Behavioral School

- Developed, in part because of perceived weaknesses in the assumptions of the classical school.
- The classical school emphasized efficiency, process, and principles. Some felt that this emphasis
disregarded important aspects of organizational life, particularly as it related to human behavior.
- Thus the behavioral school focused on trying to understand the factors that affect human
behavior at work.
- It is often called the human relations movement because it addresses the human dimension of
work. Behavioral theorists believed that a better understanding of human behavior at work, such
as motivation, conflict, expectations, group dynamics, improved productivity.

Contributions of Behavioral School

Types of Behavioral Theories

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Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning, or respondent conditioning, is most often associated with Pavlov's dogs, an
experiment named after Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov wanted to test his theory that dogs may
salivate at the sight or smell of food. After his assistant repeatedly brought food to the dogs, Pavlov
noticed they began salivating when hearing his assistant's footsteps. Pavlov then introduced different
foods and non-edible items to test this reaction and measured their saliva response. His study
established salivating was an unconditioned response that automatically occurred in reaction to specific
unconditioned stimuli, such as any object or event related to food.

After noticing the dogs salivated even before he introduced the food, Pavlov believed he might condition
the dogs to salivate if he presented them with a conditioned stimulus, like the sound of a bell. It worked,
and Pavlov's accidental discovery led to classical conditioning theory, which states people and some
animals learn by association. An example in the workplace can be rewarding bonuses for reaching
certain goals or other pre-set expectations.

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning, relies on reinforcement or punishment to increase
or decrease behaviours. Developed by psychologist B. F. Skinner, this learning process suggests people
become conditioned because of their deliberate actions. As a result, Skinner determined they might also
learn to change behaviours based on this same premise.

The timing and frequency of reinforcement are significant factors in this type of learning. For example,
continuous reinforcement ensures someone receives reinforcement each time they act in a certain way.
In contrast, intermittent reinforcement only reinforces behaviours sometimes, but it still encourages
these behaviours because the person knows they can eventually receive reinforcement. Operant
conditioning is further separated into four types of reinforcement, which include:

 Positive reinforcement. This type of reinforcement provides a reward for positive

behaviours. For example, a sales associate receives a bonus for exceeding their sales
goals, which can encourage similar future behaviour, as they might hope to receive
further bonuses.
 Negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement encourages specific behaviours by
eliminating unpleasant consequences. For instance, an employer may require employees
to work weekends if they don't complete weekly goals, which may encourage them to
finish work sooner.
 Punishment reinforcement. Punishment occurs when someone removes something of
value in response to negative behaviour. For example, an employer might reduce an
employee's hours because of consistently poor work, which may motivate them to
improve the quality of their work to increase their pay.
  Extinction raeinforcement. Extinction is a neutral response intended to eliminate a
learned behaviour. For example, an employer may deny overtime pay to discourage
employees who try to work weekends to receive extra pay.

Observational Learning

As the name suggests, this type of learning occurs through observing and imitating
others. When people watch how other individuals behave, they often retain this
information and later repeat similar behaviours. Observational learning, or shaping and
modelling, most often occurs during childhood. This type of learning can be an important
part of socialization when children learn how to behave and react to others. Children
typically learn how to act by watching how their parents or other significant people in their
lives interact with others.

Accredited to psychologist Albert Bandura, observational learning suggests social

imitation typically begins around age two. Bandura showed children are more inclined to
mimic others' behaviour when they see there are no consequences for the action or the
behaviour results in a reward. In contrast, when children see punishment because of
specific behaviour, they are less likely to imitate that behaviour. In the workplace,
observational learning can occur when an employee observes how a manager responds to
certain behaviours of other employees and then makes behaviour-based decisions
because of those positive or negative outcomes.

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 - Human Relations
Human relations theory: a school of organizational thought which focuses
on worker satisfaction, informal workplace organizations, and a means of
influencing employee productivity. Unlike scientism, human relations
theory does not view workers as essentially interchangeable parts.
The human relations theory of organizations has three main components.
First, the theory places an emphasis on the importance of the individual.
A worker is not simply a cog in a machine but an idiosyncratic individual
who responds to his or her environment. Maximizing the productivity of
workers requires taking these individual characteristics into account.
Second, human relations theory takes into account the informal
organizations in the workplace. What is important to a worker – and what
influences her productivity level – may not be the official organizational
chart but her or his associations with other workers

- Main and Aspects features of Human Relations Theory

Hawthorne Studies
In 1927, a group of researchers led by George Elton Mayo and Fritz J. Roethlisberger at
the Harvard Business School were invited to join in the studies at the Hawthorne Works
of Western Electric Company, Chicago. The experiment lasted up to 1932.

Earlier, from 1924 to 1927, the National Research Council made a study in collaboration
with the Western Electric Company to determine the effect of illumination and other
conditions upon workers and their productivity.
Illumination Experiment
This experiment was conducted to establish a relationship between output and
illumination. The output tended to increase every time as the intensity of light was
improved. But the output again showed an upward trend when the illumination was
brought down gradually from the normal level.

Thus, it was found that there is no consistent relationship between the output of workers
and illumination in the factory. There were some other factors which influenced the
productivity of workers when the intensity of light was increased or decreased.

Relay Assembly Room Experiment

In this experiment, a small homogeneous work group of girls was constituted. Several
new elements were introduced in the work atmosphere of this group. These included
shorter working hours, rest pauses, improved physical conditions, friendly and informal
supervision, free social interaction among group members, etc.

Productivity and morale increased considerably during the period of the experiment.
Morale and productivity were maintained even if improvements in working conditions
were withdrawn. The researchers concluded that socio-psychological factors such as the
feeling of being important, recognition, attention, participation, cohesive workgroup, and
non-directive supervision held the key to higher productivity.

Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiment

This experiment was conducted to study a group of workers under conditions which were
as close as possible to normal. This group comprised 14 workers.

The Bank Wiring Experiment led to the following observations:

 Each individual was restricting output.
 The group had its own “unofficial” standards of performance.
 Individual output remained fairly constant over a period of time.
 Departmental records were distorted due to differences between the actual and
reported output or between standard and reported working time.

Mass Interview Programme

The researchers interviewed a large number of workers with regard to their opinions on
work, working conditions and supervision. Initially, a direct approach was used whereby
interviewers asked questions considered important by managers and researchers.

Later, this approach was replaced by an indirect technique where the interviewer simply
listen to what the employees had to say. The findings confirmed the importance of social
factors at work in the total work environment.

- Major criticism on the human relation theory

Lack of Scientific Validity
Lack of Scientific Validity: The human relationists drew conclusions from Hawthorne’s
studies. These conclusions are based on clinical insight rather than on scientific evidence.

Over-Emphasis on Group
Over-emphasis on Group: The human relations approach over-emphasizes the group
and group decision-making.

Over-Stretching of Human Relations

Over-stretching of Human Relations: It is assumed that all organizational problems are
amenable to solutions through human relations.
Limited Focus on Work
Limited Focus on Work: The human relations approach lacks adequate focus on work.

Over-Stress on Socio-Psychological Factors

Over-stress on Socio-psychological Factors: The human relations approach undermines
the role of economic incentives in motivation and gives excessive stress on social and
psychological factors.
Conflict Between Organizational and Individual Goals
The conflict between Organizational and Individual Goals: It views the conflict
between the goal of the organization and those of individuals as destructive.

- Contributions of Human Relation Theory to management

Social System
The organization in general is a social system composed of numerous interacting parts.
The social system defines individual roles and establishes norms that may differ from
those of the formal organization.

Social Environment
The social environment on the job affects the workers and is also affected by them.
Management is not the only variable. Social and psychological factors exercise a great
influence on the behaviour of workers. Therefore, every manager should adopt a sound
human approach to all organizational problems.

Informal Organization
The informal organization does also exist within the framework of formal organization
and it affects and is affected by the formal organization.

Group Dynamics
At the workplace, the workers often do not act or react as individuals but as members of
groups. The group determines the norms of behaviour for the group members and thus
exercises a powerful influence on the attitudes and performance of individual workers.
The management should deal with workers as members of a workgroup rather than as
individuals.

Informal Leader
The informal leader sets and enforces group norms. He helps the workers to function as a
social group and the formal leader is rendered ineffective unless he conforms to the
norms of the group.

Communication
Two-way communication is necessary because it carries necessary information
downward for the proper functioning of the organization and transmits upward the
feelings and sentiments of people who work in the organization. It will help in securing
workers’ cooperation and participation in the decision-making process.
Workers tend to be more productive when they are given the opportunity to express their
feelings, opinions and grievances. This also gives them psychological satisfaction.

Non-Economic Rewards
Money is only one of the motivators, but not the sole motivator of human behaviour. The
social and psychological needs of the workers are very strong. So non-economic rewards
such as praise, status, interpersonal relations, etc. play an important role in motivating
employees. Such rewards must be integrated with the wages and fringe benefits of the
employees.
Conflicts
There may arise conflicts between the organisational goals and group goals. Conflicts
will harm the interest of workers if they are not handled properly. Conflicts can be
resolved through the improvement of human relations in the organisation.

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