• These are DC circuits having either a

capacitor or an inductor
First order • The circuits involve 1st order differential
circuits equations
• Circuits with both capacitors and inductors
form 2nd order circuits

73
Capacitor discharge in a resistor

• When switch is closed, same

current passes through
• Hence KVL: 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 0
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
• But 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 and 𝑖𝑖 = − since
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
the capacitor is discharging
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
• Hence 𝑣𝑣 − − 𝑅𝑅 = 0 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣 +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =0 or + 𝑣𝑣 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
• The voltage can be solved
analytically by integrating.
• The solution can also be
approximated

74
Example
6

The voltage across a 1-μF capacitor is 10 V 3

for t < 0. At t = 0, a 1-MΩ resistor is

connected across the capacitor terminals. 2

Find the time constant t, the voltage v(t), 1

and its value at t = 5 s. 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

• Time constant, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 1 × 106 × 1 ×

10−6 = 1𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑗𝑗+1 −𝑣𝑣(𝑗𝑗)
To approximate; = lim
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡→0 Δ𝑡𝑡
• From + 𝑣𝑣 = 0 then = −𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) Hence
𝑣𝑣 𝑗𝑗+1 −𝑣𝑣(𝑗𝑗)
= −𝑣𝑣 𝑗𝑗
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Δ𝑡𝑡
• Either integrate or use approximations Becoming 𝑣𝑣 𝑗𝑗 + 1 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑗𝑗 − Δ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑗𝑗

Implementing in excel
75
Capacitor connected to voltage source

• KVL around the loop yields

𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
But 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶 leading to 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1
Hence + 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜

76
Example
14

A 4-μF capacitor with an initial voltage of

v(0) = 2 V is connected to a 12-V battery
through a resistor R = 5 kΩ at t = 0. Find
12

the voltage across and current through

the capacitor for t > 0. 10

8
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1
The response is + 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 which

Voltage
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
can be approximated as; 6

𝑣𝑣(𝑗𝑗 + 1) − 𝑣𝑣(𝑗𝑗) 1 1
= 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 − 𝑣𝑣 j 4
Δ𝑡𝑡 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Δ𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣 𝑗𝑗 + 1 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 − 𝑣𝑣 𝑗𝑗 2

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Implemented in Excel: 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Time (s)

77
Source-Free RL Circuit

• Using KVL, 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 0

𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 (𝑡𝑡)
• But 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 hence 𝐿𝐿 +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 0
• Which can be integrated and
solved

𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗+1 −𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗

• Approximating; = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Δ𝑡𝑡
𝑅𝑅
− 𝑖𝑖
𝐿𝐿
leading to 𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 + 1 = 𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 −
Δ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖(𝑗𝑗)
𝐿𝐿

78
Example
The 12-V battery is disconnected at t = 0. Find the
inductor current and voltage v for all times.

If the switch was closed for a long time, the

inductor current is then constant and its voltage is
zero leading to no current through 10 ohms Discharging inductor
12
resistor; Hence 𝑖𝑖 = = 3 𝐴𝐴 3.5

4 3

After disconnecting, current decreases from 3A

2.5

Current (A)
2

Δ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
Rem. 𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 + 1 = 𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 −
1.5
𝑖𝑖(𝑗𝑗) 1
𝐿𝐿 0.5
In Excel; 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Time (s)

79
DC current in an inductor
• By closing the loop and applying KVL
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑣𝑣0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Hence
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑅𝑅
= 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 − 𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
To approximate the solution:
𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 + 1 − 𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 1 𝑅𝑅
= 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 − 𝑖𝑖
Δ𝑡𝑡 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
1 𝑅𝑅
𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 + 1 = 𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 + Δ𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 − 𝑖𝑖(j)
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
80
Example
If the inductor is initially discharged. Then upon closing the switch;
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑅𝑅
= 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 − 𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
1 𝑅𝑅
𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 + 1 = 𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 + Δ𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 − 𝑖𝑖(j)
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
Estimating in Excel: Charging inductor
3.5

2.5

Current (A)
2

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Time (s) 81
AC Circuit Analysis
• Consider the main circuit elements with voltage-
current relationship as
• Resistor: 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡)
• Capacitor: 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)
• Inductor: 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Most common AC signals is in sinusoidal form e.g.
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 and/or 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

82
Resistors connected to AC
• Consider the circuit
• Voltage across the resistor 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 = 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙)
• Current through the resistor (using Ohms law) is
𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙)
• Plot of current and voltage
• Note: the voltage and current across a resistor
are in phase, that is, they do not have any phase
shift with respect to each other

83
 Capacitor connected to AC sources
• Consider simple circuit with capacitor and voltage source
• Then 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙)
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡)
• Current through the capacitor, 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 = −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• From the rules of trigonometry, cos(𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵) = cos 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝐵𝐵 + sin 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵 Such that
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 − = cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 cos + sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 +𝜙𝜙) sin
2 2 2
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
• Note that cos = 0 and sin = 1 such that
2 2
𝜋𝜋
cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 − = sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 +𝜙𝜙)
2
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣 (𝑡𝑡)
Hence 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶 = −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 = −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 cos � 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
2
� = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 + 2
• Note:
𝜋𝜋
• There is a or 90𝑜𝑜 phase difference between the voltage and current. The current of the
2
capacitor leads its voltage by 90𝑜𝑜
• The amplitude of the capacitor current is 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 times the amplitude of its voltage

84
Example
Capacitor with AC
150 4
The voltage 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 =
100 cos(314𝑡𝑡 + 15𝑜𝑜 ) V is applied
3
100

to a 100 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 capacitor. Find the 2

current.
50
1

𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡)

Current (A)
Voltage (V)
0 0
𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 -1

= 100 -50

-2

× 10−6 (−100 -100

× 314 sin 314𝑡𝑡 + 15𝑜𝑜 )

-3

= 3.14 sin 314𝑡𝑡 + 15𝑜𝑜 -150

Time (s)
-4

= 3.14 cos 314𝑡𝑡 + 15𝑜𝑜 + 90𝑜𝑜 Voltage (V) Current (A)

= 3.14 cos 314𝑡𝑡 + 105𝑜𝑜

Use Excel to Plot 85
 Inductors connected to AC
• For an inductor connected to current source, 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 =
𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙)
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 (𝑡𝑡)
• Therefore 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐿𝐿 = −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• From trigonometric relations
𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
= −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 − = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 +
2 2
• Note
• the current of the inductor lags its voltage by 90𝑜𝑜
• The amplitude of the inductor voltage is 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 times the amplitude of
its current

86
Example
Chart Title
The voltage 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 12 cos(377𝑡𝑡 + 20𝑜𝑜 ) V is
applied to a 20-mH inductor. Find the 15 2
resultant current.
1.5
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)
From 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 , then 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = 10

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1

𝐿𝐿
∫ 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5
1 0.5

Voltage
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙)

Current
𝐿𝐿 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0

𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 𝜋𝜋 -5
-0.5

= sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙) = cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 −

𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2 -10
-1

Hence, in this example, -1.5

𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 -15 -2
12 Time
= cos 377𝑡𝑡 + 20 − 90
377 × 20 × 10−3
= 1.59 cos 377𝑡𝑡 + 20 − 90 Voltage Current

87