional entity of some kind.

Q3. Who are the authorized users of LRIT data? What are the benefits of LRIT?
Answer
AUTHORIZED USERS OF LRIT:
LRIT data is secured, private data owned by the government. The government only may use this
data through its agencies. The authorized users of LRIT are,
1. Flag state: Having LRIT data helps flag states monitor their flag ships worldwide,
especially when in HRAs thereby increasing maritime security.
2. Port State: Having access to LRIT data by port states helps in efficient management of
Port activities, allows for greater control of movements of ships, including security risk
assessment.
3. Coastal State: Coastal states have the access to the LRIT data to monitor coastal traffic
for safety, security and environmental protection needs.
4. SAR Agencies: SAR organizations can have access whenever needed. Having
information of ships in close proximity of distress scene allows for quicker and effective
response by the RCCs.

BENEFITS OF LRIT:
1. Reducing risk of piracy attacks.
2. As a Flag Administration, layout of higher security risk geographic areas, worldwide, and
associated ship notification.
3. Also, locating ships for Flag and Class compliance surveys – safety, security, and
environment.
4. As a Port State, more effective management of Port State control activity, including
security risk assessment.
5. Locating overdue ships.
6. Possibility of a quicker response to a SAR situation.
7. As a Coastal State, to monitor coastal traffic for safety, security and environmental
protection needs.
Q4. Draw a comparison between LRIT and AIS.

Answer
COMPARISION BETWEEN LRIT AND AIS:

LRIT AIS
1. Satellite based System VHF based System
2. Near global coverage (INMARSAT) Only where AIS coverage is Provided
3. Secure Data Public Data
4. Transmits Transmits: Position, IMO Number, Date/
Position, IMN Number, Date/ Time Time, Vessel Type, Speed, Course etc.
5. Unlimited range Line of sight, up to 40NM

6. Flag State Owns Data Anyone can see data

7. Purpose : Purpose :
Maritime Security and Awareness Navigation and Anti- collision Tool
8. Uses elaborate communication Simplified direct point-to-point communication
infrastructure (CSP/ASP/DC/IDE/ etc. )
9. Comparatively costlier equipment Cost effective equipment
10. Monitoring is done by flag state or Self-monitored system (SOTDMA)
appointed agency
11. No human intervention for data update Voyage Data and navigation status has to be
updated by the user
12. There is a recurring cost for maintaining Negligible operating cost after equipment
the system Installation
13. Mostly being satellite system, may not Being terrestrial system, always capable of
work in A4 areas. being in operation.

3. RATE OF TURN INDICATOR

Q1. What are the benefits of ROTI? What precautions should be taken while executing turning
of a large ship?
Answer
Benefits / advantages of ROTI
• Transiting confined channels: A controlled turn minimizes the chances of overshoot
and is especially helpful in confined channels.
• Conning a large vessels: Control of very large ship poses a challenge as corrective
actions take longer time and space. Hence, controlled conning is most useful with
the help of ROTI.
• Elimination of XTE on the new course: Application of wheel over point (WOP) and
wheel over line (WOL) helps bring the vessel on the new course after the turn even
if the approach of the vessel was off-track for any reasons.
• Can be plotted on the reflection plotter.
• Can be plotted electronically on the ARPA.
• Turning predictions to be made for a moderate value of helm (10º to 15º).

Precautions in turning of a large ship:

• The speed of the vessel for calculating ROT is “Speed over Ground” and not
“speed through Water”.
 • Initially a large helm is required in order to achieve the desired ROT. Approaching
desired ROT, helm must be eased, to just enough to maintain the ROT.
• In case of constant radius turn, ground speed must be monitored carefully so that if
the speed reduces, ROT can be adjusted (reduced) accordingly.
• In case of Turning with constant ROT, drop in vessel’s speed should be anticipated
with lot of care. ROT may need to be adjusted if any further changes are observed
in the ship’s speed.
• For large ships, it is easier to reduce ROT than to increase it. Therefore, it is safer
to over-estimate ROT than under-estimate it. This way if the vessel turns faster,
ROT can be reduced in order to control the vessel in more effective manner.
• A good turning plan always helps achieve a controlled turn. However, monitoring of
the turn is paramount while executing the turn.

Q2. How will you plan your turn around an imaginary point? Describe the method of constant
radial turn for executing this turn.How will you monitor the turn?

Answer
Planning the turn around an imaginary point
1. Decide on the radius (R) of the turn considering factors such as type of ship, LOA,
breadth, list/trim, displacement, shallow water effect (if applicable), sea-room availability,
navigation hazards, effectiveness of rudder, external factors, etc.
2. Draw the initial (AB) and final course (BC), the alteration being ɵ degrees.
3. On AB and BC, cut a distance of R Tan ɵ/2 such that PB = BQ = R Tan ɵ/2.
4. Form points P and Q, cut an arc of radius ‘R’ such that they intersect at point ‘O’
5. Keeping O as centre, draw an arc of radius R such that the arc touches Ab and BC
tangentially at points P and Q.

Execution of Constant Radial Turn

We know that for achieving a controlled turn, we can calculate the ROT and refer to ROTI
for the monitoring of same. The rate of turn (ROT) is calculated by the formula,
ROT = Ship speed (v) / Radius of Turn (R)
 Assuming that the radius of turn in 2 miles and the entry speed of the ship 14 kts,
Required ROT = 14 / 2 = 7º/min.
Or, Speed / ROT = Radius
14 / 7 = 2
Thus, the ROT of 7º / min would give us a turning radius of 2 miles.

But as the ship progresses on the turning track, the speed of the ship starts dropping
down. Approximately 25% speed drop is observed for an alteration of 90º.
As can be seen from the formula, if the speed reduces, so does the radius. Therefore, in
order to maintain the constant radius of 2 miles during the turn, the speed of the ship
should be monitored closely and ROT should be adjusted accordingly throughout the turn.
Monitoring of Turn:
Monitoring of turn can be done by following methods:
1. By regularly plotting position.
2. Using the mapping feature of modern radars, we can place an object in the position of
that imaginary point. Then by using Radar VRM, the radar VRM can be set to the
radius of turn and the radar object should be maintained at the rim of the VRM on
radar. Object moving out, or coming inside, of VRM circle indicates ships leaving the
planned track.
3. BY Radar EBL: As the planned track in an arc of a circle, at any point during the turn
the centre, i.e., the radar object should remain abeam. If the radar object’s relative
bearing increases or reduces, this would indicate that the ship is leaving intended
track.

NOTE: In case of constant ROT turn, the will be a change in the relative bearing but this
change should be monitored closely and should remain within limits.

Q3. With the help of a neat sketch, explain planning and turning with constant ROT around a
radar conspicuous objects. How will you monitor the turn?
Answer
Planning the turn around a radar conspicuous object
1. Identify the radar object on chart around which to plan the turn.
2. Decide on the radius (R) of the turn considering factors such as type of ship, LOA,
breadth, list/trim, displacement, shallow water effect (if applicable), sea-room availability,
navigation hazards, effectiveness of rudder, external factors, etc.
3. Keeping radar object as centre (O), draw an arc of radius R.
4. Draw the initial (AB) and final course (BC), passing tangentially to the arc at points P and
Q respectively, the alteration being ɵ degrees.

Execution of Constant ROT Turn

We know that for achieving a controlled turn, we can calculate the ROT and refer to ROTI
for the monitoring of same. The rate of turn (ROT) is calculated by the formula,
ROT = Ship speed (v) / Radius of Turn (R)
But we know also that as the ship progresses on the turning track, the speed of the ship
starts dropping down. Approximately 25% speed drop is observed for an alteration of 90º.
 In case of constant ROT turn, the average speed of the ship during the turn is taken for
calculation of ROT, i.e.,
ROT = Av. Speed (v) / Radius (R)

The average speed during the turn is an approximation and should be carefully estimated.
Let us assume that the radius of turn in 2 miles and the entry speed of the ship 14 kts. But
the speed progressively keeps on reducing to 13, 12, 11, 10, and so on, as shown in the
diagram.
The required ROT is then,
ROT = {(14+10) / 2} / 2 = 6º/min.
As can be seen, initially the ship swings out of the planned turn because the given ROT is
less than the required ROT. During middle phase of the turn, where the speed is about 12 kts, the
ship begins to maintain radius as the required and given ROT are same. In the later part of the
turn, the ship starts swinging in because the given ROT becomes more than the required ROT for
lesser speed. The ship approximately joins the final course at planned track.

Monitoring of Turn:
Monitoring of turn can be done by following methods:
1. By Radar VRM: in case of radar conspicuous object, the radar VRM can be set to
the radius of turn and the radar object should be maintained at the rim of the VRM
on radar. Object moving out, or coming inside, of VRM circle indicates ships
leaving the planned track.
2. BY Radar EBL: As the planned track in an arc of a circle, at any point during the
turn the centre, i.e., the radar object should remain abeam. If the radar object’s
relative bearing increases or reduces, this would indicate that the ship is leaving
intended track.
3. By Visual Bearing: Same principle as in point 2 above is applied. The object should
always be maintained at 90º relative bearing.

NOTE: In case of constant ROT turn, the will be a change in the relative bearing but this
change should be monitored closely and should remain within limits.

Q4. Your ship, LOA 275 Mtr, is doing a course of 010º (T) at 14 Kts. 3 miles down, you have to
alter course to 085º (T) where the current is expected to be 330º, at 1.8 Kts. Plan your turn with
wheel over point keeping the turn radius of 1.5 miles. (Assume no drop of ship speed during turn)
Answer
(NOTE: Steps for calculations and derivation of answers of above question:)
1. Draw the turn approximately as per given courses
2. Calculate T = F Sin ɵ + R (1- Cos ɵ) (F = 0.2 miles, being very large ship)
2. Draw WOL, identify WOP.
3. Calculate total time (t) for turn (from WOP to end of turn)
4. Calculate distance (d) by current in time “t” at 1.8 kts.
5. Draw a line at WOP in direction of current which is 330º in this case, and extend it
in opposite direction i.e., towards 150º.
6. Cut a section of length “d” on this line from WOP towards 150º direction. (Say, this
point is ‘p’).
7. Draw line parallel to WOL passing through ‘p’.
8. Where this new line intersects the initial course is the new WOP. This will counter
the effects of the given current.

4. Speed and Distance Measuring Equipment (SDME): DOPPLER LOG

Q1. What is the principle of operation of Doppler Log? Explain the working of ship’s Doppler
log.

Answer
Principle
Doppler speed logs works on the principle of “Doppler Effect”, or, of “Doppler Shift”, which is an
apparent shift in frequency received due to relative motion between the source and the observer.
The received frequency is calculated by the formulae:

Fr = Ft (c + v) / (c – v) … … … … … … … (i)
Where,
Fr= Freq. of the received wave
Ft= Freq. of the transmitted wave
c= speed of wave in water
v= ship’s speed

Working of Basic Doppler log

In case of ship, the source of the transmission and the receiver of that wave are both the ship
only.
However, the relative motion is implied by the sea bed or stationary mass of water in relation to
which the ship is moving.

A transducer is fitted on the ship’s keel which transmits a beam of acoustic wave at an angle (�)
between 40° to 80°, usually 60°, to the keel in the forward direction, this gives the component “ v
cos �” of the ship’s velocity towards the sea bed thus causing the Doppler shift and the received
frequency is given by,

fr = ft ( c + v Cos �) / (c - v Cos �) ................ (ii)

 Acoustic beam transmitted at an angle a towards seabed

Dividing numerator and denominator of equation (ii) by C, we get

According to the Binomial expansion, we have

................ (iii)

By using the formula (ii) in above equation and on simplification we get,

Since, v cos α << C, neglecting higher powers of v cos α/c we get,

Or,

By above formula, the speed of the ship can be calculated using the difference between
transmitted and received frequencies, considering that there is no vertical motion.
However, this type of log setup does not take into account the vertical motion of the ship which
also contributes to relative motion and hence the shift of frequency. To cater to the vertical motion
(heaving) a refined version of Doppler log, called “Janus Configuration” is used.

Q2. Explain working of Janus configuration Doppler log. Explain how it provides excellent
speed output in various conditions at sea.

Answer
We know that the speed of a basic Doppler log is given by the formula

This formula holds good only if the ship is moving in horizontal direction. However, in practice, as
the ship moves forward, she also has an up-and-down motion in the vertical direction, called
‘heaving’. The vertical motion component towards the seabed in the direction of acoustic wave
transmission isVv sin α. (Vvis vertical motion of the ship.)
As this movement of the ship has an effect on the frequency shift, it should be accounted for. This
is done by installing a second set of transducers (for transmitting and receiving) in the aft direction
at the same angle of 60º. This type of installation setup is called Janus Configuration.

Here, for forward transducer,

frf- ft = 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vvft sin α / c ……………………..(i)
for aft transducer
fra- ft = - 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vvft sin α / c………………………(ii)
where, frf and fra represents frequency received by the forward and aft transducer respectively.
Now, subtracting frf (ii) from frf (i),
(frf - ft) - (fra - ft) = (2 v ft cos α + 2 Vvft sin a ) / c - (-2 v ft cos α + 2 Vvft sin α) / c
= 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vvft sin α / c + 2 v ft cos α / c - 2 Vvft sin α / c
frf - fra = 4 v ft cos α / c
i.e. v = c (frf - fra) / 4 ft cos α

Conclusion: As can be seen from above derivation, the Sin component (Vv Sin α ) due to vertical
motion (Vv) of the ship is cancelled out in Janus configuration and so the calculated speed
becomes independent of the heaving motion of the ship. In addition, the Janus configuration
Doppler log minimizes errors due to rolling and pitching and side lobes to negligible.

Q3. a) Explain how a Doppler log is helpful in berthing operations?

b) What are the errors of Doppler log?

Answer
a) A ship’s Doppler Log works on the principle of Doppler shift effect, i.e., by measurement
of, and finding the difference between, frequencies received by the transducer. In Janus
configuration mode, the log transmits two beams of acoustic pulses in forward and aft
direction. The forward-aft speed is then derived by formula,
v = c (frf - fra) / 4 ft cos α
However, in an advanced version of Doppler log, there is another pair of transducers fitted
in Port-Stbd(athwartship) direction.This helps in finding ship’s athwartship speed as well.
This type of log setup is called dual-axis Doppler log.
.
 As we know, during berthing operations, ships lateral speed is more significant than the F-
A speed as the ship will be moving towards or away from the jetty and not much F-A
direction. Since the dual axis log provides both F-A speed and P-S (athwartship) speed
and hence is a very important instrument for berthing operations.

b) ERRORS OF DOPPLER LOG

Error in transducer orientation: The transducers should make a perfect angle of 60° with
respect to the keel or else the speed indicated will be inaccurate.

Error in oscillator frequency: The frequency generated by the oscillator must be accurate
and constant. Any deviation in the frequency will result in the speed showing in error.

Error in propagation:The velocity of the acoustic wave at a temperature of 16°C and

salinity of 3.2% is 1505 m/sec but taken as 1500 m/sec for calculation. However, this
velocity changes with temperature, salinity and pressure in different sea conditions and
that results in error in displayed speed.

Error in ships’ motion:During the period of transmission and reception, the ship may have
a marginal roll or pitch and thereby the angle of transmission and reception can change
causing error in displayed speed. A two-degree difference in the angle of transmission and
reception can have a 0.10% error in the indicated speed.

Error due to rolling/pitching:The effect of pitching will cause an error in the forward speed
and not the athwartship speed. Similarly, rolling will have an effect on the athwartship
speed, not the forward speed.
Actual speed = Indicated speed/Cosß

Error due to inaccuracy in measurement of frequency:The difference in the frequencies

received by the forward and aft transducers must be measured accurately. Any error in
this will be directly reflected in the speed of the vessel.

Error due to side lobe:When the side lobe reception dominates over the main beam
reception, there will be an error in the speed indicated. The error is more pronounced on a
sloping bottom as the side lobe is reflected at a more favorable angle and will have path
length less than the main beam.
This error can be eliminated with the help of the Janus configuration.
Q4. Explain how a Doppler log’s speed is affected by various motions of the ship at sea.

Answer
Ship at sea undergoes various motions such as heaving, rolling, pitching, yawing etc. Since
Doppler log is a device that detects ship’s movements, the instrument does get affected by these
motions. However, due to characteristics of a dual axis log, the effects are different situations.
Following are the effects of various motions of the ship on a dual-axis Doppler log’s display.

1. HEAVING: Heaving is the vertical movement of the ship.

Due to Janus configuration (transducers installed in pairs along longitudinal and transverse axes),
heaving has no effect on the log speed results.

2. PITCHING
The effect of pitching is similar to the continuous change of trim. Pitching does not affect the
athwart-ship speed. However, the forward-aft speed does get affected.

When the vessel is pitching, the indicated fwd-aft speed will fluctuate between the actual speed
and a value lower than the actual speed depending on the angle at which it is pitching and is
given by.

Actual speed = Indicated Speed / Cos(Trim angle)

Effect of list on athwart-ships speed will be the same as the effect of trim on the forward and aft
speed.

3. ROLLING
This is regardless of the side the vessel is listed.List and rolling do not affect the fore and aft
speed.
When the vessel is rolling, the indicated athwart-ship speed however will fluctuate between the
actual speed and the indicated lower speed worked out by the formula depending on the angle of
roll.

Actual speed (ath) = Indicated Speed (Ath) / Cos (List angle)

4. YAWING
Yawing is constantly changing heading. It does not affect either the fwd-aft speed display, or the
athwartship speed.

Ship movement Effect on F-A speed Effect on F-A speed

Heaving No effect No effect
Pitching / Trim Fluctuates between actual and less No effect
than actual.
Actual speed = Log Speed / Cos
Trim

Rolling / List No effect Fluctuates between actual and less

than actual.
Actual speed = Log Speed / Cos List

Yawing No effect No effect

Q5. Describe the effect of trim on Doppler log’s speed display.

Answer
The trim of the vessel has very less effect on fore and aft speed and no effect on athwartship
speed.

Case-1: When down by stern at angle β

When trimmed by an angle β, the forward transducer will transmit at an angle (α - β) while the aft
transducer will transmit at an angle (α + β) as shown in figure below and the Doppler shift
frequency measurement by the forward transducer will be –
frf- ft = 2 v ft cos (α- β)……….(i)
And, for aft transducer,
fra- ft = - 2 v ft cos (α+β) / c……….(ii)

Thus by subtracting (ii) from (i), we have

frf - fra = 2 v ft [ cos (α - β) + cos ( α + β) ] / c

But we know,
Cos (α + β) = Cos α Cos β - Sin α Sin β, and
Cos (α - β) = Cos α Cos β + Sin α Sin β
Hence,
frf - fra = 2 v ft [ Cos α Cos β + Sin α Sin β + Cos a Cos Β - Sin a Sin Β]/c
= 2 v ft (2 Cos α Cos β) / c
= 4 v ft Cos α Cos β / c

Or,
v = [(frf - fra) c] / [4 ft Cos α Cos β]

Hence Actual speed = Indicated speed / Cos β.

The above formula gives the actual speed in trimmed condition while the speed indicated is
calculated by given formula
v = (frf - fra) c / 4 ft Cos α

Case-2: Ship trimmed- down by head at angle β

The effect of trim by head is the same as in case of trim by stern and the ship’s speed is given by-

Actual speed = Indicated speed / Cos β.

Q6. Describe the methods of calibrating a Doppler log.

Answer
Before being put into use, it is essential that all instruments be calibrated. The calibration of
Doppler Log, is done in two steps.

First step is to set the zero on scale when the ship is at anchor or alongside a berth when the
speed over ground is zero. In this condition the log should read ‘zero’. If any different, the cause is
identified and display is adjusted accordingly.
The second step (scale calibration) should be carried out during sea trial when time taken to cover
a measured mile is noted and the speed is calculated. This calculated speed must match with the
displayed reading and in case of any discrepancy, the equipment can be adjusted.

After one of these two are calibrations are done, the Doppler Log can be used effectively.

Q5. Describe with the help of a block diagram how the speed log display cane be taken to
remote locations.

Answer
The Speed and distance given by the log is required at various key locations in the bridge for safe
navigation. Hence it is required that the master display of the log is distributed to these locations
by means of repeaters. This is done using standard marine electronic communications protocols
over 9-pin RS232 ports.
These ports can also be used for other communication protocols, such as NMEA. NMEA
interfacing standard ensures that conforming instruments all speak the same language. This
language can be understood by PC programs and data from many different instruments can be
logged to one time-stamped file. For example, depth data from sonar and position data from a
GPS receiver can be combined to plot a contour map for example.
The standard was developed by the US-based National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA) in
the 1980s. The NMEA 0183 standard uses ASCII messages which can be sent over RS232 serial
links. In 2000 a new standard was released - NMEA 2000. This uses CAN, or, Controller Area
Networks and can be used to transfer speed log displays to remote locations as well as to other
electronic navigation devices.

5. Speed and Distance Measuring Equipment (SDME): EM LOG

Q1. What is the principle of EM Log? Describe a typical marine EM log.

Answer
Principle of EM log:
Electro-Magnetic Log is an electronic device used to calculate the velocity of the ship. The EM
Log calculates the speed of ship with respect to the water, i.e., speed through water.

EM Log works on Michael Faraday’s principle of Electro-Magnetic Induction which states that
when a conductor is moved across a magnetic field, an EMF (electro motive force) will be induced
into the conductor. If the conductor is a closed circuit, the induced emf in turn will induce a current
through the circuit.
The magnitude of the induced emf and hence the induced current is directly proportional to the
following
1. The strength of magnetic field
2. The length of conductor cutting the magnetic flux and
3. Rate of change of magnetic flux cutting the conductor which relates to the velocity of
conductor.

The direction of the induced e.m.f. is given by Fleming’s right hand rule. It indicates that the
direction of induced current is mutually perpendicular to the magnetic field and conductor motion
vector. Other factors being constant, a graph drawn between the velocity of water and induced
current is a straight line indicating that the magnitude of induced current is a direct measure of the
speed of the ship through the water.

Construction of Marine EM Log:

• In a practical installation, a hollow, non-conducting tube, called a flow sensor is installed
along fore-aft line of the ship under keel.
• The magnetic field created in the seawater is produced by a solenoid with coil which may
extend into the water or be fitted flush with the hull. A 1 amp current is supplied to the coil
to produce magnetic field.
• Two electrodes are installed across the opposite sides of the flow-sensor along
athwartship direction
• The column of sea-water inside the flow-sensor between the electrodes makes for the
conductor.

Working of Marine EM Log:

As the vessel moves ahead, the seawater (the conductor) flowing through the flow sensor in
opposite direction and across magnetic field has a small e.m.f. induced into it. This minute e.m.f.,
the amplitude of which is dependent upon the rate of cutting the magnetic lines of force, is
detected by the two small electrodes set into the outer casing of the flow sensor. This small
current is amplified by an amplifier and fed to an analog or digital speed indicator.
Q2. What are the limitations of EM Log?

Answer
The marine EM log works on the principle of EM induction where water flow forms the moving
conductor through a magnetic field. Due to the properties of water, characteristics of the device
and external factors, the marine EM log suffers from following limitations:
1. The induced e.m.f. and hence the speed indication will vary with the conductivity of the water
and hence speed indication in waters of different salinity will vary.
2. The device measures the speed of the water flowing past the hull of the ship. This flow can vary
due to the non-linearity of a hull design. Therefore the flow sensor should be installed at a location
where three is minimum chance of uneven water flow which is not indicative of actual speed of
water past the hull of the ship.
3. The unevenness of water flow may be experiences in case of shallow waters having uneven
seabed, causing error in the indicated water speed.
4. The log does not show athwartship speed truly. This is because the sensor is placed in fore-aft
direction. Any sideways flow of water will not be detected properly. If the current is at an angle to
the motion of ship, only a component of the current may be detected giving rise to water track.

6. ECHO SOUNDER

Q1. a) What is the principle of echo sounder?

b) Explain its working with the help of a block diagram.

Answer
a) PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF ECHO SOUNDER
Echo sounders measure the elapsed time that an acoustic pulse takes to travel from a
transmitting transducer to the bottom and back. The travel time of the acoustic pulse
depends on the velocity of propagation (c) in the water column.
The velocity of sound propagation in the seawater having salinity of 3.4% and temperature
of 16º C is 1505 m/sec. However, it is taken to be 1500 m/s for depth measurements. If
time between transmission and reception of pulse is known, along with the distance
between the transducer and the reference water surface (the draft), the corrected depth
(d) of water can be computed by the following general formula:

Depth corrected to referenced water surface d = ½ (c · t) + k + dr

 where:
d = corrected depth from reference water surface
c = average velocity of sound in the water column
t = measured elapsed time from transducer to bottom and back to transducer
k = system index constant
dr = distance from reference water surface to transducer (draft)

b) BLOCK DIAGRAM AND FUNCTIONS

Oscillator Unit: This unit produces a high voltage oscillation of desired frequency and the
output is given to the transmitting transducer.
Transmitting Transducer :This may be a electrostrictive (pierced hull) or magnetostrictive
(internal installation) type. It converts the electrical signals into acoustic waves and transmits
them towards the seabed.
Receiving Transducer: The receiving transducer converts the echoes reflected from the
seabed into electrical signals, which are then sent to the amplifier unit.

Amplifier Unit: This unit amplifies the weak electrical signals received from the transducer
and gives it to the recorder unit.
Recorder Unit: This unit controls the transmission of the acoustic pulses and records the
depth on the paper.
Power Supply Unit: This unit gives the required voltages to the different stages of the echo
sounding equipment.

Q2. What are the types of transducers used in echo sounder instrument? Discuss their
advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
There are 2 types of transducers used in echo sounder instrument:
1. Electrostrictive transducers, and
2. Magnetostrictive transducers

ELECTROSTRICTIVE TRANSDUCER

The electrostrictive transducer uses the property of a crystal for transmission and reception of
acoustic waves in water. The basic principle of this transducer is “piezo-electric effect”, i.e.,
certain crystals such as quartz and topaz have a property that when pressure is applied to the two
opposite faces, a difference of potential is created which is proportional to the applied pressure or
when an alternating voltage is applied across the opposite faces, the crystals start vibrating or
oscillating.

The crystal is firmly fixed between two steel plates so that they act as a single unit. The purpose
of the steel plates is to provide solid and robust housing for the crystal as well as a suitable
contact surface for seawater.

When an alternating voltage generated by the oscillator is applied across the steel plates, the
quartz and the steel plates start vibrating together. The lower of the two steel plates is in direct
contact with the water, which will cause the vibration in the seawater.

Advantages
 Ship’s hull is breached hence loss of hull continuity.
 The transducer cannot be fitted and repaired without going to dry-dock.
Disadvantages
 Very energy efficient as most power is transferred to the water without any loos.
 Very sensitive as it can pick weak pulses and so can read deep waters easily.
 Comparatively delicate design.

MAGNETOSTRICTIVE TRANSDUCER
This transducer works on the basic principle of magnetostriction, i.e. contraction of a
ferromagnetic material when subjected to a strong alternating magnetic field. The alternating
magnetic field is obtained by passing a current through a coil. The length of this material will
always contract regardless of the direction of the current and it comes back to its original length
when the current is zero. That means two contractions for each cycle of ac.
Nickel ring type magnetostrictive transducer uses a large number of thin annular disc of Nickel are
held together by well insulated windings of thick flexible wire. When an alternating current is
passed through the windings of the coil, the contraction and the subsequent expansion in the
Nickel plates takes place circumferentially at frequency twice to that of the applied current.

The installation is internal and the vibrations are transmitted to the seabed through the ship’s hull
plate and similarly the echoes are also received through the ship’s hull plate.

Advantages
 Ship’s hull is not breached hence continuity of the hull is maintained
 The transducer can be fitted and repaired whenever necessary without going to dry-dock.
 Robust design.
Disadvantages
 Only 15% of total power output passes through the ship’s hull
 The loss occurs twice per sounding resulting in weak echoes.

Q3. With respect to an echo sounder, explain ranging and phasing?

Answer

RANGING

In an echo sounder, the stylus rotates at a constant speed for a given range, which is half to that
of speed of acoustic waves in water and the transmission of the pulse is synchronized when the
stylus passes the zero mark to read the correct range.

When a higher range scale is selected however, the transmission will still take place when the
stylus passes the zero mark but the stylus speed is reduced because the stylus has to remain on
the paper for a longer period of time since the echoes are returning from a greater depth.

This system is known as ranging and the range scales are generally provided as

0 - 50 m
0 - 100 m
0 - 200 m and so on.
Since the same length of paper, on scale, now covers a larger depth, the graduations become
closer and it becomes difficult to read the depths accurately. Phasing arrangement is used to
avoid this.

PHASING

In phasing, subsequent range scales start at the upper limit of the previous range scale. For
example,

0-50m
50-100m
100-150m, etc.

In phasing, the speed of the stylus motor is kept constant but the transmission of the pulse is
advanced by an amount equal to the upper limit of the previous range scale.

Four sensors are positioned around the stylus belt and the stylus is rotating at a constant speed.
A magnet mounted on the belt triggers a signal as it passes the sensor which in turn activates the
transmitter/pulse.

When 0-50 m range is selected, sensor 1 is used and the delay circuit arrangement is such that
the transmission occurs exactly when the stylus passes the zero mark. On selecting the higher
scale (50-100 m), sensor 2 is used for activating the transmission and the zero of the scale is so
shifted that the top of the paper corresponds to 50 m.

Similarly for other ranges, different sensors are used and the transmission time will be accordingly
advanced. The speed of the stylus will remain same as long as each range scale corresponds to
similar difference of depth, i.e. 0-50, 50-100 etc.

Q4. What are errors and limitations of echo sounder?

Answer
An echo sounder may be subjected to following errors:

EQUIPMENT ERRORS
Stylus speed error: The stylus speed should be such that it travels from the top of the paper to
the bottom in exactly the time required for the acoustic waves to travel twice the distance of the
range scale in use. In case of voltage fluctuations, or for any other reasons, if the motor speed
changes, it will record wrong depth. Therefore the stylus speed should be periodically adjusted as
per the instruction manual.

Pythagoras error: This error occurs when two transducers are used, one for transmission and the
other for reception. It is a function of the distance between the two transducers. The error can be
found out by the formula-
e = d- √ (d2 – x2 / 4)

where, ‘d’ is the recorded depth and ‘x’ is the distance between the transducers. The error
is very prominent is shallow waters but not so significant in deep waters.

Zero line adjustment error: The stylus must be adjusted so that it is at zero mark when the
transmission begins. If there is any advance or lag, the depth recorded will be in error.

Instrument Drift: Once the zero line is adjusted, and speed of the stylus is also set, it is possible
that over a period of time the stylus will drift from the zero line and so no longer is aligned with the
zero-line. This kind of error will therefore show a flat horizontal seabed as slanting slope.

OPERATIONAL ERRORS
Velocity of propagation in water: The velocity of acoustic waves changes with water temperature,
salinity and pressure of the water. In practical situation, these conditions are subject to changes
and this affects the accuracy of the recorded depth. The depth can be corrected to true depth
from the tables of the velocities of sound in pure water and seawater (Nautical Publication NP139
(HD282))

Multiple echoes: The echoes, in right conditions can be reflected number of times between the
keel of the ship and the seabed. On each return the echoes are picked up by the receiving
transducer giving multiple depth marks on the recorder. Each depth mark will be at multiple of the
actual distance, the lowest depth being the correct one.
This situation can also happen when a range scale is selected which is more than the depth of the
seabed, e.g., range scale of 100-200 m while the depth is actually only 60 m. In this case the
depth will be marked at 120 m and 180 m. To avoid this, the equipment should be started at the
minimum depth when Phasing facility is provided.

Thermal and density layers: At sea there are layers of water having different temperatures and/or
salinity which serve as a reflecting surface to the acoustic waves. These result as a faint lines on
the recorder which are in between the zero mark and actual depth.

Secondary Echo interference: The PRF of the echo sounder depends of the range scale. When
the range scale selected is less than the depth of seabed, the pulses are being transmitted at a
rate faster than that would be required for the actual depth. Hence the echo of a pulse may be
received at the transducer after the second pulse has been transmitted. This echo would be
printed on the recorder at a wrong range.

DYNAMIC ERRORS
• Error due to roll and pitch
 • Error due to Heave
• Error due to draught, settlement and squat
• Error due to Trim

Above errors (except trim) are dynamic in nature. Exact reading of these error values may not be
possible and hence cannot be corrected. However, on account of above factors, caution needs to
be exercised while using the echo sounder reading.

Q5. What are the controls of an echo sounder? What are the maintenances and adjustments
that need to be carried out for proper operation?

Answer
ECHO SOUNDER CONTROLS

On-Off switch

1. Range selector switch

2. Paper speed control knob
3. Stylus speed control adjustment
4. Sensitivity control knob
5. Draft setting control knob
6. Fix marker
7. Transducer selector switch
8. Panel brilliance control knob

MAINTAINANCE OF ECHO SOUNDER CONTROLS

Print-head / Stylus Cleaning: This is most important maintenance required on an echo sounder.
As the printer is used, small particles of dirt and grit can accumulate on the print head surface. If
too much debris collects on the printing surface, the printing quality deteriorates.

Printer or recording paper: Sounder should be maintained with adequate Printer or recording
paper level for the intended voyage. Normally there is a water mark on the paper as it nears the
end.

Cleaning of transducer: The transducer should be cleaned periodically as the deposits on the
diaphragm contribute to deterioration in the performance of the recorder. Care should be taken
not to damage it or paint over it.

User Calibration: The only user calibration required is a DRAFT and SPEED OF SOUND
modification where such means are provided.

Zero-line adjustment: The stylus should match with the zero mark on the paper when the pulses
are transmitted. Controls are provided to adjust the zero-mark by advancing or delaying the
stylus.

Range Selection: The range of the echo-sounder should be selected as per the depth of the water
available otherwise depth displayed/recorded will be in error.

Contrast adjustments: Depending sometimes on the quality of the paper, the voltage level of the
contrast control should be maintained such that the sounder prints well on the paper.
Frequency Selection: Where multi-frequency echo-sounders are installed on board, proper
frequency should be selected for different depths range as per the manufacturers instruction.

Gain Control: Gain may have to be adjusted as per the depth of the water.

Q6. a) With respect to echo sounders, explain the terms

i) Aeration ii) Cross Noise
What are the other sources of noise in echo sounders?
c) What corrections may be applied to an echo sounder reading before comparing it with the
charted depth?

Answer
a) In electronic devices, noise is defined as any unwanted output from the device which is the
result of an unintended input. It directly affects the quality of the output.

Both aeration and cross noise are sources of noise in an echo sounder that leads to printing of
unwanted marks on the recorder paper.

CROSS NOISE

If the sensitivity of the amplifier is high, several irregular dots appear near the zero line and this is
called cross noise. This is caused as part of the transmitted energy is picked up by the transducer
in addition to the aeration present. If cross noise is high, then shallow depths close to the zero line
will not be seen.

To avoid this, amplification should be less after transmission and gradually increased so that
weak echoes can be marked with clarity. This is done automatically by the swept gain control unit.

AERATION

Vibration causes air bubbles in the water and echoes caused by these appear as dots. This is
called Aeration.

The density of air bubbles under the transducer varies along the length of the vessel and the
echoes suffer tremendous loss before reaching the receiver. Sometimes the density of air bubbles
is so high (e.g. going astern) that no penetration takes place and hence echo sounder is
rendered.

Other sources of noise can be…

• Biological Noise (Animals producing sound waves)

• Electrical Noise (generated by electrical machines as vibrations or EM waves)
• Amplifier self-noise (noise generated within the amplifier itself.)
• Ship Noise (vibrations causes at sea, at shore, or by the ship itself)

b) Echo Sounder readings are subject to a number of errors. Once calibrated, following
corrections must be applied to these readings before using the data against charted depth:
 Sound velocity correction (discrepancy between actual and constant velocity used by
the sounder to derive depth).

Static Draft correction: (depth of transducer when the vessel is at rest).

Dynamic draft correction: Settlement (difference between rest and underway positions of
the transducer).

Squat correction (change in trim when underway)

Water level (tidal correction).

Sea & Swell corrections: (average height of waves)

7. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

Q1. Write short notes on the segments of GPS.

Answer
GPS, the Global Positioning System consists of three segments:

SPACE SEGMENT
• It consists of 24 operational and 8 standby satellites evenly placed in 6 different orbits.
• The angle between each of the 6 orbital planes and the equatorial plane i.e., Inclination, is
55°.
• The satellites have their own propulsion system to maintain their orbital path and can be
controlled remotely by Master Control Station.
• GPS satellites fly in circular orbits at an altitude of 20,200 km and at a speed of 3.9 km/s.
• It takes 11 hours and 58 minutes to complete one orbit. Each satellite makes two complete
orbits each sidereal day.
• The satellites continuously orient themselves to point their solar panels toward the sun and
their antenna toward the earth.
• Orbits are designed so that at the very least six satellites are always within line of sight
from any location on the planet.

CONTROL SEGMENT
The CS consists of 3 entities:
• Master Control System
• Monitor Stations
• Ground Antennas
Master Control Segment
The master control station, located at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado Springs, Colorado, is
responsible for overall management of the remote monitoring and transmission sites. There is an
alternate MCS in California.
The MCS obtains the satellite data from monitor stations and uses it to compute and predict the
future path of all the satellites and uploads orbital correction commands to them. The MCS also
determines the error of the atomic clocks in all the satellites. At fixed intervals, the MCS also
provides to the satellites data, that the satellites transmit for position fixing.
Monitor Stations
There are about seventeen located across the world. Each of the monitor stations checks the
exact altitude, position, speed, and overall health of the orbiting satellites twice a day, as the
satellites complete their journeys around the earth. A station can track up to 11 satellites at a time.
The monitoring stations track the satellites, obtain the data and pass the information to the MCS.

Ground antennas:
Ground antennas monitor and track the satellites from horizon to horizon and send/transmit
navigation data uploads and processor program loads, and collect telemetry through S-Band
communication links.
There are four dedicated GPS ground antenna sites co-located covering the world. The MCS
ephemeris and clocks parameters are usually updated every two hours while Almanac data is
updated every six days through the upload station and ground antennas.

USER SEGMENT:
It consists of a receiving antenna, receiver with built-in Computer and display unit. The receiver
locks on to one satellite and from this satellite it obtains the almanac of all other satellites and
thereby selects the four most suitable for position fixing. The fix obtained is displayed on the
screen along with the course and speed made good. Receivers designed to receive only one
frequency are known as single frequency receivers. To enhance position accuracy, there are dual
frequency receivers that can receive both frequencies.

Q2. What is pseudo range? How despite error in range the GPS receiver obtains accurate
position fix?
Answer
Pseudo Range: In order to obtain range of satellites with accuracy, the exact position of the
satellite has to be known to the GPS Rx and also the clocks of the satellite and the Rx has to be
perfectly synchronized. Both of these are obtained from the Navigation Message transmitted by
the satellites. The range of the satellite is calculated by the formula:
Range = speed of light x time the signals take to travel from satellite to the receiver

However, due to limitations in method of clock update known as ‘clock bias error’, some error
remains in the synchronization of the two clocks. As a result, the range of satellite calculated by
the GPS Rx has an element of error due to the clocks difference. This calculated range which
includes error due to difference in time between satellite clock and user clock is called Pseudo
Range and is given by:.

Pseudo Range = (c x t) + c x Δt where Δt is the difference between the two clocks.

In order to obtain accurate position fix, the true ranges of the satellites are needed which are
derived mathematically at the receiver from the pseudo range using following range equation
eliminating error from the pseudo range:
Where,
R1 = True range of satellite no.1
PR1= Pseudo range of satellite 1
c = speed of light
Δt = clock error (difference in satellite and user clocks)
x1, y1, z1 = 3D co-ordinates of the satellite-1
x, y, z = 3D co-ordinates of the GPS receiver

Similar process is repeated for three more visible satellites and with four such equations the
values of x, y and z are computed by the receiver.

Using the corrected ranges of satellites the GPS receiver uses the trilateration method to obtain
true position despite error in range due to clock error.

Q3. What do you understand by carrier frequency of GPS and what data do they contain?

Answer
Each satellite transmits two codes, the Precision (P) code and the Coarse Acquisition (C/A) code
along with almanac and ephemeris contained in Navigation Messages to enable GPS receivers
obtain position fix. These data are a very complex series of data bits in the form of ‘0’ and ‘1’ and
hence referred to as Pseudo Random Codes. These data is transmitted on two dedicated radio
waves in the L-Band frequency range and are named as L1 and L2. These two frequencies are
called GPS carrier frequencies. The pseudo random codes and the navigation message are
superimposed on these carrier frequencies using phase modulation and contain data as follows:

L1 - 1575.42 MHz - C/A code, P-Code and Navigation Message

L2 – 1227.60 MHz - P-Code and Navigation Message

- The C/A code is a pseudo random code which provides SPS, Standard Positioning
Service, which the civilians use for position fixing. The code
- The P-Code on the other hand is an encrypted pseudo random code which provides PPS,
Precise Positioning Service, used by the defense services.
- Both C/A code and P-Code are used by the respective GPS receivers for timing and
ranging of the satellites.
- The Navigation message contains almanac and ephemeris of satellites the essential
purpose of which is to determine the position of satellites by the GPS receiver.

Q4. Write short notes on:

i) C/A code ii) P-Code iii) Navigation message.
Answer
C/A Code:
• C/A-Code is modulated over L1 carrier frequency by phase modulation.
 • It is transmitted at the rate of 1.023 Mbps in the form of ‘0’ and ‘1’ called a ‘Chip’.
• Length of a Chip is 1 micro-sec, and terms of length measures 293 meters.
• 1023 chips make a complete C/A code.
• Thus a complete C/A code is of 1 millisecond, and terms of length measures about (1023
x 293 ~) 300 km.
• Each Satellite has its own unique C/A code.
• The GPS receiver locks on to this C/A code, synchronizes itself with code and then uses it
for timing and ranging purposes.

P-Code:
• P-Code is modulated over L1 and also L2 carrier frequency by phase modulation.
• It is transmitted at a faster rate of 10.23 Mbps in the form of ‘0’ and ‘1’ also called a ‘Chip’.
• Length of a Chip is 0.1 micro-sec, and terms of length measures 29.3 metres.
• A complete P-code is of 267 days, and is of 2.35 × 1014 bits in length (approx. 26.716
Terra Bytes).
• The code length being so large, each satellite is assigned only a weekly segment of the
master P-Code (of 267 days length).
• In order to facilitate GPS receivers to synchronize faster with this long code, the start time
of the code is transmitted every 6 seconds.
• This helps the GPS Rx to identify which part of the code is being transmitted currently (and
synchronize) .
• However, P-Code is same for all the satellites as against the C/A codes which are unique
for each satellite.

Navigation Message:
• Essential purpose of the navigation message transmission by satellites is to determine its
position by the GPS receiver.
• For this purpose, each satellite transmits a navigational message in the form of Fames of
30 seconds at a transmission speed of 50 bps.
• This data, which is different for each satellite, is previously uploaded to the satellites by
master control station through ground antennas.
• Navigation message of 30 seconds Frame is divided into 5 sub-frames of 10 words, each
word being 30 bits.
• Each sub-frame commences with telemetry word (TLM) containing satellite status followed
by hand over word (HOW) data for acquiring P code from C/A code.
• The subsequent eight words of the sub-frames contain information as follows::

- The 1st sub-frame contains data relating to satellite clock correction.

- The 2nd and 3rd sub-frames in two parts contain the satellite Ephemeris, which precise
orbital information of satellite which defines the exact position of the satellite at any given
time.
- The 4th sub-frame passes the alpha-numeric data to the user and will only be used when
upload station has a need to pass specific messages. Otherwise it contains the almanac
and health data of the standby satellites (Satellite Vehicles SV25 to 32) to be used by
monitoring stations and master control stations.
 - The 5th sub-frame gives the almanac of all the other satellites which includes the identity
codes thus allowing the user the best choice of satellites for position fixing. The almanac is
common to all satellites.

Q5. What are the factors that may affect the accuracy of position fix by GPS. How much of
range errors may be expected for each factor?

Answer
Atmospheric Error: Changing atmospheric conditions change the speed of the GPS signals as
they pass through the Earth's atmosphere and this affects the time difference measurement and
hence the position fix will not be accurate.
Effect is minimized when the satellite is directly overhead and becomes greater for satellites
nearer the horizon. The receiver is designed to reject satellites with elevation less than 9.5
degrees.

User Clock Error: This is the third largest factor causing error in GPS fix. If the user clock is not
perfectly synchronized with the satellite clock, the range measurement will not be accurate.
Satellites keep transmitting navigation messages containing clock correction signals for the
receiver for closest synchronization.

Satellite Clock Error: This error is caused due to the error in the satellite’s clock w.r.t. GPS time.
Satellite clock error is about 8.64 to 17.28 ns per day. The corresponding range error is 2.59m to
5.18m, which can be easily calculated by multiplying the clock error by the speed of light. This is
monitored by the ground based segments and any error in the satellites clock forms part of the 30
seconds navigational message. Applying the satellite clock correction in the navigation message
can correct the satellite clock errors.

GDOP Error: GDOP (geometric dilution of precision) describes error caused by the relative
position and thus the ‘angle of cut’ of the GPS satellites at the receiver. Basically, the more
signals a GPS receiver can “see” (spread apart versus close together), the more precise it can be.
Wider the angular separation between the satellites, better the precision of the position fix. Or,
conversely said, the lower the GDOP value, the greater the accuracy of the fix. The GDOP value
is indicated on the display unit.

Multipath Error: This error is caused by the satellite signals arriving at the ship’s antenna both
directly from the satellite and those that get reflected by some objects such as gravel roads, open
water, snow fields, rock walls, buildings. Thus two signals are received simultaneously which will
cause the distortion of signal from which range measurement is obtained. Siting the antenna at a
suitable place can minimize this error.

Orbital Error or Ephemeris Error: The satellites are monitored and their paths are predicted by the
ground based segment. However, between two consecutive monitoring of the same satellite,
there may be minor drifts from their predicted paths resulting in small position inaccuracy.

Datum Shift: The GPS uses WGS84 datum by default to display position. However, if the chart
being used is of any other datum, the position plotted on the chart may not be accurate. This is
called datum shift.

Following is the average values of range errors on account of various sources:

Error Source Typical Range DGPS Range

Error Error (<100km ref-
remote)
Satellite vehicle clock 1 mtr -
Satellite vehicle Ephemeris 1 mtr -
Selective availability 10 mtr -
Troposphere 1 mtr -
Ionosphere 10 mtr -
Pseudo range error 1 mtr 1 mtr
Receiver noise 1 mtr 1 mtr
Multipath 0.5 mtr 0.5 mtr
Error *PDOP = 4 60 mtr 6 mtr
*PDOP = Position Dilution of Precision (3-D); value of 4 is typical

Q6. How does DGPS enhance accuracy of position fix?

Answer
DGPS, acronym for Differential GPS, is an augmentation GPS system, especially near coastal
areas to increase the position fix by the receiver. It uses a network of ground stations located at
precisely known positions. The DGPS reference station is situated at a fixed location and from this
position the GPS receiver tracks all the satellites within its sight, obtains the data from them and
calculates the corrections for each satellite.

These corrections are then broadcast by the DGPS stations on MF frequencies for use by the
DGPS receivers in the vicinity.
There are two methods employed for enhancing DGPS position accuracy.

Co-ordinate (Position) Correction

In the first method, the reference station knows its exact position and compares it to the position
obtained by the GPS and determines the corrections based on the actual and GPS calculated
positions. These corrections are then broadcast to the users in terms of co-ordinates (i.e. x, y and
z).

The accuracy of co-ordinate corrections decreases as the distance of the user from the reference
station increases. Besides that, this correction to be applicable, the reference station and the user
must select the same satellites, which is practically not possible as the user does not have the
option of manually selecting the satellites.

Pseudo Range correction

To improve the situation, second method (Pseudo Range correction) is used. In this method, the
reference station receives signals from all the visible satellites and measures the pseudo range to
each of them. The reference station also calculates the true range to all the selected satellites. By
comparing the calculated true range and the measured pseudo range, corrections to each satellite
can be determined. These corrections are then broadcast to the users and applied to their pseudo
range measurements before calculation of the position.

Q7. How the speed is determined by the GPS?

Answer
The carrier frequencies which carry information for position fix are also used to determine the
speed of the user by the measurement of Doppler shift, i.e. change in the frequency of radio
waves received when the distance between the satellite and user is changing due to the relative
motion between the two. After the position fix, the position and velocity of the satellite as well as
the position of the user are known to the user’s receiver.

The velocity vector of the satellite in its orbit can be resolved in two ways:

i) In the direction towards (or away from) the user

ii) In the direction perpendicular to (i).

The 2nd component is not considered as speed in this direction will not cause Doppler shift.

The receiver calculates the velocity vector of the satellite in the direction towards the user.

If the relative approach speed between the satellite and the user’s speed (based on the Doppler
shift measurement) is not equal to the satellite speed vector towards the user, the difference can
only arise due to user’s speed towards or away from the satellite which is actually a measure of
the receivers speed and is quantified in terms of unit of speed.

Similarly with the help of the other two satellites, the receiver can calculate two additional speed
vectors and these speed vectors will be towards or away from their respective satellites. These
velocity vectors are resolved into three other vectors, i.e. x, y and z co-ordinates and with these
three vectors the course and speed of the user is calculated.
Q8. What is clock bias error in GPS?

Answer
Clock bias error is actually the user clock error. This is the third largest factor causing error in
GPS fix. If the user clock is not perfectly synchronized with the satellite clock, the range
measurement will not be accurate.

GPS receivers are usually equipped with quartz crystal clocks, which are relatively inexpensive
and compact. For these types of clocks, the frequency is generated by the piezoelectric effect in
an oven-controlled quartz crystal. Their reliability ranges from a minimum of about 1 part in 108 to
a maximum of about 1 part in 1010, a drift of about 0.1 nanoseconds in 1 second. Even at that,
quartz clocks are not as stable as the atomic standards in the GPS satellites and are more
sensitive to temperature changes, shock, and vibration. Both a receiver’s measurement of phase
differences and its generation of replica C/A codes depend on the reliability of this internal
frequency standard. Such an error in a GPS receiver’s clock oscillator is also termed as receiver
clock bias error.

8. Automatic Identification System (AIS)

Q1. Write a short note on the working of AIS.

Answer
As per Regulation 19 of chapter V of SOLAS, all ships according to ship type, to carry automatic
identification systems (AIS), capable of providing information about the ship to other ships and to
coastal authorities automatically. Resolution MSC.74(69) includes Recommendation on
Performance Standards for Universal Automatic Identification System (AIS)
The regulation requires that AIS shall:
• provide information - including the ship's identity, type, position, course, speed,
navigational status and other safety-related information - automatically to appropriately
equipped shore stations, other ships and aircraft;
• receive automatically such information from similarly fitted ships; · monitor and track
ships;
• exchange data with shore-based facilities.

AIS are intended to enhance:

- safety of life at sea

- safety and efficiency of navigation,
- protection of the marine environment and
- Assist in SAR operations

Therefore, the purpose of AIS is to help identify ships, assist in target tracking, assist in search
and rescue operation, simplify information exchange by reducing verbal mandatory ship reporting
and provide additional information to assist situation awareness. In general, data received via AIS
will improve the quality of the information available to the OOW, whether at a shore surveillance
station or on board a ship.
Very simply, the AIS is a broadcast transponder system, operating in the VHF maritime mobile
band on two dedicated frequencies:
AIS 1 - 161.975 MHz - channel 87B (Simplex, for ship to ship) and
AIS 2 - 162.025 MHz - channel 88B (Duplex for ship to shore).

AIS use Self-Organizing Time Division Multiple Access (SOTDMA) technology at high
broadcast rate of 9600 bits per second to meet this reliable ship-to-ship operation without
interference. It normally works in an autonomous and continuous mode, regardless of whether it is
operating in the open seas, coastal or inland areas.
AIS transmits following types data:
1. Static data: It comprises of identification details of the ship and is entered at the time of
commissioning of the AIS equipment. It consists of Ship name, call sign, IMO number,
MMSI, type of ship, LOA, breadth and location of the position fixing device antenna.

2. Dynamic data: It comprises of navigational parameters of the ship and are picked from
various sensors. It consists of position, COG, SOG, Heading and ROT (if available) and
Navigational Status (user selected)

3. Voyage related data: This data should be entered by the user at the time of
commencement of the voyage and hence changes every voyage. It consists of sailing
draft, destination, ETA, type of cargo on board, number of persons on board, and
optionally the waypoints.

4. Short safety message: This is an additional feature of free short text messaging and is
limited to 158 characters.

Q2. Explain the working of AIS. How fail-proof functioning of AIS is ensured ?

Answer:
AIS use Self-Organizing Time Division Multiple Access (SOTDMA) technology at high
broadcast rate of 9600 bits per second to meet this reliable ship-to-ship operation without
interference. It normally works in an autonomous and continuous mode, regardless of whether it is
operating in the open seas, coastal or inland areas.

The AIS employs two methods to ensure its robustness and fail-proof operation.
o SO-TDMA communication protocol, and
o Dual frequency operation.

SO-TDMA: All AIS stations subscribe to a common time slot transmission in which duration on 60
seconds is divided into 2250 slots, each being 26.67mS.Each station determines its own
transmission schedule (slot), based upon data link traffic history and knowledge of future actions
by other stations. Slot selection by an AIS station is randomized within a defined interval. When a
station changes its slot assignment, it pre-announces both the new location and the timeout for
that location.
A position report from one AIS station fits into one of 2250 time slots established every 60
seconds. AIS stations continuously synchronize themselves to each other, to avoid overlap of slot
transmissions.

In this way, new stations including those stations which suddenly come within radio range close to
other vessels will always be received by those vessels.

Dual frequency operation:Although only one radio channel is necessary for AIS operation, each
station transmits and receives over two radio channels to avoid interference problems and to
allow channels to be shifted without communications loss from other ships.

Q3. What are the carriage requirements for AIS? Differentiate between class-A and Class-B
AIS.

Answer:
The carriage of AIS onboard ships is governed by SOLAS regulation V/19.2.4. The
regulation requires AIS to be fitted aboard all ships of
• 300 gross tonnage and upwards engaged on international voyages,
• cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on international
voyages and
• all passenger ships irrespective of size.

The requirement became effective for all ships by 31 December 2004.

Class A AIS are those that meet the full IMO performance standard requirements with respect to
the equipment configuration, modes of operation, types of data and their transmission rates as per
speed and alteration as well as the functioning in SO-TDMA protocol.

Class-A AIS are mandated by the IMO for vessels of 300 gross tonnages and upwards engaged
on international voyages, cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on
international voyages and passenger ships irrespective of size.

Class B provides limited functionality and is intended for non-SOLAS vessels. It is not mandated
by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and has been developed for vessels such as
work craft and pleasure craft. Local administrations encourage small crafts to be fitted with class-
B AIS for effective management of coastal waters.

Following are the comparison between Class-A and Class-B AIS:

Attributes CLASS - A CLASS - B

Transmit Power 12.5w / 2w (low-power) 2w

Range
30-40 nautical miles 8-10 nautical miles
Reporting Rate 2 - 10 sec - speed and/or
30 sec. fixed
course dependent
SO-TDMA CS-TDMA
Communication
Self-Organizing amongst Class Carrier-Sense(s), polite to Class
Protocol
A's A’s
Frequency Range &
156.025 -162.025 MHz @ 161.500 - 162.025 MHz @
Bandwidth
12/25 kHz bandwidth 25 kHz bandwidth

Position Source External GNSS & Internal GPS Internal GPS

2 Input-Output Ports & Multiple
Digital Interfaces Optional
Outputs
Minimal Keyboard Display
Display Optional
(MKD)
Safety Text Transmit Optional & Pre-
Receive & Transmit
Messaging configured
No Rate of Turn, Navigation
Data All Status, Destination, ETA, Draft,
IMO#
$700 - 1,500
Approximate Cost $2,800 - 4,000

Q4. What data are transmitted by AIS and what interval are they transmitted?

Answer:
AIS transmit following categories of information:

• Static information
• Dynamic information
• Voyage related information
• Short safety-related messages

Static information: (Every 6 min and on request)

• MMSI
• IMO number (where available)
• Call sign & name
• Length and beam
• Type of ship and
• Location of the position-fixing antenna
Dynamic information: (Dependent on speed and on speed/course alteration)
• Ship’s position with accuracy indication and integrity status
• Position time stamp (in UTC)
 • Course over ground (COG)
• Speed over ground (SOG)
• Heading
• Navigational status (e.g. at anchor, underway, aground etc. And
• Rate of turn (where available).
Voyage related information (Every 6 min, when is data amended, or on request)
• Ship’s draught
• Hazardous cargo (type)
• Destination and ETA and
• Route plan (waypoints)

Short safety-related messages: Free format text message (sent as needed) addressed to one or
more specified destinations or to all stations in the area. The content should be relevant to safety
messages e.g. buoy missing, ice-berg sighted etc.

REPORTING INTERVAL DYNAMIC DATA BASIS SPPED AND ALTERATIONS

SHIP MANOEUVRING REPORTING INTERVAL

At Anchor / Moored 3 minutes
At Anchor / moored and moving faster than 3 kts 10 secs
Speed 0 – 14 Kts 10 secs
And changing course 3 1/3 secs
Speed 14 - 23 Kts 6 secs
And changing course 2 secs
Speed > 23 Kts 2 secs
And changing course 2 secs

Q5. When should AIS be in operation? What are the operation modes of AIS?

Answer:
OPERATION OF AIS
AIS should always be ON when underway or at anchor unless the Master feels the operation
might compromise with security, such as piracy areas. Entry in log book should be made stating
time and reasons. It must be switch on as soon as possible and also logged down in the log-book.

MODES OF OPERATIONS
There are 3 modes of operation of AIS:
Autonomous and continuous mode: In this mode AIS automatically defines its own reporting
rate in accordance with its navigational mode, speed and course. The unit also selects its own
time slots. This is normal mode for operation in all areas but the mode may be switched from/to
Assigned or Polled/Controlled mode by a competent authority via a base station on shore.
Assigned/ Controlled Mode: A competent authority responsible for traffic monitoring may
remotely set transmissions intervals and/or time slots for the vessel mobile stations. In Assigned
mode the mobile station does not change its reporting rate when changing course and speed.

Polling mode: Mobile stations will automatically respond to an interrogation (polling) message
from another ship or shore station on the same frequency when in polled mode. Operation in
Polled mode does not conflict with the operation in other two modes.
Q6. What are the limitations and precautions to be kept in mind while using AIS data?

Answer:
AIS is not a detection system but depends on the information provided by other stations.
Therefore it is important to use the AIS data prudently. Following limitations should be kept in
mind when using AIS data:

1) The accuracy of AIS information received is only as good as the accuracy of the AIS
information transmitted.

2) Position of ships received on AIS display may not be referenced to WGS 84 datum.

3) Over reliance on AIS information for navigational safety should be avoided as received data
may not be of great accuracy.

4) The users must be aware that transmission of wrong information implies a risk to other ships as
well as their own.

5) Sensors providing elements of the dynamic information may lack comprehensive integrity
monitoring and whose accuracy has not been tested.

6) Not all ships will be fitted with AIS, particularly small craft and fishing boats.

OOW therefore should be on guard against making a picture of traffic scenario on the basis of AIS
alone.

7) The OOW should always be aware that other ships otherwise fitted with AIS, might switch off
AIS under certain circumstances.

8) It would not be prudent for the OOW to assume that the information received from other ships
is of a comparable quality and accuracy as that which might be available on own ship.

9. Voyage Data Recorder (VDR)

Q1. What are the SOLAS requirements for VDR? What is the carriage requirement? (For
PHASE-2)

Answer:
SOLAS REQUIREMENTS FOR VDR:
• VDRs are required to meet performance standards "not inferior to those adopted by the
Organization".
• The VDR should continuously maintain sequential records of preselected data items
relating to status and output of the ship's equipment and command and control of the ship.
• The VDR should be installed in a protective capsule that is brightly colored and fitted with
an appropriate device to aid location.
• It should be entirely automatic in normal operation.
• Administrations may exempt ships, other than ro-ro passenger ships, constructed before 1
July 2002, from being fitted with a VDR where it can be demonstrated that interfacing a
VDR with the existing equipment on the ship is unreasonable and impracticable.
 • The voyage data recorder (VDR) system, including all sensors, shall be subjected to an
annual performance test.
• The test shall be conducted by an approved testing or servicing facility to verify the
accuracy, duration and recoverability of the recorded data.
• In addition, tests and inspections shall be conducted to determine the serviceability of all
protective enclosures and devices fitted to aid location.
• A copy of a the certificate of compliance issued by the testing facility, stating the date of
compliance and the applicable performance standards, shall be retained on board the
ship.
CARRIAGE REQUIREMENTS FOR VDR:
Under regulation 20 of SOLAS chapter V on Voyage data recorders (VDR), the following ships are
required to carry VDRs:

• passenger ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002;

• ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002 not later than the first survey on or
after 1 July 2002;

• passenger ships other than ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002 not later
than 1 January 2004; and

• ships, other than passenger ships, of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or
after 1 July 2002.

CARRIAGE REQUIREMENTS FOR S-VDR:

• in the case of cargo ships of 20,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July
2002, at the first scheduled dry-docking after 1 July 2006 but not later than 1 July 2009;
• in the case of cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 20,000 gross
tonnage constructed before 1 July 2002, at the first scheduled dry-docking after 1 July
2007 but not later than 1 July 2010; and
• Administrations may exempt cargo ships from the application of the requirements when
such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two years after the
implementation date specified above.

Q2. What is the purpose of VDR?

Answer:
A VDR or voyage data recorder is an electronic instrument installed on a ship to continuously
record critical Information related to the operation of a vessel.

It consists of a recording system for a period of at least last 48 hours which is continuously
overwritten by the latest data. The data is recorded on multiple storage devices with special
attributes simultaneously. In case of any accident / incident or even otherwise, this recording is
recovered and made use of for various purposes, especially for investigation in the events of
accidents.

PURPOSE OF VDR

VDR data can be used for :

1. Accident investigations: Various sensor data as well as communications helps in
recreating the scenario of the event.

2. Response Assessment: Actions taken in an incident can be later reviewed to assess the
response of the navigator.

3. Training support: Facts obtained from study/review of any incident can be used as training
material.

4. Promotion of best practices: Helps in promoting best practices in the bridge by way of
continuous monitoring.

5. Reduction of insurance cost: VDR being a help in training, promoting best practices
ultimately leads to reduction of insurance cost to companies.

Q3. Differentiate between VDR and S-VDR? What are the data recorded by each?

Answer:
On 1st July, 2006, amendments to regulation 20 of SOLAS chapter V (Safety of Navigation) on
carriage requirement for a shipborne simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR) was brought in
force.S-VDR is meant to be fitted on older SOLAS cargo ships.

System setup-wise there is no difference between VDR and S-VDR. Both comprise of the same
components. However, VDR is a comprehensive recording system which collects and stores
detailed data, while the S-VDR is not required to store the same level of detailed data as a
standard VDR. S-VDR should maintain a store, in a secure and retrievable form, of information
concerning the position, movement, physical status, command and control of a vessel over the
period leading up to and following an incident.

Data Recorded by VDR and S-VDR

Data VDR S-VDR

Date/Time every 1 sec Y Y
Position Y Y
Speed (through water or over ground) Y Y
Heading Y Y
Bridge audio (microphones input) Y Y
Communication Audio Y Y
AIS data Y AIS or Radar
Radar / ARPA display (15 sec) Y picture
Water Depth Y
Log Speed Y
ECDIS Y
Any other data
Engine order and response Y
if available
Rudder order and response Y
Thrusters status Y
Hull opening status Y
Fire & watertight doors and fire doors status Y
Acceleration & Hull stresses Y
Auto Pilot Settings Y
Wind speed & direction Y
All mandatory alarms Y
Rolling motion Y
Electronic Log Y
Configuration data
(Technical data defining the configuration of the VDR and the Y
sensors)

Q4. What amendments have been made for a SOLAS shipboard installation of VDR?

Answer:
Following requirements shall be fulfilled by the VDRs installed after 01st July, 2014:

• Bridge Audio :
o Inside bridge audio should be recorded on at least two channels.
o Bridge wings audio should be recorded on at least one additional separate
channel.
o VHF communications relating to ship operations should be recorded on an
additional separate channel to those referred to in points above.
• RADAR -Recording of the main displays of both ship's radar installations as required by
SOLAS regulations.
• AIS- All AIS data should be recorded.
• ECDIS display in use at the time as the primary means of navigation.
• Rolling Motion - VDR should be connected to an electronic inclinometer if installed
• Configuration data: In addition to the data items, a data block defining the configuration of
the VDR and the sensors to which it is connected should be written into the final recording
medium during commissioning of the VDR.
• Electronic logbook: Where a ship is fitted with an electronic logbook in accordance with the
standards of the Organization the information from this should be recorded.
• FINAL RECORDING MEDIUM: The data should be recorded on three separate mediums
as under-
o Float-free type:
 Should record data for at least 48 hours.
 should maintain the recorded data for a period of at least six months
following termination of recording;
 data should be electronically tamper-proof
 the floating unit should have an in-built EPIRB for early location in the event
of accident.
o Fixed type:
  Should record data for at least 48 hours which is continuously overwritten
with new data.
 should maintain the recorded data for a period of at least two years
following termination of recording.
 data should be electronically tamper-proof
o Long term:
 Data recorded for 30 days / 720 Hrs and continuously overwritten with new
data
 be capable of being accessed from an internal, easily accessible area of
the ship;

Q5. What are the components of VDR?

Answer:
Components of VDR:

DATA MANAGEMENT UNIT (DMU): This is the processing unit of the VDR. The data which
comprises of voices, various navigational parameters, ships location etc. are fed to this
unit, is digitalized, compressed, and stored ina specified format in Final Recording
Mediums.

AUDIO MODULE: It consists of an audio mixer for recording audio from microphones placed in
the wheelhouse, bridge wings, ECR and various other locations. VHF audio signals are also
interfaced with this unit.

FINAL RECORDING MODULE: This is the media on which the recorded data is stored. Normally
magnetic memory drives are used for this. The final recording mediums comprises of two
independent recording units (fixed and float-free) and an long term medium.

REMOTE ALARM MODULE: This is a small panel connected to the DMU that will sound an
audio-visual alarm should any error or fault develop in the equipment or if the sensor inputs are
missing.

REPLAY STATION: The VDR should provide an interface for downloading the stored data and
playback the information to an external computer. In general, a software is made available to the
owners for this.

RESERVE SOURCE OF POWER: The VDR should normally run of ship’s mains. However, it
should be provided with a reserve source of supply (battery) providing power back-up for at least
2 hours of bridge audio recording.

10. GYRO COMPASS

Q1 (a) What is a free gyroscope? Describe its basic properties.

Q1 (b) With respect to a free gyroscope, describe: i) Rigidity in space ii) Precession

Answer (Same answer for both questions):

A free gyroscope consists of a spinning wheel or rotor rotating about an axis perpendicular to the
plane of the rotor, which is suspended within rings, called gimbals,in such a way that it permits the
rotor to move freely about three mutually perpendicular axes, known as the spin axis,horizontal
axis and vertical axis. The mounting base is called the phantom.
The gyroscope in this arrangement is not constrained in any way by any force(s) acting upon the
rotor so as to alter the direction of the spin axis where it points, then this is called a free
gyroscope.

A free gyroscope therefore is said to possess three degrees of freedom.

i. Freedom to rotate about a spin axis.

ii. Freedom to turn in azimuth about a vertical axis, or, Precession axis.
iii. Freedom to tilt about a horizontal axis, or, Torque Axis.

A free gyroscope exhibits two properties -

1. Rigidity in space and
2. Precession

Rigidity in space: It is the property of the FGS by virtue of which the plane of the rotor, and hence
the direction of the spin axis remains rigidly fixed pointing to a point in space, even if the gimbals
are moved. The fixed point in space to which the spin axis is pointing is referred to as the Gyro
star.

The property of rigidity in space is the result of the angular momentum of the FGS and is given by

Angular Momentum (H) = Gyroscopic Inertia (I) x Angular Velocity (ω)

More the angular momentum more will be the rigidity in space.

The gyroscopic inertia on the other hand,depends on the mass of the rotor and the distribution of
the mass around the axis, that is, radius of the rotor mass. The Gyroscopic Inertia is given by

Gyroscopic Inertia (I) = Mass of Rotor (M) x Mean Radius (R)2 / 2

Precession: Precession is the term used to describe the movement of the axle of a gyroscope
under the influence of an external force. It is the property of the FGS by due to which the spin
axis, when applied with a torque, moves in a direction perpendicular to applied torque.

The Rate of precession is directly proportional to the applied torque and inversely proportional to
gyroscopic inertia of the rotor which is expressed by the angular momentum of the gyroscope.

Rate of Precession (P) = Applied Torque (T) / Angular Momentum (H)

Both the properties of the gyroscope are made use of in making a gyro-compass.

Q2. With regard to a free gyroscope, describe: i) Tilting ii)Drifting

Answer
The spin axis of a gyroscope remains fixed in space due to its property of rigidity due to
gyroscopic inertia. That fixed point in space is referred to as the Gyro Star. However, the earth is
rotating on its axis from west to east. Hence the spin axis being fixed in space shows apparent
movement relative to the earth’s surface.

The spin axis’s motion at any time can be described by two parameters-
1. Its movement in vertical plane, or tilting (Tg)
2. Its movement in horizontal plane (in azimuth), or drifting (Dr)

TILTING:
The angle that the spin axis makes with the horizontal at any given time is called “Tilt”. Since the
earth is rotating at the rate of 15º per hour, the tilt also change at the same rate but is a function of
the latitude of the gyro as well as the azimuth angle that it makes with the meridian.

The rate of tilt is called TILTING, denoted by Tg and is given by the formula –

Tilting (Tg) = 15º Cos Lat. Sin Az. per hour of time, or
= 15’ Cos Lat. Sin Az. per minute of time

DRIFTING:
The angle that the spin axis makes with the meridian at any given time is called “Drift”. The drift
also change at the rate of 15º per hour but it is a function of the Sine of latitude..

The rate of Drift is called DRIFTING, denoted by “Dr” and is given by the formula –

Drifting (Dr) = 15º Sin Lat. per hour of time, or

= 15’ Sin Lat. per minute of time

Q3. Describe the behavior of a free gyroscope on the earth at various locations.

Answer:

The spin axis of a gyroscope remains fixed in space due to its property of rigidity due to
gyroscopic inertia. However, as the earth is rotating on its axis from west to east, the spin axis
shows apparent movement relative to the earth’s surface which is described by its “Tilting” and
“Drifting”.

Tilting is governed by the formula

Tilting (Tg) = 15º Cos Lat. Sin Az. per hour of time,

Drifting is governed by the formula

Drifting (Dr) = 15º Sin Lat. per hour of time

MOVEMENT OF GYRO SPIN AXIS ON EARTH

At the Equator:
1. With spin axis aligned E-W direction (Az.= 90º) and horizontal: There will be maximum
tilting at the rate of 15º/hour and no drifting. The spin axis will start rising from horizontal
and completely turn over in 24 hours while there will be no E-W motion, or drifting.
2. With spin axis aligned to meridian (Az.= 0º) and horizontal: Since latitude is 0º and
Azimuth angle is also 0º, there is no tilting and no drifting.

At the Poles:
1. With spin axis horizontal: There will be maximum drifting at the rate of 15º/hour and no
tilting. The spin axis will rotate in horizontal plane and complete a turn in 24 hours
2. With spin axis vertical: There is no tilting and no drifting. The spin axis remains upright in
vertical direction all the time.

At Intermediate latitudes:
1. With spin axis aligned to the meridian and horizontal: There is both tilting and drifting
having a value in between 15º / hour and zero, governed by the function of Cos Lat. and
Sin Lat. respectively. Tilting increases towards the equator while drifting decreases and
drifting increases towards the poles while drifting increases.

Q4 (a) How a free gyroscope can be made North-seeking.

Q4 (b) Draw a neat sketch of any one method to control a free gyroscope.
Q4 (c) Explain Top-Heavy arrangement on a free gyroscope using detailed sketch.

Answer (Same answer for all questions above):

A free gyroscope exhibits tilting and drifting due to the daily motion of the earth and the spin axis
traces a circular path as the movement of the gyro-star in the sky. There is no fixed reference
point on earth to which it points constantly.To convert the gyroscope into a compass, the gyro
spin axis needs to be aligned to the meridian, that is, point to the north.

The basic properties of the gyroscope, namely rigidity in space and precession, in conjunction
with earth’s gravity are used to make a gyro-compass. This kind of a gyroscope is called Gravity
Controlled Gyroscope.

There are two methods of making the gyroscope north-seeking:

1. Top-heavy gravity controlled gyro, and
2. Bottom-heavy gravity controlled gyro,

Construction of a top-heavy north seeking gyroscope:

The rotor of the gyroscope is enclosed in a case called rotor casing within which the rotor spin
axis is suspended usingball bearings. Outside, on top of the casing, a small weight is placed in
such a way that the force of the weight, acting vertically downwards, passes through the dead
centre of the spin axis. This weight is called “control weight”. The weight does not produce any
torque on the spin axis when the spin axis is horizontal and therefore has no effect. (shown in the
figure below)

Function of the gravity controlled gyroscope

Let us assume that this gyroscope is placed at intermediate northern latitude with the spin axis
aligned to the meridian and horizontal. But, this condition of the spin axis will not remain so. Due
to earth’s rotation, the spin axis will develop a positive tilt and also drift eastward from the
meridian.
As can be seen from the diagram above, the control weight’s force, still acting vertically
downwards, is now passing at a point away from the centre of the spin axis producing a vertical
torque. The vertical torque in turn causes the spin axis to precess westward in horizontal plane
towards the meridian again.
However, the momentum created by the control precession of the spin axis, makes the spin axis
overshoot the meridian and a tilt is developed on the west of the meridian. Precession now
causes the spin axis to move towards the meridian once again. This cycle keeps repeating over
and over again.
The gyroscope is thus now north-seeking but the spin axis keeps oscillating about the meridian
and traces an elliptical path as shown in diagram above. Damping is used to eliminate these
oscillations.

Q5 Explain the working of a liquid ballistics gravity controlled north-seeking gyroscope?

Construction of a Liquid ballistics gravity controlled north-seeking gyroscope:

It consists of a rotor enclosed in a case called rotor casing, within which the rotor spin axis is
suspended using ball bearings. Outside, two reservoirs are placed aligned with the spin axis
interconnected with a narrow bore tube. The reservoirs are filled with liquid, normally mercury for
its high density.

FUNCTION
When the spin axis of the gyro is horizontal, the liquid distribution in the two reservoirs are equal
such that the centre of gravity of the reservoir assembly, acting vertically downwards, passes
through the dead centre of the spin axis. The equal liquid distribution does not produce any torque
on the spin axis when the spin axis is horizontal and therefore has no effect. (Explained in figure
below)

However, due to the rotation of the earth, the spin axis starts to tilt positively (upwards) and also
begins to drifts eastward. Due to the tilt of the spin axis, the reservoir assembly also tilts and the
liquid starts to flow through the tube from one side to the other. This makes one side reservoir
heavier than the other and hence produces a vertical torque on the spin axis.

This vertical torque in turn causes the spin axis to precess westward in horizontal plane towards
the meridian again.

However, the momentum created by the control precession of the spin axis, makes the spin axis
overshoot the meridian and a tilt is developed on the west of the meridian. Precession now
causes the spin axis to move towards the meridian once again. This cycle keeps repeating over
and over again.

The result is that the gyroscope is now north-seeking but the spin axis keeps oscillating about the
meridian and traces an elliptical path as shown in diagram above. Damping is used to eliminate
these oscillations.

Q5 (a) What do mean by damping of a north-seeking gyroscope?

Q5 (b) As applied to a gyroscope, explain the following-
i) Damping in tilt ii) Damping in Azimuth.

Answer:
We know that the spin axis of a gravity controlled north-seeking gyroscope traces an elliptical path
and keeps oscillating about the meridian due to the combined effects of the tilting, drifting and
control precession.

However, for a compass to be useful in navigation the gyro-compass spin axis must-

1. remain horizontal
2. always be aligned to the meridian (point to north) irrespective of direction ship is going,
and
3. come back to pointing to north, if disturbed.

In order to make the spin axis point and settle towards true north a method called “damping” is
used.

DAMPING:
Damping is basically an application of torque on the spin axis of a gravity controlled gyroscope in
such a way that the amplitude of the elliptical oscillations is gradually reduced every cycle so that
the spin axis finally settles down pointing towards true north.

There are two methods of damping:

1. Damping in tilt, and
2. Damping in azimuth.
DAMPING IN TILT:
It is the application of a torque on the spin axis in horizontal plane such that it results in a
precession of the spin axis in a vertical plane, in a direction opposite to the tilting due to earth’s
motion. The damping torque is always a fraction of the torque created by the control weight.

To achieve damping in tilt, a small solid weight, called “Damping Weight” is placed on top of
therotor casing slightly offset from the vertical axis and in plane of the rotor, of the gyroscope as
indicated in figure. The weight is acting downwards but the casing being rigid on the phantomit
does not make the casing turn.

When the spin axis tilts due to earth’s rotation, so does the casing. In this condition, the damping
weight produces two components, a vertical component that still does not affect the casing and
spin axis, and a horizontal component. The horizontal component produces a tipping effect on the
casing and causes a horizontal torque on the spin axis. This damping torque on the spin axis
causes a precession of the axis, called damping precession (Pd), opposite to the tilt due to the
earth’s rotation and hence the name damping in tilt.

Damping precession is a fraction of control precession and known as damping factor.It is also
proportional to tilt. The path traced by the north end of spin axis of a damped gyro compass as
shown below.

DAMPING IN AZIMUTH

Damping in azimuth is achieved by introducing a torque in a vertical plane, which causes a

precession opposite to the gravity control precession but out of phase with it, i.e. with a time
delay. The resultant precession in a horizontal plane causes the axis to overshoot the meridian
less each time it crosses it until the gyroscope axis reaches its settling position.

Damping in azimuth is achieved by restricting the flow of mercury ballistics from one side to the
other by means narrowing the connecting tube. Figure below shows settling of a gyro damped in
azimuth.

Q5. Explain tangent and steaming error of gyro compass.

LATITUDE/TANGENT ERROR:
Tangent error of a gyro compass is one of its limitations and caused by the gyro damping. When a
gyro is damped in tilt, the settling position of the spin axisisdue north only when the gyro is on
equator but shifts and settles away from north as the latitude changes. The magnitude of this error
is a function of the tangent of the latitude of the gyro location and is given by the formula-

Sin DE = K Tan Lat.

Where, DE = Damping error, K = Damping factor, usually 1/40 for Sperry compasses.

Hence, tangent error is also known as settling error, or latitude error, or damping error.

The spin axis settles down at a position where the drifting (Dr) is balanced by control precession
(Pc) and the tilting (Tg) is balanced by damping precession (Pd).

• On equator, the spin axis settles down horizontal and pointing due north (no error)
• In the northern hemisphere, the spin axis settles down with an easterly (low) error and spin
axis tilted upward (+ve). The easterly error keeps increasing with latitude.
• In southerly hemisphere, the spin axis settles down with a westerly (high) error and spin
axis tilted slightly downward (-ve). The westerly error keeps increasing with latitude.
• The magnitude of error does not depend on the hemisphere; it is equal in both hemisphere
but in opposite direction.
STEAMING ERROR:
This is another limitation of the compass. This error is due to earth’s rotation and the
apparent tilting effect it produces, which is responded by the gyro’s gravity control system.
The gyro tries to align itself at right angle to its motion through space.

When the vessel is moving across the earth, the two components of motion experienced by the
gyro are –

1) The earth’s peripheral speed component, which depend on the latitude, and
2) The ship’s speed and direction component.

The spin axis tries (seeks) to align itself at right angle to the resultant motion of the earth and the
ship. If the ship does easterly or westerly course, at whatever speed, the resultant only changes in
magnitude but not in direction and therefore the gyro is not affected.

However, if the ship does northerly or southerly courses, there is maximum deviation of the
resultant and hence the shift of the spin axis from north.
The steaming error thus depends on the speed and course of the ship, as well as the latitude. The
steaming error is therefore also known as Latitude-Speed-Course (LCS) error and is given by the
formula

Where, SE= Steaming Error,

V = ship speed
Co = ship course

Q6. Explain ballistic deflection error and rolling error of a gyroscope.

Answer:
BALLISTIC DEFLECTION
Ballistic Deflection is a precession which results from accelerations imparted to compass by
change in speed and/or course of the vessel.
During the change of course / speed, there will be a rush of mercury from S pots to N pots, or
vice-versa, as governed by Newton’s first law of motion. The imbalance of liquid ballistics causes
a torque and hence precession of the spin axis during alteration.

On settling on new course the mercury regains its natural level, but as long as the acceleration
exists the error also exists. This is known as Ballistic Deflection and depends on free surface of
mercury and the amount of change in the N-S component of vessel’s motion.

The gyro axle traces out a small damped spiral during change of course and/or speed before it
finally settles, meaning that during alterations (and just after) the gyro is unsteady and not
accurate.

Ballistic Deflection error is independent of the latitude.

ROLLING ERROR
When vessel is rolling and the gyroscope is swinging like a pendulum in gimbals, a torque is
produced about the vertical axis tending to turn the plane of the vertical ring into the plane of the
swing. This torque will cause precession in tilt and a subsequent wander of the compass. This is
known as rolling error.
The rolling error is prevented by compensator weights, or by electrical signals and torsion wires.
Liquid ballistics also counters rolling error to some extent.

Q7. Describe the starting procedure of a gyro-compass

Answer:

Starting of a Gyro Compass

 1. Check the gyro heading and compare with magnetic compass after observing compass
error. (If the gyro axis is displaced by more than 200 then allow for about 6 to 7 hours of
settling hours, 0therwise 4/5 hrs. must be allowed for settling time)

2. Disconnect or switch off all gyro repeater switches.

3. Switch on the main switch. Check for oil or liquid lever if window provided.

4. Adjust latitude and speed corrector settings.

5. Switch on the alternator and wait for 10 sec until it gains full speed.

6. Switch ‘ON’ the compass and azimuth motor switch.

7. Compass will trace settling time depending on the displacement of the initial position from
meridian within 200 settling time = 3 hrs, within 10 ½ hr settling time in port settles fasten
than as sea.

8. After heading is steady, switch on the repeater’s switch after aligning the repeater’s switch
after aligning the repeater’s with M. gear.

9. If there is vent fan then check that this cuts in automatically when temperature rises.

10. Check compass error using astronomical body, leading lights, transit bearings etc. and
compare repeater’s magnetic compass.

11. If speed and position (latitude) input direct through GPS and /or log check same working.

12. Check and verify compass error frequently at least once a watch.

Q8. Describe Derive the formula for Latitude error of a gyro-compass damped in tilt.
(for Phase – II only)

Answer:
LATITUDE ERROR:
Tangent error of a gyro compass is one of its limitations and caused by the gyro damping. When a
gyro is damped in tilt, the settling position of the spin axis is due north only when the gyro is on
equator but shifts and settles away from north as the latitude changes. The latitude error is
easterly in northern hemisphere and westerly in southern hemisphere the magnitude of which is a
function of the tangent of the latitude of the gyro location. At the point where the gyro settles
down, the tilt is balanced by damping precession and drifting is balanced by control precession.
That is,

Tilting (Tg) = Damping precession (Pd) and

Drifting (Dr) = Control precession (Pc)

Or, 15º Sin lat. = Pc and, ---------------- (1)

15º Cos lat. Sin Az. = Pd -------------- (2)

Dividing (2) by (1), we have:

15º Cos lat. Sin Az Pd
=
15º Sin lat Pc
Note: Damping precession (Pd) is always a fraction of the control precession (Pc) which establishes the
eccentricity of the elliptical path of the spin axis and is a constant. Therefore eccentricity of the can be
defined as the ratio of the Damping precession (Pd) torque to control precession (Pc) torque.

Pd
Eccentricity = =K
Pc

In Sperry compass, Pd = Pc/40. Hence,

15º Cos lat. Sin Az Pc
=
15º Sin lat 40 Pc
Or,
Sin Az = K Tan Lat

Where, Eccentricity K = 1/40, (in Sperry compass)

11. AUTO PILOT

Q1. Describe the working of the autopilot and its various control units.

Answer:

To achieve heading control by autopilot electronically, the control unit consists of the following:
 Proportional control
 Derivative control
 Integral control

Proportional Control

The effect on steering, when only the proportional control is applied, causes the rudder to move by an
amount proportional to the off-course error from the course to steer.

When the ship goes off-course to port for example, an error occurs between the course to steer setting and
the current heading. This causes a helm, proportional to the deviation and hence error signal, to bring the
ship back to the set course. As the ship starts to return to the set course, the helm is gradually eased and
finally removed when the ship is back on the set course. The rudder will be amidships when the ship
reaches its set course and then the heading overshoots resulting in the vessel to go more to starboard.
Correcting helm is now applied causing the ship to return to port and back to the original course. The vessel
thus keeps on oscillating to port and starboard of the course line.
Derivative Control

In derivative control, the rudder is shifted by an amount proportional to the rate of change of the ship’s
deviation from the course. Any deviation of course to port will cause correcting rudder to be applied to
starboard.

As the rate of change of course decreases, the automatic rudder control decreases and at a point X, the
rudder will return to midships before the vessel reaches its set course. The ship will now make good a
course parallel to the required course.
This control is also responsible for applying counter helm to stabilize the ship on set course.

Integral Control

Certain errors due to the design of the ship (bow going to port due to transverse thrust, shape of the hull,
current draft, etc.) have an impact on the steering capabilities of the ship and have to be corrected for
effective overall steering performance.

In order to achieve this, signals are produced by sensing the heading error over a period of time and
applying an appropriate degree of permanent helm. The rudder used to correct the course will now be about
this permanent helm. That is, the permanent helm will now act as midships.

The output of these three controls is combined and the net resultant thus obtained drives the rudder
maintaining the ship on the set course. This type of auto pilot is referred to as PID auto pilot.

Block diagram of an Autopilot PID system

Q2. Describe the controls on the autopilot panel which may be adjusted for optimum its
performance.

Answer:
There are controls provided in the PID autopilot for the user to set them optimally for the optimum
performance of the radar. Following are the user controls provided in the autopilot system:

 Course selector knob– course to be steered is selected by this knob.

 Permanent helm – Used when the ship is being driven off-course by cross winds. Rudder angle
should be just enough to off-set the drift.

 Speed – Speed input usually given from the log or manually.

Speed of the ship determines the effectiveness of the rudder; lower the speed, less effective the
rudder and vice-versa.

 Rudder control– This control determines the amount of rudder to be used to correct the slightest
amount of deviation from the set course. The higher the setting, the larger the rudder angle used to
correct a course deviation and may result in over correcting. Lesser the setting, lesser the rudder
angle used and longer the time taken by the ship to return to the set course. Hence the setting has to
be optimum so that the ship quickly returns to the set course with minimum overshoot.

 Counter rudder – This control determines the amount of counter action by the rudder to be used to
steady the ship on the set course keeping the overshoot to the minimum. Too low a setting will
allow the ship to overshoot and too high will bring the ship back to set course slowly. Hence
optimum setting is desired.

 Yaw – This setting depends on wind and weather conditions. In bad weather a higher value should
be selected; in calm waters a low value is preferred.

 Rudder limit – This setting specifies the maximum amount of rudder to be used when correcting
the ship’s head or when altering course on autopilot. That is, if a setting of 10° is applied for rudder
limit, when altering course the rudder will move to a maximum of 10°. This limit can be varied
according to the requirements of the navigator.

 Off-course alarm – This alarm is activated when the ship deviates from the set course by more than
the preset value fed into the equipment. This alarm also serves as a warning if the autopilot system
fails and the ship deviates from her set course by more than the preset value. Again, the setting
should be done depending on the weather conditions. Higher in rough seas and lower in calmer
waters.

 Synchronization control – This control temporarily disconnects the gyro repeater from the main
gyro so that the heading of the repeater can be synchronized with the master compass.

 Auto/Follow-up/Non follow-up – This switch allows the navigator to switch between various
steering modes.

 Dimmer – As the name stands used for illuminating the panel according to ones’ requirements
depending on the ambient light.

12. ECDIS

Q1. What are the benefits of electronic charts over paper charts?
Answer:
Electronic chart system includes real time assimilation of electronic data from various devices and
by making comparison between them provides intelligent information to the navigator.

Following may be summed up as the advantages of electronic charts over paper charts.

o Continuous monitoring of the vessel’s position.

o Position fixing at desired intervals without the indulgence of the OOW.
o Charts can be corrected automatically electronically.
o Ease of passage planning, with alarms set for various parameters.
o All required publications are incorporated to facilitate passage planning.
o Passage plan can be monitored more effectively.
o If two position fixing systems are used, the discrepancy in positions (if any) can be
identified by ECDIS.
o Cross track limits and alarms can be set.
o More accurate ETA can be calculated considering the effect of wind, currents and tidal
streams.
o Many more features available to reduce the workload of OOW.

Q2. Make a comparison between vector chart and raster chart.

Answer:

Sl Features Raster Chart Vector Chart

1 TRADITIONAL LOOKS Y N

2 FAST & EASY TO PRODUCE Y N

3 EASILY & WIDELY AVAILABLE Y N

4 UPDATING IN PLACE Y Y

5 INTELLIGENT NAVIGATION N Y

6 MEETS SAFETY STANDARDS Y Y

7 CLUTTER Y N

8 LAYING N Y

9 LESS MEMORY USED N Y

10 QUICK ZOOMING Y Y

11 BUILT-IN PUBLICATIONS N Y

12 TAILORED DISPLAY N Y

13 ZOOMING CLARITY N Y

14 GRAPHIC QUALITY N Y

15 CHART BOUNDARIES Y N

16 CHART DATA TRIGGERING ALARM N Y

17 LOOK AHEAD VIEW N Y

18 TAKING RANGE & BEARING N Y

19 DISPLAY SAFETY DEPTH & CONTOUR N Y

20 DAY/NIGHT VIEW Y Y

Q3. With respect to ECDIS, define the following-

(i) ENC (ii) ECDIS (iii) Display base

Answer:
(I) Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) means the database, standardized as to
content, structure and format, issued for use with ECDIS on the authority of
government authorized hydrographic offices. The ENC contains all the chart
information necessary for safe navigation and may contain supplementary information
in addition to that contained in the paper chart (e.g. sailing directions) which may be
considered necessary for safe navigation. Vector Charts are an example.
(II) Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) means a navigation
information system which with adequate back-up arrangements can be accepted as
complying with the up-to-date chart required by regulation V/20 of the 1974 SOLAS
Convention, by displaying selected information from a system electronic navigational
chart (SENC) with positional information from navigation sensors to assist the mariner
in route planning and route monitoring, and if required display additional navigation-
related information.
(III) Display Base: On ECDIS charts are displayed with certain amount of information.
More information can be added to obtain additional information. Or information can be
removed from the displayed to avoid cluttered information. However, information and
data can be removed only up to a limit such that there is at least information displayed
necessary for safe navigation. Therefore, the minimum information displayed on
ECDIS displayed beyond which no mare information can be removed is called Display
Base.