Principles of

Synchronous
Digital
Hierarchy

RAJESH KUMAR JAIN

Cffij2\ CRC Press

Taylor & Francis Group
Boca Raton London NewYork

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Croup, an informa business
Contents

Preface xix
Author ,
xxiii

1. Introduction ~
1
1.1 You and Me . 1
1.2 "Mr, Watson, Come Here. I Want to See You." 1
1.3 Technology of the Telephone.... 2

1.3.1 Transmitter 3
1.3.2 Receiver 4

1.3.3 Metallic Wires 4

1.4 Telephone Exchanges 6
1.4.1 Manual Exchange 6
1.4.2 Automatic Exchanges 7
1.5 Long-Distance Communication 8
1.6 Need for Multiplexing 9
1.7 Techniques of Multiplexing 9
1.8 Multiplexing Structure of FDM Schemes 11
1.9 Capacities of Various Analog (FDM) Multiplexing Systems 13
1.9.1 Copper Wire Pairs 13
1.9.2 Coaxial Cables 13

1.9.3 Microwave Systems 13

1.10 Digital Multiplexing , ,
14
1.10-1 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy 14

1.10.2 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy 15

1.10.3 Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing 15
1.10.4 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing 16
1.10.5 Optical Transport Network 16
Review Questions 16
CriticalThinking Questions 17
Bibliography 17

2. Advent of Digital Technology 19

2.1 Analog Communication Systems 19
2.2 Problems in Analog Communication Systems 20
2.2.1 Attenuation.... 21
2.2.2 Noise and Interference ; 22
2.2.2.1 Sources of Noise 23
2.2.2.2 Relevance of Type of Noise 24
2.2.3 Distortion 24
2.2.3.1 Amplitude Distortion 25

v
vj Contents

2.2.3.2 Phase Distortion or Delay Distortion... 26

2.2.3.3 Harmonic Distortion .............28
2.2.4 Cross-Talk, Echoes, and Singing 29
2.3 What Is Done about These Problems 30
2.4 Digital Advantage 31
2.5 Digital Signal ••
31
32
2.6 Processing of Digital Signal......
2.7 Channel Capacity in Digital Technology 34
2.8 Advantages of Digital Technology 35
35
2.8.1 Universality of Components and Media
2.8.2 Cheap and Reliable Storage 36
2.8.3 Low Cost of the Equipment 36
2.8.4 Ease of Signaling 36
2.8.5 Use of
Microprocessor 36
2.8.6 Less Precision Required 37
2.9 Disadvantages of Digital Technology 37
Review Questions ....38
Critical
Thinking Questions 39

Bibliography •
39

3. Analog-to-Digital Conversion and TDM Principles....... ...41

3.1 Analog and
Digital Signals 41
3.1.1 Continuous Time Analog Signal 41
3.1.2 Discrete Time Analog Signal 42
3.1.3 Digital Signal 42
3.1.4 Digital Signal Processing. ....44
3.2 Sampling Theorem.. ..
....45
3.3 (Analog) Pulse Modulation 46
3.3.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation 47
3.3.2 Pulse Width Modulation..... 47
3.3.3 Pulse Position Modulation................................... 48
3.4 Digital Pulse Code Modulation .....i 49
3.4.1 Sampling 49
3.4.2 Quantization... : : 50
3.4.3 Quantization Noise 53
3.4.4 Companding 54
3.5 Other Digital Modulations 56
3.5.1 Differential PCM..... ....56
3.5.2 Delta Modulation 57
3.5.3 Adaptive Differential PCM : 57
3.5.4 Adaptive Delta Modulation ....
57
3.6 A/D and D/A Converters 58
3.6.1 A/D Converter 58
3.6.2 D/A Converter 58
3.6.3 Accuracy of A/D and D/A Conversion 60
Contents vii

3.7 Time Division Multiplexing 61

3.7.1 TDM/PCM 63
Review Questions 65
Critical Thinking Questions 67

Bibliography 67

4. Line and 69
Coding Digital Modulation
4.1 Factors Affecting the Choice of Line Code 70
4.1.1 Timing Content 70
4.1.2 DC Wander 73
4.1.3 Bandwidth Requirement i 73
4.1.4 Power Consumption 75
4.1.5 Performance Monitoring Features 76
4.1.6 Error Probability 77
4.1.7 Cost 79
4.2 Types of Line Codes 79
4.2.1 Unipolar (RZ) Code (On-Off) 79
4.2.2 Polar (NRZ) Code 79
4.2.3 Alternate Mark Inversion Code (Bipolar Code) 80
4.2.4 High Density Bipolar-3 Code 81
4.2.5 Coded Mark Inversion Code 82
4.2.6 Manchester Code 83
4.2.7 Multilevel Line Codes 84
4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques 84
4.3.1 Amplitude Modulation (ASK) 85
4.3.1.1 Demodulation of Amplitude-Modulated
Carrier 85
4.3.2 Frequency Shift Keying 86
4.3.2.1 Demodulation of FSK Signals 87
4.3.3 Phase Shift Keying 87
4.3.3.1 Demodulation of PSK 88
4.3.4 Multiple Phase Shift Keying..... 89
4.3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 90
4.3.6 Digital Modulations for Optical Fiber Transmission 91
4.4 Other Means of Improving the Timing Content 92
4.4.1 Using Block Coding 92
4.4.2 Using Scrambler 93
4.4.3 Adding Redundant Bits 98
Review Questions — »»
98
Critical Thinking Questions 100

Bibliography 100

5. Clock 101
5.1 What Is a Clock? 101
5.2 Significance of the Clock ..........
102
viii Contents

5.2.1 Triggering the Events 102

5.2.2 Reception of Digital Bit Stream.....: 103
5.3 Clock Waveform 104
5.4 Types of Clocks 105
5.4.1 Multivibrator Clock 105
5.4.2 Crystal Oscillator Clock 106
5.4.3 Atomic Clocks : 107
5.5 Clock Accuracy Required in Communication Systems 108

Review Questions .-. •

U0
Critical
Thinking Questions HI
Bibliography •
HI

6. Signal Impairments, Error Detection, and Correction 113

6.1 Types of Signal Impairments 114
6.2 Attenuation 114
6.3 Distortion 115
6.4 Intersymbol Interference 116
6.4.1 Effect of Pulse Shape on ISI 117
6.5 Jitter and Wander 120
6.5.1 Control of Jitter and Wander 123
6.5.1.1 Phase-Locked Loop ,
......125
6.5.1.2 Elastic Store .
127
6.6 Eye Diagram 129
6.7 Error Detection 130
6.7.1 Use of Error Detecting Line Codes 131

6.7.2 Inserting Parity Bits 131

6.7.3 Through CRC 133
6.8 Error Correction 134
6.8.1 Repetition of Packets Containing Errored Bits
(Automatic Repeat Request) 134
6.8.2 Forward Error Correction 135
6.9 Link Performance ; 137
6.10 Required Link Performance 141
Review Questions * * 142
Critical Thinking Questions 143
Bibliography 144

7. Synchronization 145
7.1 Synchronization Process ....
—146
7.1.1 Correct Detection of Symbols 147
7.1.1.1 Demodulation 147
7.1.1.2 Filtering 149
7.1.1.3 Amplification 149
7.1.1.4 Equalization and Pulse Shaping .....149
7.1.1.5 Decision Making 150
Contents ix

7.1.2 Timing Recovery and Clock Synchronization.... ....150

7.1.3 Framing ...152
7.1.4 Use of Multiframes 154
7.2 Synchronous Asynchronous Systems
vs. 155
7.2.1 Asynchronous Systems.. 155
7.2.2 Synchronous Systems ,
157
7.3 Synchronous Networks 158
7.4 Plesiochronous Networks 159
7.5 Slips •
161
7.6 Elastic Store and Controlled Slips 162
7.7 LineSynchronization vs. Networks Synchronization 164
7.8 Types of Network Synchronization 165
7.8.1 Master-Slave Synchronization 166
7.8.1.1 Using Primary and Secondary Reference
Clocks 166
7.8.1.2 By Timing Distribution through GPS 166
7.8.2 Mutual Synchronization 166
7.9 Pseudosynchronization.......; 167
7.9.1 Permitted Number of Slips in
Pseudosynchronization Network 168
7.9.2 Slip Rate Calculations 169
7.10 Synchronization Network Engineering (Planning a

Synchronous Network) 170

7.10.1 Network Synchronization Areas 171
7.10.2 Synchronization Chain 171
7.10.3 Master Clock SSUs and SECs 171
7.10.3.1 Master Clock (PRC) 171
7.10.3.2 Synchronization Supply Unit 173
7.10.3.3 SDH Equipment Slave Clocks 175
7.10.4 Typical Synchronous Network 175
7.10.5 Synchronization Principles and Timing Loops 177
7.10.5.1 Timing Loops 178
7.10.6 Synchronization Status Message 179
Review Questions 180
Critical Thinking Questions 183
Bibliography •
183

8. Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy 185

8.1 Pulse Code Modulation 186
8.1.1 Multiplexer 187
8.1.2 PCM/E1/2MB Multiplexing Structure 188
8.1.3 Time Slot 0 .....189
8.1.4 Multiframe.. 190
8.1.4.1 Time Slot 0 Details ,
...190
8.1.5 Time Slot 16 191
X
Contents

8.2 Higher-Order Multiplexing/Hierarchical Multiplexing.- 193

8.2.1 E2 Multiplexing
.
194
8.2.2 El Bit Rate Variation 196
8.2.3 Justification or Bit Stuffing 196
8.2.4 Number of Justification Bits
198
8.2.5 Justification Control.....
199
8.2.6 E2 Frame Structure
201
8.2.6.1 Set I
202
8.2.6.2 Sets Hand IE
203
8.2.6.3 Set IV
204
8.2.7 E2 Bit Rate and Bit Rate
Adaptation of Els 205
8.2.8 Bit Rate Adaptation......;. 207
8.2.9
Positive/Negative Justification.. 207
8.2.10 Variable Bit Rates of E2..
207
8.3 E3 Multiplexing
208
8.3.1 E3 Frame Structure
209
8.3.1.1 Set I .
209
8.3.1.2 Sets H and ffl
..209
8.3.1.3 Set IV
209
8.3.2 Bit Rate Adaptation in E3
211
8.4 E4 Multiplexing 211
8.4.1 E4 Frame Structure
212
8.4.1.1 Set I
212
8.4.1.2 Bit 13
213
8.4.1.3 Bits 14 to 16
213
8.4.1.4 Bits 17 to 488
213
8.4.1.5 Set II to Set V....
213
8.4.1.6 Set VI
214
8.4.2 Bit Rate Adaptation in E4
215
8.5 Higher Bit Rates 217
8.6
Framing Stages, Tributary Data, Overhead, and Payload Bits... 217
8.7 North American PDH
Hierarchy 218
8.8 Types of Line Codes used in PDH 219
8.9 Synchronization in PDH 219
8.9.1 Using Master-Slave Synchronization 221
8.9.2 Using High-Accuracy Clocks ....222
8.9.3 Clock Accuracy and Number of
Slips in PDH Systems.... 223
8.9.4 Current Trends
...224
8.9.5 El Synchronization
through Plesiochronous Network. 225
8.10 Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Multiplexing 226
8.11 Skip Multiplexers 227
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions 228
231
Bibliography..
231
Contents

9. Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy Maintenance Alarms .

233
234
9.1 Types of Alarms •

9.2 Loss of Signal -234

9.3 Loss of Framing 235

9.4 Alarm Indication Signal 237
9.5 Remote Defect Indication 238

9.6 Determination of Fault Location 239

9.7 Alignment
Loss of Multiframe ••
240
9.8 Multiframe Alignment AIS 241

9.9 Multiframe Alignment ••

241

Review Questions \—; 247

Critical 248
Thinking Questions
248
Bibliography • •

10. Synchronous Digital Hierarchy 249

10.1 Evolution of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy 249
252
10.2 Advantages of SDH
10.2.1 Data Rates 252
10.2.2 Direct Drop/Insert of Tributaries 253
10.2.3 Switching/Self-Healing
Automatic Protection 253

10.2.4 Compatibility with the Prevailing Standards 253

10.2.5 Vendor Compatibility 254

10.2.6 Compatibility with Data Communication Protocols 254

10.2.7 Excellent Operations, Administration, and

255
Management
10.3 Price to Be Paid for the Advantages 255
10.3.1 Establishing Timing Distribution throughout the
Network 255

10.3.2 Added Jitter Due to Pointer Adjustment 255

10.3.3 Poorer Framing Efficiency 256

10.3.4 Virus Threat........ 256

256
10.4 Synchronous Transport Module
10.5 Formation of STM-1..... 258
10.5.1 Justification of El Tributaries ..259

10.5.2 Frame Rate of STM-1 259

10.6 Container 262

10.7 264
Mapping... ; •

10.8 Virtual Containers 266

10.8.1 Data Rates 266

10.9 Path and Section.................. 268

10.9.1 Regenerator Section Overhead... 270

10.9.2 Multiplex Section Overhead 270

10.9.3 Section Overhead. 270

10.9.4 Path Overhead 270
xii Contents

10.10 SDH Layers .- .v...:...............271

10.11 Tributary Unit ..-272
10.12 Further Multiplexing 274
10.12.1 Bit Rates ...274
10.12.2 Tributary Unit Groups .....275
10.12.3 KLM Numbering 276
10.12.4 Administrative Unit 277
10.13 Multiplexing of Higher-Order PDH Tributaries .....280
10.13.1 Multiplexing Structure of E4 280
10.13.2 Multiplexing of E2 Rate (8.448 Mbps) 282
10.13.3 Multiplexing Routes 282
10.13.4 Significance of AUG : .
283
10.14 Complete SDH Multiplexing Structure ...283
10.14.1 STM-O 284
10.15 Frame Structure of STM-1 ...286
10.16 Pointer -288
10.16.1 AU Pointer 288
10.16.1.1 Floating Frames 292
10.16.2 TU Pointer.. 295
10.16.2.1 Functioning and Purpose .. ; ..../296
10.16.3 Summary of Pointer Advantages 297
10.16.4 Disadvantages of Pointer.................. 298
10.16.5 AU-4 Pointer Details 299
10.16.5.1 Justifications and Pointer Adjustment 301
10.16.5.2New Data Flag 303
10.16.6 Bit Rate Adjustment Range of Pointer 304
10.16.7 AU-3 Pointer 305
10.16.8 Details of TU Pointer .
306
10.17 Formation of Higher-Order STMs 308
10.17.1 AUG Level Multiplexing 308
10.17.2 STM-1 Level Multiplexing 309
10.18 Frame Structure of Higher-Order STMs 310
Review Questions 311
Critical
Thinking Questions..... 314
Bibliography • 315

11. Operations and Maintenance in SDH 317

11.1 Performance Monitoring 318
11.1.1 Systems Out-of-Service Performance Monitoring 318
11.1.2 In-Qrcuit Performance Monitoring 319
11.1.2.1 Parity Check 321
11.1.2.2 Indications Generated by Parity Bytes 324
11.2 Fault Diagnostics and Restoration .
327
11.2.1 Loss of Signal 327
11.2.2 Loss of Framing 327
Contents xiii

11.2.3 Alarm Indication 328

Signal
11.2.4 Remote Defect Indication 329
11.2.4.1 Higher-Order Path Remote Defect Indication 329
11.2.5 Further Transmission of AIS to AU + TU Levels 330
11.2.6 Multiplex Section Excessive Errors 331
11.2.7 Loss of Pointer (AU-LOP and TU-LOP) ,
332
11.2.8 Higher-Order Path Unequipped and Lower-Order
Path Unequipped 333
11.2.9 Trace Identifier Mismatch 333
11.2.10 Signal Label Mismatch ..334
11.2.11 334
Tributary Unit Loss of Multiframe i

11.3 Summary of SDH Alarms and Indication... 334

11.3.1 SDH Performance Indicators 334
11.3.1.1 Anomaly .
337
11.3.1.2 Defect 337
11.3.1.3 Failure 337

11.4 Performance Monitoring Parameters 337

11.4.1 Error Performance Objectives 339
11.5 Roles of Other Overhead Bytes 340
11.5.1 SOH Bytes 340
11.5.1.1 Bytes El (RSOH) and E2(MSOH) 340
11.5.1.2 Byte Fl (User Channel) (RSOH) 341
11.5.1.3 Bytes Kl and K2 (MSOH). 341
11.5.1.4 Byte SI (Synchronization Status Message
Byte)..... 341
11.5.1.5 A Bytes (RSOH): Media-Dependent Byte ;.342
11.5.1.6 Bytes X (Reserved for National Use) 342

11.5.1.7 Bytes Dl to D12: Data Communication

(DCC) Bytes............. 342

11.5.1.8 Unmarked Bytes i 342

11.6 Overhead Bytes Summary 342
11.6.1 Regenerator Section Overhead 343
11.6.2 Multiplex Section Overhead ..344
11.6.3 Higher-Order Path Overhead 344
11.6.4 Lower-Order Path Overhead.. 346
11.7 Network Management in SDH 346
11.7.1 Network Management System 347
11.7.1.1 Distributed Control..... 347
11.7.1.2 Distributed Authorization 348
Customer-Managed Links
11.7.1.3 349
11.7.2 Complete Telecommunications Network Management ....349
11.7.3 NMS Activities 349
11.7.3.1 Configuration .........350
11.7.3.2 Provisioning....... 351
11.7.3.3 Performance Monitoring 352
&v Contents

11.73.4 Fault Diagnostics and Management Alarms 353

11.7.3.5 Security ; 353
11.7.3.6 Tuning Management 354
11.7.3.7 Maintenance Operations 354
Review Questions 355
Critical Thinking Questions 357
Bibliography...*...... • 358

12. SDH Architecture and Protection Mechanism ~

359
12.1 SDH Network Elements 360
12.1.1 Terminal Multiplexer . .
360
12.1.2 Regenerator 361
12.1.3 Add/Drop Multiplexer.... . 361
12.1.4 Digital Cross Connect 362
12.1.4.1 Higher-Order Cross Connect 362
121.4.2 Lower-Order Cross Connect 362
12.2 SDH Network Topologies .. 363
12.3 Work and Protect Paths 365
12.4 Advantage of a Ring —366-
12.5 Protection Switching Schemes 367
12.5.1 1 + 1 Protection Scheme 367
12.5.2 1:1 Protection Scheme 369
12.5.3 1:N Protection Scheme 369
12.6 Self-Healing Rings : 371
12.7 Types of Automatic Protection Switching 371
12.8 MS Dedicated Ring Protection 372
12.9 MS Shared Ring Protection 373
12.9.1.1 Principles of Working 374
12.9.1.2 Switching Mechanism 377
12.9.2 Commands for Protection Switching 382
12.9.2.1 Commands Activated throughByte Kl 382
12.9.2.2 Commands Activated through K2 Byte .385
12.10 Other Important Features of Protection Switching 386
12.10.1 Switching Time .386
12.10.2 Switching Initiation Time . 387
12.10.3 Operation Mode 387
12.10.4 Switching Protocol 387
12.10.5 Manual Controls , 387
12.10.6 Misconnection.... 388
12.10.7 Squelching 388
12.10.8 Nonpreemptible Unprotected Traffic (NUT) 388
12.10.9 DXC Byte Commands .389
12.11 Subnetwork Connection Protection 389
12.11.1 Principles of Working 390
12.11.2 Switching Mechanism 390
Contents xv

12.11.3 Other Important Features..... 392

12.12 Comparison of Various Protection Schemes 392
12.13 Deployment of Protection in a Network... 393
Review Questions 395
Critical Thinking Questions 397
Bibliography 397

13. Data Over SDH 399

13.1 Problems in Interfacing Data and SDH 401
13.1.1 Difference in the Bit-Stream Structure 401
13.1.2 Difference in
Signaling (Protocol) J. 401
13.1.3 Difference in Throughput Rate 402
13.2 Data as Payload 402
13.3 Concatenation 403
13.4 Contiguous Concatenation 405
13.5 Mapping of ATM Frames 407
13.5.1 ATM Mapping in VC-4. 408
13.5.2 ATM Mapping in VC-2 409
13.6 Mapping of HDLC, PPP, Ethernet, IP, and LAPS 410
13.7 Shortcomings of Data over SDH i.: 411
13.7.1 Requirement of Concatenation Feature 411
13.7.2 Inefficient Capacity Utilization 412
13.7.3 Stuffing Bytes Requirement 412
13.7.4 Handling of Multiple Protocols 412
Review Questions •
412
Critical Thinking Questions 413
Bibliography 414

14. Emerging Systems and the Future of SDH 415

14.1 Case for Ethernet Backbone 416
14.2 SDH's Fight 418
14.3 Next-Generation SDH 418
14.3.1 Virtual Concatenation 419
14.3.1.1 V-CAT Procedure 419
14.3.1.2 Mapping of 10-Mbps Ethernet 420
14.3.1.3 Efficiencies of Other Services 421
14.3.1.4 Resilience through V-CAT 423
14.3.1.5 Payload Identification and Realignment 423
14.3.1.6 Payload Identification and Realignment in
LO-V-CAT 427
14.3.2 Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme 428
14.3.2.1 Improving the Link Reliability (Resilience) 429
14.3.2.2 Automatic Removal of Failed Members 429
14.3.2.3 In-Service Resizing of Bandwidth 430
14.3.2.4 Provisioning of Asymmetric Bandwidth. 431
xvi
Contents

14.3.2.5 Working with Non-LGAS Nodes

431
14.3.2.6 LCAS Operation
(Higher Order) 431
14.3.2.7 Lower-Order LCAS...
, .......433
14.3.3 Generic Framing Procedure 434
14.3.3.1 What Is GFP?
435
14.3.3.2 Advantages of GFP
436
14.3.3.3 GFP Frame Structure
438
14.3.3.4 GFP Mapping
439
14.3.3.5
Frame-Mapped GFP „ 439
14.3.3.6 Transparent
Mapped GFP 440
14.3.3.7 Comparison of GFP(F) and GFP(T) 441
14.4 Resilient Packet Ring
442
14.4.1 Classes of Service in RPR
443
14.4.2 Fairness Control
444
14.4.3 Protection in RPR
444
14.4.4 RPR Management
444
14.5 New-Generation Network Elements
445
14.5.1 Multiservice Provisioning Platform
445
14.5.2 Multiservice Switching Platform
........445
14.5.3 Multiservice Transport Node
445
14.5.4 Wave Length Division
Multiplexing 445
14.5.5 Optical Transport Network 445
14.5.6 Carrier Ethernet
445
14.6 What Is the Future, SDH or Packet Networks?
446
Review Questions
448
Critical Thinking Questions
450
Bibliography
450
15. Transmission Media for
PDH/SDH and OFC
15.1 Types of Media for PDH/SDH Technology 453
Transmission 453
15.1.1 Copper Wire Pair 453
15.1.2 Coaxial Cables
455
15.1.3 Microwave Radios
456
15.1.4 Free
Space Optics (Air Fiber) .457
15.1.5 Optical Fiber Cable
458
15.2 Optical Fiber Communication Technology
459
15.2.1 Principles of OFC
459
15.2.2 Optical Frequency/Wavelength Used 461
15.2.3 Types of Optical Fibers
463
15.2.3.1 Plastic Fiber
463
15.2.3.2 Glass Fibers
464
15.2.3.3 Multimode Fiber,
464
15.2.3.4 Single Mode Fiber
465
15.2.3.5 Dispersion-Shifted Fibers.. 465
15.2.3.6 Step Index Fiber
466
Contents
xvii

15.2.3.7 Graded Index Fibers

466
15.2.4 OFC System Components 467
15.2.4.1 Optical Source.......
467
15.2.4.2 Photo Detector
469
15.3 All Optical Networks ,
471
15.3.1 Optical Amplifiers
471
15.3.2 Wavelength Division
Multiplexing ..472
.15.3.3 Optical Cross Connect 474
15.3.4 Optical Add-Drop
Multiplexer 474
15.4 OFC Link Budget
475
15.4.1 Loss Margin
, 477
15.4.2 Dispersion Limit
477
Review Questions ;
478
Critical Thinking Questions
480
Bibliography 481

16. Introduction to
Optical Transport Networks 483
16.1 OTH Principles 485
16.2 Multiplexing Structure of OTN 485
16.2.1 Optical Payload Unit
487
16.2.2 Optical Data Unit 487
16.2.3 Optical Transport Unit .
487
16.2.4 Optical Channel
487
16.2.5 Optical Channel Carrier
487
16.2.6 Optical Channel
Group 487
16.2.7 Optical
Transport Module 488
16.2.8 Optical
Multiplex Section 488
16.2.9 Optical Transmission
Section 488
16.3
Multiplexing Hierarchy of OTN 488
16.4 OTN Layers
492
16.5 OTN Domain Interfaces
493
16.5.1 Intradomain Interface
493
16.5.2 Interdomain Interface
493
16.6 Advantages of OTN
494
16.6.1 Very High Link Capacity :. 494
16.6.2 Forward Error Corrections
494
16.6.3 Backward
Compatibility with Existing Protocols 494
16.6.4 Improved Efficiency for Data Traffic... 494
16.6.5 Reduced Number of
Regenerators 495
16.6.6 Strong Management and Protection 495
16.6.7 Quick Localization of Faults 495
16.7 Frame Structure of OTN
496
16.7.1 Framing Bytes 497
16.7.2 OTU Overhead
497
16.7.3 ODU Overhead
, 499
xviii Contents

16.7A OPU Overhead . 502

16.8 Forward Error Correction . ..503
16.9 Operations and Maintenance in OTN .506
16.9.1 Forward Defect Indication 506
16.9.2 Open Connections Indication ..506
16.9.3 Locked 506
16.9.4 Payload Missing Indications 506
16.10 Future of OTN 507
Review Questions 508
Critical Thinking Questions 510
Bibliography 510

Index 511