Cultural Diversity

Edward Hall

Hall referred to culture as being like an iceberg – with only 10% in view and the rest
hidden. The visible level of resultant behaviour or artefacts and the invisible level of
values.

Geert Hofstede

Hofstede saw different groups (cultures) as having ‘broad tendencies to prefer certain
states of affairs over others ‘ ( Hofstede 1994 p.8)

Values represent the ideas that people have about how things ‘ought to be’. We are
strongly influenced by these ie. as a manager we act in such a way that corresponds
with the way we think a manager ‘ ought to act’.

The observable part of culture has three observable levels :

 Rituals – ways of greeting and paying respect
 Heroes – admired persons who serve as an example for behaviour
 Symbols – words, colour or other artefacts that carry a special meaning

In the 1970s Hofstede’s research examined work-related values of employees in IBM.

This original research divided culture into four dimensions :
 Power distance
 Individualism/collectivism
 Masculinity/femininity
 Uncertainty avoidance

Power distance is – ‘the extent to which the less po werful members of institutions and
organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally ‘ (
Hofstede 1994 p28)

Power distance goes beyond the work place and is often reflected in :
 The hierarchical organisation of companies
 The respect that is expected to be shown by the student towards his/her teacher
 Political forms of decentralisation and centralisation
 Roles of members of the family

Individualism/collectivism is – ‘individualism pertains to societies in which the ties

between individuals are loose; everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and
his/her immediate family. Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which
people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups which
throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning
loyalty’ (Hofstede, 1994 p 51)
Masculinity/femininity – ‘masculinity pertains to societies in which social gender roles
are clearly distinct (i.e. men are supposed to be assertive, tough and focused on
material success whereas women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and
concerned with the quality of life); femininity pertains to societies in which social gender
roles overlap (i.e. both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender and
concerned with the quality of life)’ (Hofstede, 1994 p 82-3)

Uncertainty avoidance – ‘the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened
by uncertain or unkno wn situations’ (Hofstede 1994 p 113)

Hofstede collaborated with Michael Bond in 1991 and introduced a fifth dimension – The
long-term orientation dimension - this is linked to the work of Confucius. Characteristics
associated with this dimension are;

 Persistence
 Ordering relationships by status and observing this order
 Thrift
 A sense of shame

Long-term orientation is characterised by:

 personal steadiness and stability,
 protecting your ‘face’,
 respect for tradition
 reciprocation of greetings, favours and gifts

Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner

Their research which focused on the cultural dimensions of business executives,

classified cultures along a mix of behavioural and value patterns. They identified seven
value orientations, some of which are very similar to those of Hofestede, others are
different in perspective.

These values are:

1. Universalism vs. particularism – a preference for rules rather than trusting
relationships
2. Communitarianism vs individualism – similar to Hofstede’s individualism/
collectivism
3. Neutral vs emotional – the extent to which feelings are openly expressed ( a
behavioural aspect rather than a value)
4. Diffuse versus specific cultures – range of involvement
5. Achievement vs ascription
6. Human-time relationship – how we see the importance of time
7. Human-nature relationship – value orientations

Universalism vs. particularism is probably the most widely known dimension and relates
closely with individualism and collectivism but take a more behavioural stance. E.g. A
universalist might say “you can’t trust him, he would always put his brother before the
organisation” whereas a particularist might say “ how can you trust him, he would even
help his brother”.

Edward Hall – Polychronic and Monocronic cultures compared

Adapted from : Victor 1992 p 234

Monochronic Culture Polychronic Culture

Interpersonal relations Interpersonal relations
are subordinate to
present schedule
Activity co-ordination Schedule co-ordinates
activity; appointment
time is rigid
Task handling One task at a time
Breaks and personal Breaks and personal
time time are sacrosanct
regardless of personal
ties
Temporal structure Time is inflexible; time is
tangible
Work/personal time Work time is clearly
separability separable from personal
time
Organisational Activities are isolated
perception from organisation as a
whole; tasks are
measured by out-put in
time (activity per hour or
minute)
Present schedule is
subordinate to
interpersonal relations
Interpersonal relations
coordinate activity;
appointment time is
flexible
Many tasks are handled
simultaneously
Breaks and personal
time are subordinate to
personalities
Time is flexible; time is
fluid
Work time is not clearly
separable from personal
time
Activities are integrated
into organisation as a
whole ; tasks are
measured as part of
overall organisational
goal

Hall also looked at language – verbal and non-verbal which we will look at
another time.

The above are just some of the theories which explain the phenomenum of ‘culture’.
Should you wish to explore these ideas further, here is some suggested reading:

Hall E.T. (1976) Beyond Culture, Garden City, N.Y.Anchor Press

Trompenaars F and C Hampden-Turner (1997) Riding the Waves of Culture, London,
Nicholas Brearley Publishing
Hofstede, g H (1991) Culture’s Consequences, International differences in Work-
Related Values, Beverly Hills, Sage Publications