Developmental Psychology Childhood Adolescence 9th Edition Shaffer Test Bank

Developmental Psychology Childhood
Adolescence 9th Edition Shaffer Test

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CHAPTER 7—COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: INFORMATION-PROCESSING
PERSPECTIVES
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. The use of the computer as a model for understanding the child’s mind is part of the
a. Vygotskian sociocultural viewpoint.
b. information-processing perspective.
c. Piagetian cognitive theory.
d. executive control process.
ANS: B DIF: easy REF: Introductory Section
MSC: Conceptual
2. The information-processing perspective on cognition asserts that there is a valid analogy between the
mind and the
a. spirit.
b. computer.
c. child’s sociocultural context.
d. schemas adapted by assimilation/accommodation.
ANS: B DIF: easy REF: Introductory Section
MSC: Conceptual
3. SOFTWARE is to HARDWARE as ____ is to ____.

a. EXPLICIT COGNITION :: IMPLICIT COGNITION
b. ACCOMMODATION :: ASSIMILATION
c. STRATEGY :: NERVOUS SYSTEM
d. FREE RECALL :: CUED RECALL
ANS: C DIF: difficult REF: Introductory Section
MSC: Conceptual
4. The brain’s information-processing software does all of these operations EXCEPT ____ the data.
a. registering
b. digitizing
c. retrieving
d. analyzing
ANS: B DIF: moderate REF: Introductory Section
MSC: Factual
5. The information-processing perspective is applied particularly to the child’s ____ development.

a. sociocultural and sociohistorical
b. altruistic and moral
c. emotional
d. cognitive
ANS: D DIF: easy REF: Introductory Section
MSC: Conceptual
259
6. The information-processing perspective’s comparison of the mind and a computer should be regarded
as
a. a conceptual metaphor.
b. realistic for adults but not for children.
c. realistic for children but not for adults.
d. an outdated idea that lacks experimental support.
ANS: A DIF: moderate REF: Introductory Section
MSC: Conceptual
7. According to the information-processing perspective, the child’s mind is like a

a. “ghost” in a biological machine.
b. computer with hardware and software.
c. stolen credit card that is fraudulently used.
d. pack of journalists interviewing a crime suspect.
ANS: B DIF: moderate REF: Introductory Section
MSC: Conceptual
8. In the information-processing perspective, the mind’s hardware is the

a. nervous system, including the brain, neurons, and sensory receptors.
b. skeletal system.
c. vital organs, including the heart, lungs, and stomach.
d. corpus callosum.
ANS: A DIF: moderate REF: Introductory Section
MSC: Factual
9. In the mind, the software is considered to consist of the

a. brain and nervous system.
b. soft tissue surrounding the brain.
c. rules and strategies by which information is stored and analyzed.
d. language-processing centers.
ANS: C DIF: moderate REF: Introductory Section
MSC: Factual
10. Which of the following is NOT among the several types of memory hypothesized by the multistore
model?
a. Sensory store
b. Long-term store
c. Short-term store
d. Multipurpose store
ANS: D DIF: easy REF: The Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
11. In the multistore model of information processing, what is meant by the term “store”?
a. A type of memory
b. A shopping location
c. A meeting place near a school
d. A place where toys may be kept temporarily
ANS: A DIF: easy REF: The Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
260
12. When a child looks at something, the information first is registered in a
a. reticular formation.
b. sensory store.
c. knowledge base.
d. memory span.
ANS: B DIF: easy REF: The Multistore Model
MSC: Factual
13. A visual sensory store is like a(n)

a. jiggling movement of the eye when the person gets dizzy.
b. itchiness felt when an insect crawls on the skin.
c. brief persistence of an image.
d. echo in the ear.
ANS: C DIF: easy REF: The Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
14. Which of these describes the early-to-late flow of fresh information through the multistore model of
memory?
a. Long-term memory :: short-term memory :: sensory store
b. Short-term memory :: sensory store :: long-term memory
c. Sensory store :: long-term memory :: short-term memory
d. Sensory store :: short-term memory :: long-term memory
ANS: D DIF: moderate REF: The Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
15. The information capacity of the ____ is extremely large.

a. sensory store
b. memory span
c. short-term store
d. long-term store
MSC: Factual
16. Decisions about learning/memory strategies are made by ____ in the multistore model.
a. executive functions
b. the environmental input
c. semantic organization
d. the knowledge base
ANS: A DIF: easy REF: The Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
17. Malcolm, age nine, demonstrates ____ by saying, “I’m good at remembering words but bad at
remembering pictures.”
a. cardinality
b. metacognition
c. a mnemonic strategy
d. analogical reasoning
ANS: B DIF: moderate REF: The Multistore Model
MSC: Applied
261
18. According to the information-processing perspective, the child exerts voluntary control most directly
over
a. the sensory store.
b. the short-term store.
c. the environmental input.
d. executive function.
MSC: Conceptual
19. Cognitive “executive control processes” are like having a

a. note pad that never loses information.
b. utilization deficiency that never gets better.
c. little person in your head who decides what to do.
d. tape recorder that repeatedly plays the same old tape.
ANS: C DIF: moderate REF: The Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
20. Ambrose Bierce wrote, “The mind is a mysterious form of matter secreted by the brain; its chief
activity consists of trying to understand its own functions.” For Bierce, the mind’s main activity
represents
a. fuzzy traces.
b. metacognition.
c. relational primacy.
d. a reticular formation.
ANS: B DIF: moderate REF: The Multistore Model
MSC: Applied
21. Metacognition is another term for the brain’s

a. executive function.
b. multistore model of memory.
c. implicit cognitions.
d. infantile amnesias.
ANS: A DIF: moderate REF: The Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
22. A slogan for metacognition would be,

a. “There is more than one way to skin a cat.”
b. “The hand is quicker than the eye.”
c. “Out of sight, out of mind.”
d. “I know how I think.”
ANS: D DIF: moderate REF: The Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
262
23. Sixth-graders talk among themselves about who knows the most about dinosaurs. This discussion
concerns their
a. mnemonics.
b. knowledge base.
c. dinosaur cardinality.
d. span of apprehension.
ANS: B DIF: moderate REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Applied
24. As the child ages, memory span tends to

a. decline greatly.
b. decline slightly.
c. remain quite stable.
d. increase.
ANS: D DIF: easy REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Factual
25. Age-related improvements in ____ are so reliable that this skill is among those that are assessed in
children’s intelligence tests.
a. attention-deficit hyperactivity
b. perception of cardinality
c. memory rehearsal
d. memory span
ANS: D DIF: moderate REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Factual
26. Chi’s study of children’s chess memory showed that recall

a. depends on one’s expertise with the memorized materials.
b. is a general skill that is independent of the items used.
c. depends on the sociohistorical or cultural context in which the child is reared.
d. is enhanced when good performance is reinforced.
ANS: A DIF: moderate REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Factual
27. A slogan based on the results of Chi’s study of memory for chess pieces would be,
a. “Stupid kids should not play chess.”
b. “High self-esteem leads to high performance.”
c. “You recall best what you know best.”
d. “Genius is 1 percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration.”
ANS: C DIF: moderate REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
28. “Domain specificity” of mental performance means that

a. performance is best for areas of one’s expertise.
b. performance increases broadly while the child matures.
c. errors are common among children in everything they do.
d. expertise applies broadly to many types of tasks.
MSC: Conceptual
263
29. What trend is known for children’s speed of mental processing?
a. Maturing children become faster in many skills.
b. Maturing children become faster, but only in their personal areas of special expertise.
c. The speed of processing remains constant in childhood.
d. Individual differences in processing speed are absent.
MSC: Factual
30. Kail and others attribute children’s improved age-related information-processing speeds to
a. an innate gender difference that favors boys over girls.
b. the improved timers that are available today.
c. improved diet and healthcare.
d. biological maturation.
MSC: Conceptual
31. Which maturational change has been identified as the source of age-related improvements in children’s
processing speed?
a. Myelinization of the brain’s associative areas
b. Strengthening of the body’s large muscles
c. Resiliency of the body’s immune system
d. Tendency to eat a well-balanced diet
MSC: Conceptual
32. Mylenization and the elimination of unnecessary neural synapses may explain
a. aging.
b. plasticity.
c. accommodation.
d. improved processing speed.
MSC: Factual
33. Strategies are operations that are

a. reflexes that happen quickly to particular stimuli.
b. deliberately applied to improve performance.
c. unconscious and automatically applied.
d. conscious and automatically applied.
MSC: Conceptual
34. Eyewitness memory is a special type of ____ about a traumatic experience or misdeed.
a. strategic memory
b. infantile amnesia
c. span of apprehension
d. event memory
ANS: D DIF: moderate
REF: Development of Memory: Retaining and Retrieving Information
MSC: Conceptual
264
35. Children learn strategies for math, reading, memory, or problem-solving in various places but
especially at
a. a parent’s lap during preschool age.
b. informal play activities with peers.
c. scouts or other youth activities.
d. school.
MSC: Factual
36. Which of these LEAST requires willful application of a cognitive strategy?

a. Baking a cake by following a cookbook recipe
b. Studying a textbook in preparation for a quiz
c. Recognizing an unusual object by its appearance
d. Looking at a surface while searching for fingerprints
ANS: C DIF: difficult REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Applied
37. The general developmental trend for strategy use is that as children become more mature, they
a. apply strategies in the same ways as when young.
b. use more strategies, more effectively.
c. become increasingly reliant on unconscious habits.
d. suffer from confusion because they must make choices from an expanded range of
possible strategies.
MSC: Factual
38. With regard to the use of mental strategies, ____ deficiency means that the child does not discover a
suitable strategy to accomplish a particular task.
a. relational primacy
b. utilization
c. production
d. mnemonic
MSC: Conceptual
39. Bonzo thinks there is some way to memorize the names of animals seen at the zoo, but he can’t think
of it. Bonzo has a(n) ____ strategy deficiency.
a. production
b. utilization
c. infantile amnesia
d. attention-deficit hyperactivity
MSC: Applied
265
40. Suppose that a child has a production deficiency for learning/memory strategies; what ought to be
done?
a. Counsel the child to adapt to her disability
b. Give encouragement to raise her self-esteem
c. Teach the child an appropriate strategy
d. Redirect the child to other activities
MSC: Applied
41. A ____ deficiency is a spontaneous failure to generate and use learning/memory strategies.
a. rehearsal
b. production
c. metamemory
d. utilization
MSC: Conceptual
42. Regarding learning/memory strategies, PRODUCTION is to UTILIZATION as ____ is to ____.

a. MOVEMENT :: IDEA
b. GENERATE :: APPLY
c. DESTINY :: CHOICE
d. CUED RECALL :: FREE RECALL
ANS: B DIF: difficult REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
43. Tweedledom is six, and when he adds numbers, he uses the “sum” strategy, counting both numbers
aloud. Tweedledee, his older brother, teaches him the “min” strategy, starting at the larger number and
counting up from there. Dom quickly sees that min is better; his failure to use it until shown is a(n)
____ deficiency.
a. metacognitive
b. elaborative
c. production
d. utilization
MSC: Applied
44. Five-year-old Boris tells his teacher, “I can’t figure out how to memorize zoo animals’ names by
myself, but if you teach me how, I'm sure I can do it.” Boris has a ____ deficiency for
learning/memory strategies.
a. metamemory
b. production
c. utilization
d. span of apprehension
ANS: B DIF: easy REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Applied
266
45. Mikhail is six years old, and he plays video games. His older brother taught him how to help a hero
escape if swallowed by a monster. Mikhail knows the strategy but forgets when to apply it. This is a
____ deficiency.
a. rehearsal
b. production
c. utilization
d. selective attention
MSC: Applied
46. Preschoolers are told about Ellie the elephant, who was given an allowance but then forgot how to
spend it. Ellie displayed a (n) ____ deficiency.
a. production
b. utilization
c. autobiographical memory
d. working memory capacity
MSC: Applied
47. Small children are prone to which deficiencies in applying strategies?

a. Deficiencies in neither production nor utilization
b. Deficiencies in production but not in utilization
c. Deficiencies in utilization but not in production
d. Deficiencies in both production and utilization
MSC: Factual
48. In a study by Bjorklund, children were trained to use grouping as a means to improve recall. Although
the fourth-graders in this study were able to learn the grouping strategy, their recall ability did not
improve. This finding is an example of
a. utilization deficiency.
b. production deficiency.
c. encoding.
d. strategy use.
MSC: Conceptual
49. A slogan of Siegler’s adaptive strategy choice model might be,

a. “Never give an inch.”
b. “A stitch in time saves nine.”
c. “There is more than one way to skin a cat.”
d. “Seeking success is better than avoiding failure.”
MSC: Conceptual
267
50. Children may have many strategies available in memory and may select different strategies on various
occasions. This is called the ____ model.
a. reticular formation information
b. cardinality multiple option
c. adaptive strategy choice
d. multistore
MSC: Conceptual
51. In Siegler’s adaptive strategy choice model,

a. the child chooses a strategy from multiple strategies that are available.
b. whatever strategy is best will be selected every time.
c. forgetting can occur from any type of memory system.
d. the maturing child systematically applies more advanced strategies.
MSC: Conceptual
52. According to the adaptive strategy choice model, the level of sophistication of a chosen strategy will
depend on age, experience, and information-processing ability. However, the less sophisticated
fall-back strategies will be chosen when
a. brain damage occurs.
b. new, unfamiliar problems are presented.
c. old, simple problems are presented.
d. never.
MSC: Conceptual
53. Implicit cognition is mental activity that

a. rarely leads to correct solutions.
b. occurs without the child’s awareness.
c. is conscious and deliberately guided.
d. arises out of prehistoric animalistic instincts.
MSC: Conceptual
54. IMPLICIT COGNITION is to EXPLICIT COGNITION as ____ is to ____.

a. HIDDEN :: SEEN
b. SMALL :: LARGE
c. HUNGRY :: SATIATED
d. MARRIAGE :: DIVORCE
ANS: A DIF: difficult REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
268
55. The child is aware of information from
a. implicit or explicit cognition equally and well.
b. implicit or explicit cognition equally and poorly.
c. explicit cognition better than from implicit cognition.
d. implicit cognition better than from explicit cognition.
MSC: Factual
56. A five-year-old child applies her knowledge to create correct sentences, yet she is unaware consciously
what the grammatical rules are. This illustrates
a. explicit cognition.
b. implicit cognition.
c. span of apprehension.
d. a production deficiency.
MSC: Applied
57. Before speaking to her teacher about a sensitive issue, a first-grader thinks about what to say. This is
an example of
a. implicit cognition.
b. explicit cognition.
c. a cardinalized script.
d. a reduced attention span.
MSC: Applied
58. “Don’t think about crocodiles flying!” Having just heard this command, most people start to think
about those crocodiles anyway. This illustrates
a. fantasies about flying.
b. mental uncontrollability.
c. attentional independence.
d. unconscious rebelliousness.
MSC: Applied
59. The slogan, “The mind has a mind of its own,” means that
a. parental influence is a delusional self-deception.
b. thoughts can happen even without the person’s volition.
c. multiple-personality disorder occurs in most humans.
d. some children have been reincarnated from a past life.
MSC: Conceptual
269
60. Research on mental uncontrollability has found that young children tend to overestimate their own
a. production and utilization of mnemonics.
b. knowledge about their implicit cognition.
c. degree of willful control over their own thinking.
d. ability to explain the relational primacy hypothesis.
MSC: Factual
61. Who will most strongly claim that he or she can “think of nothing,” with a totally blank mind?
a. A four-year-old preschooler
b. A 12-year-old seventh-grader
c. A 17-year-old high schooler
d. A 40-year-old adult
MSC: Factual
62. Who will most strongly overestimate his or her own ability to exclude particular thoughts from
conscious awareness?
a. A five-year-old preschooler
b. A 10-year-old fifth-grader
c. A 16-year-old high schooler
d. A 50-year-old adult
MSC: Factual
63. Following a victorious chess game, the winner explained in much detail what his decisions were at
each step of the game. The player showed good ____, which means knowledge about his own thought
processes.
a. gumption
b. metacognition
c. relational primacy
d. analogical reasoning
MSC: Applied
64. A quiz show winner says, “I don’t know how I solved the problem. The solution just popped into mind
without thought!” This winner does badly at
a. free recall.
b. metacognition.
c. reticular formation.
d. analogical reasoning.
MSC: Applied
270
65. While working on a difficult task, a person “thinks out loud” to demonstrate awareness of her own
thought processes, a conscious principle called
a. fuzzy-trace insight.
b. learning to learn.
c. metacognition.
d. cardinality.
MSC: Applied
66. A slogan of implicit cognition would be,

a. “consciousness during sleep.”
b. “action without intelligence.”
c. “thought without awareness.”
d. “travel without motion.”
MSC: Conceptual
67. Patient H.M. had his hippocampus removed and is unable to benefit from learning. Yet, with
movement skills, he begins practice each later day at a higher level than he began the previous day.
H.M. shows
a. implicit memory.
b. analogical reasoning.
c. excellent metacognition.
d. attention-deficit hyperactivity.
MSC: Applied
68. What stimuli were used in Drummey and Newcombe’s study of children’s implicit memory?
a. Lists of common words
b. Fragmented, incomplete line drawings
c. Vacation slide pictures in full color
d. Lists of rare words known to children
MSC: Factual
69. The general pattern of implicit memory results is that

a. practice improvements are equivalent at various ages.
b. practice improvements are stronger with children.
c. practice improvements are stronger with adults.
d. children apply strategies, but adults do not.
MSC: Factual
271
70. When age differences are found on memory tests, they are
a. equivalent on implicit and explicit memory tasks.
b. stronger with implicit than with explicit memory tasks.
c. stronger with explicit than with implicit memory tasks.
d. extreme, with adults scoring high and children scoring low.
MSC: Factual
71. A student tells a classmate, “You didn’t miss much from yesterday’s class. The professor mostly told
about his memory tests with African elephants.” The student recalled the ____ of the previous lecture.
a. span of apprehension
b. fuzzy representation
c. explicit cognition
d. implicit cognition
MSC: Applied
72. GIST is to VERBATIM as ____ is to ____.

a. VAGUE :: CLEAR
b. CULTURE :: SOCIETY
c. REASONING :: INTUITION
d. CUED RECALL :: FREE RECALL
MSC: Conceptual
73. Sally Creamcheese tells her roommate, “The guy I just dated is wonderful. I don’t recall what he said
tonight, but he is so sincere and nice!” Sally’s memory is of the ____ of her impression of her date.
a. reputation
b. verbatim content
c. analogical reasoning
d. gist
MSC: Applied
74. Joe College sat through a lecture with arms folded. He said, “I remember enough. It was on cognition.”
Joe’s memory for the lecture was of its
a. selective attention.
b. emotional undertone.
c. verbatim detail in the professor’s explanations.
d. gist.
MSC: Applied
272
75. Remembering the gist is like
a. noticing the forest landscape instead of separate trees.
b. finding dictionary meanings for common everyday words.
c. spending twice as much money as you earn.
d. perceiving humor in ghoulish topics.
MSC: Conceptual
76. Which statement about fuzzy traces is FALSE?

a. They are general global impressions.
b. They require little effort to recall or to use.
c. They are the opposite of precise verbatim memories.
d. They are highly prone to interference and forgetting.
MSC: Conceptual
77. The effort to encode precise verbatim representations instead of fuzzy gists
a. is strongest in preschoolers.
b. increases with age through adulthood.
c. generally enhances the child’s friendships.
d. is less useful for math subjects than for other topics.
MSC: Factual
78. Research has shown that there is a developmental shift beginning in second grade that favors
a. memories represented as fuzzy gists.
b. cued recall rather than free recall.
c. reliance on implicit cognition skills.
d. memories represented as verbatim precise facts.
MSC: Factual
79. Teachers in second grade or beyond should adjust their teaching in non-math subjects to emphasize
a. memorization of verbatim factual knowledge.
b. broad impressions instead of verbatim facts.
c. fuzzy furry animals instead of hairless species.
d. tactics to reverse the harms of utilization deficiency.
MSC: Applied
80. A slogan of the fuzzy-trace theory of knowledge would be,

a. “Details are divine.”
b. “Know the general idea, not the boring details.”
c. “Imagine yourself in your pet’s body and think what it would be like.”
d. “Liberate the innate knowledge already in the child.”
MSC: Conceptual
273
81. ACTIVATION is to INHIBITION as ____ is to ____.
a. OVUM :: SPERM
b. LOGIC :: INTUITION
c. MOTION :: RESTRAINT
d. REHEARSAL :: ELABORATION
ANS: C DIF: difficult REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
82. Theorists such as Kipp and Bjorklund have claimed that inhibitory processes are needed so that the
child
a. avoids suffering the aftereffects of infantile amnesia.
b. can suppress task-irrelevant distracting thoughts.
c. may balance explicit and implicit cognitions.
d. will remain passively attentive to teaching.
MSC: Conceptual
83. As the child matures, the ability to focus attention selectively on particular activities tends to
a. weaken or diminish.
b. show no systematic age trend.
c. strengthen and improve.
d. interfere with explicit memory, but help other skills.
MSC: Factual
84. It would be expected that children with short attention spans will tend to habituate
a. rarely, if ever.
b. normally, if they are fed a nutritious diet.
c. at the same rate as other children.
d. more quickly than is true for children with normal attention spans.
ANS: D DIF: difficult REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
85. A babysitter will have the easiest time taking care of a child who has a(n) ____ attention span.
a. very brief
b. average duration
c. ADHD
d. long duration
MSC: Applied
86. ____ refers to the duration for which a child can remain continuously focused without distraction.
a. Attention span
b. Reticular formation
c. Mnemonic continuance
d. Span of apprehension
ANS: A DIF: easy REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
274
87. What is “attention span”?
a. The number of items that can be seen simultaneously.
b. The duration for which the child can remain mentally focused on an activity.
c. The number of items that can be considered mentally within the same cognitive category.
d. The number of students who can be distracted by a troublesome peer.
ANS: B DIF: easy REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Conceptual
88. Attention span of older children and teenagers improves because of increased myelinization of the
brain’s
a. thalamus.
b. cerebellum.
c. cerebral cortex.
d. reticular formation.
MSC: Factual
89. Injury to the brain’s ____ would be expected to yield harmful effects on attention span.
a. parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex
b. reticular formation
c. corpus callosum
d. medulla
MSC: Applied
90. When the child’s selective attention is poor, then it may be anticipated that the child
a. can be easily distracted.
b. is above average in intelligence.
c. is a creative thinker, focusing on originality.
d. suffers from persistent teasing by older siblings.
MSC: Conceptual
91. Miller and Weiss’s cross-sectional experiment with children at ages seven, 10, and 13 assessed
selective attention with which methodology?
a. EEG brain wave recordings when various objects were seen
b. Interviews with each child on how closely they attended
c. Parental interviews about the child’s distractibility
d. Asking about unattended details shown in the scenes
MSC: Factual
275
92. Who would be able to complete homework assignments successfully while riding on a noisy school
bus?
a. Seven-year-olds
b. Ten-year-olds
c. Thirteen-year-olds
d. Children of all three age groups would do equally badly
ANS: C DIF: easy REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Applied
93. While trying to think about a tough problem, a child covers her ears while walking past a TV set. She
covers her ears to help with
a. ignoring distractions.
b. delaying the onset of infantile amnesia.
c. expanding the size of chunks in short-term memory.
d. clarifying fuzzy gists.
MSC: Applied
94. Miller and Weiss asked seven-, 10-, and 13-year-olds to remember the locations of animals hidden
behind flaps. Telling the children to pay attention to the animals and to ignore other objects behind
each flap
a. was equally helpful to all three age groups.
b. was helpful only for the youngest group; the 10- and 13-year-olds did well, whether told
what to ignore or not.
c. was not helpful for any of the age groups; even at 13 years of age, children have difficulty
ignoring irrelevant information.
d. was most helpful for the 13-year-olds; younger children tended to have difficulty ignoring
irrelevant information, even when instructed to.
ANS: D DIF: difficult REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Factual
95. Miller and Weiss’s cross-sectional experiment with children of ages seven, 10, and 13 assessed
selective attention. When the oldest children recalled fewer irrelevant details from the scenes, this
result showed that
a. less effort was expended by the oldest group.
b. the younger children were more intelligent.
c. gender mattered, with older girls delaying performance.
d. older children were better able to ignore irrelevant details.
MSC: Factual
96. Miller and Weiss showed that young children first develop attentional skill to apply in tasks of
incidental learning by
a. ignoring irrelevant stimuli.
b. looking at and labeling relevant stimuli.
c. attending selectively to relevant stimuli.
d. rearranging stimuli into memorable sequences.
ANS: B DIF: difficult REF: Development of the Multistore Model
MSC: Factual
276
97. Young children seem to know ____ about attentional processes than(as) their behavior might suggest.
a. less
b. about the same amount
c. more
d. nothing
ANS: C DIF: difficult REF: Development of the Multi-Store Model
MSC: Factual NOT: New
98. Deliberate effort to memorize is most likely to be applied during the encoding of
a. event memories.
b. strategic memories.
c. foreign memories
d. autobiographical memories.
ANS: B DIF: moderate
MSC: Conceptual
99. Harry demonstrates a computer program to his sister, Sally. As Harry shows her how to open the
application and create a file, he relies on his ____ memory.
a. event
b. autobiographical
c. short-term
d. strategic
MSC: Applied
100. STRATEGIC MEMORY is to EVENT MEMORY as ____ is to ____.

a. FAITHFULNESS :: ADULTERY
b. UTILIZATION :: PRODUCTION
c. INTENTIONAL :: INCIDENTAL
d. IMPLICIT COGNITION :: EXPLICIT COGNITION
ANS: C DIF: difficult
MSC: Conceptual
101. EVENT MEMORY is to STRATEGIC MEMORY as ____ is to ____.

a. AUTOMATIC RETRIEVAL :: EFFORTFUL RETRIEVAL
b. MORALITY :: LEGALITY
c. EXPERIENCE :: FACT
d. CAT :: DOG
MSC: Conceptual
277
102. John and Marsha tell their friends about all the great things they did during a recent trip to El Morro
National Monument. They tell about their trip from
a. short-term memory.
b. strategic memory.
c. event memory.
d. autobigraphical memory.
ANS: D DIF: difficult
MSC: Applied NOT: New
103. Police investigators are likely to interrogate a crime witness about her ____ about what happened.
a. rehearsal
b. event memory
c. strategic memory
d. short-term memory
MSC: Applied
104. Children who work to become better memorizers will focus their efforts on their____ memory.
a. infantile amnesia
b. sensory register
c. ADHD-related
d. strategic
MSC: Applied
105. Rehearsal applies most directly to ____ memory.

a. strategic
b. short-term
c. long-term event
d. sensory register
ANS: A DIF: moderate
MSC: Conceptual
106. “Natural” memories, for which strategies are unlikely to be applied, include ____ memories.
a. semantically organized and short-term
b. autobiographical and event
c. short- and long-term
d. encoded and retrieved
MSC: Conceptual
278
107. Lionel tries to recall Darla’s telephone number so he can call her and ask for help with his homework.
In trying to recall the number, Lionel relies on his
a. event memory.
c. autobiographical memory.
d. metamemory.
MSC: Applied
108. Autobiographical memories and event memories are based on ____ because they present information
as storylike narratives.
a. visual imagery
b. attention spans
c. language skills
d. working memory (the short-term store)
ANS: C DIF: moderate
MSC: Conceptual
109. Event memories and autobiographical memories are typically mentally represented as
a. storylike narratives.
b. groups of interconnected emotions.
c. “mental cartoons” of animated visual episodes.
d. visual series, arranged as a storyboard of still shots.
MSC: Conceptual
110. ____ is the earliest type of event memory to become evident during infancy.
a. Applications of strategic memory
b. Silent verbal rehearsal
c. Overt verbal rehearsal
d. Deferred imitation
MSC: Factual
111. At dinner, Bonzo says, “Let me tell you about the two adventures I had on the way to work this
morning.” Bonzo’s storylike narrative illustrates
a. working memory.
c. autobiographical memory.
d. recall from a sensory register.
MSC: Applied
279
112. Free recall refers to recalling
a. imaginary material that has no basis in reality.
b. materials that are devoid of meaningful content.
c. in the absence of useful hints or retrieval cues.
d. storylike narratives from one’s remote childhood past.
MSC: Conceptual
113. Having seen her uncle point a rifle at a target a month earlier, baby Reba holds a long stick and points
it. Reba’s actions illustrate ____ memory.
a. sensory register
b. short-term store, or working
c. deferred imitation, a type of event
d. deliberate memorization with strategic
MSC: Applied
114. Scripts become established as memories for

a. material that is intentionally learned with strategies.
b. important personal events that happened in infancy.
c. what happens in familiar and repeated situations.
d. factual events reported in the news media.
MSC: Conceptual
115. A five-year-old describes going to the dentist as, “You get in the car, drive there, get out, go inside,
wait, get in the dental chair, get teeth fixed, jump from the chair, walk to the car, and go home.” This is
a
a. span of apprehension.
b. metacognition.
c. memory script.
d. rehearsal.
MSC: Applied
116. What kind of information is especially suitable to be organized in memory as scripts?

a. Fleeting sensory experiences
b. Familiar repeated action routines
c. Lists of words being studied with strategies
d. Explorations of new unfamiliar vacation sites
MSC: Conceptual
280
117. Most adults are unable to remember life events that happened before the early age of about ____ years.
a. three
b. four
c. five
d. seven
MSC: Factual
118. Infantile ____ refers to adults’ inability to recall events that happened to them during infancy.
a. retroactive interference
b. metamemory repression
c. amnesia
d. ADHD
MSC: Conceptual
119. Infantile amnesia refers to

a. the infant’s ignorance of memorization strategies.
b. adults’ inability to recall personal events from infancy.
c. repression of memories about abuse suffered in infancy.
d. feeling confused about which memory strategy to apply.
MSC: Conceptual
120. Adults recall much more from preschool ages than from when they were infants because
a. parents take more family photos of preschoolers.
b. as infants, they repressed memories of abusive events.
c. preschoolers build language fluency and a sense of self.
d. infants focus on sensorimotor play rather than on memory.
MSC: Conceptual
121. Children remember details from vacation trips best when those details
a. match the contents of relevant familiar scripts.
b. deviate away from relevant familiar scripts.
c. discourage the child from doing rehearsal.
d. clarify their fuzzy traces.
ANS: B DIF: difficult
MSC: Conceptual
281
122. Froggy, age 10, tells friends about his trip to Paris: “So the French people seated next to us ate their
pie crust first!” Eating the crust first on a pie was memorable to Froggy because
a. it deviates from the American script of eating the pie crust last.
b. French meat pies might contain cooked snails.
c. French pies are cooked more thoroughly than in America.
d. Froggy was inclined to make the story seem exotic.
MSC: Applied
123. The child’s conversations with others after an experience tend to ____ what the child later recalls.
a. reduce or diminish
b. strengthen or expand
c. have little or no impact on
d. introduce utilization deficiencies to
ANS: B DIF: easy
MSC: Factual
124. While developing their autobiographical memory skills, children learn to attend to the ____ of their
personal life experiences.
a. reticular formations
b. who’s, when’s, and where’s
c. adaptive strategy choices
d. production deficiencies and utilization deficiencies
MSC: Factual
125. Parents assist their children to recall events from shared family experiences such as visits to theme
parks. Co-recollection by parents illustrates
a. Freud’s theory of memory repression.
b. Rogoff’s principle of guided participation.
c. Skinner’s behavioral principle of negative reinforcement.
d. Piaget’s principle of egocentric speech.
MSC: Applied
126. Problem-solving strategies show much variety, but they share this feature in common:
a. the necessity of making errors.
b. a goal that is sought.
c. a team of two or more who cooperate to find a solution.
d. enemies or distractors who seek to prevent a solution.
MSC: Conceptual
282
127. The discovery, application, and use of memory strategies tend to
a. decline with advancing age.
b. remain at a stable level from early childhood through adolescence.
c. increase with advancing age.
d. suppress performance because strategies become confused.
ANS: C DIF: easy
MSC: Factual
128. Kamwendo tries to memorize something by silently repeating the item many times in his head.
Kamwendo applies the ____ memory strategy.
a. semantic organization
b. metacognition
c. elaboration
d. rehearsal
MSC: Applied
129. Mr. Phiri watches his students while they memorize 20 items that he placed on a table. He notices that
students are rehearsing small groups of items’ names, not just single items. His class is of
a. older infants in daycare.
b. preschoolers.
c. grade-school children.
d. seventh-graders.
MSC: Applied
130. Memory rehearsal is like

a. continually pumping up a leaking balloon.
b. doing a U-turn to avoid a police roadblock.
c. swallowing various medicines to find one that works.
d. watching TV stock reports all day to decide when to buy.
MSC: Conceptual
131. Mnemonics are

a. free-floating gists that randomly attach to ideas.
b. strategies to improve one’s memory.
c. details of infancy, even of birth, that escaped from the debilitating effects of infantile
amnesia.
d. metacognitive thoughts that are totally self-focused.
MSC: Conceptual
283
132. In contrast with younger children, older children rehearse
a. differently but less efficiently.
b. in the same way, with the same efficiency.
c. in the same way but more efficiently.
d. differently and more efficiently.
MSC: Factual
133. When actors memorize, they add a few lines at a time to the previous lines that they already know.
This resembles the rehearsal technique called
a. scripting.
b. clustering.
c. analogical reasoning.
d. attentional spanification.
ANS: B DIF: difficult
MSC: Applied
134. The ability to apply semantic organization as a memory strategy emerges in children at about the age
of
a. three.
b. six.
c. nine.
d. 12.
MSC: Factual
135. Andrea was playing a party game where a tray of objects is displayed for a minute and then covered
with a cloth while the players write down as many objects as they can remember. Andrea first wrote
down that there was a plum, an apple, and a banana on the tray. The next three items she listed were a
knife, a fork, and a spoon. Finally, she wrote down that there was a crayon, a pencil, and a magic
marker on the tray. She relied on the memory strategy known as
a. elaboration.
b. semantic organization.
c. decomposition.
d. cued recall.
MSC: Applied
284
136. Regrouping items to be memorized into groups according to similarities of meaning is called
a. groupification.
b. script formation.
c. semantic organization.
d. retention assistance training.
MSC: Conceptual
137. Smarty, age 10, is given a list of a dozen words to memorize. He notices that the words are car names,
tree names, and names of states He rearranges the words into those categories and then rehearses.
Smarty applied the memorization strategy called
a. elaboration.
b. semantic organization.
c. cardinality elimination by category.
d. analogical reasoning by relational similarity.
MSC: Applied
138. A child answers a specific question about something she knows. This illustrates the ____ retrieval
process.
a. elaboration
b. transitive-mapping
c. free recall
d. cued recall
MSC: Applied
139. What is “free” about free recall?

a. Freedom to make errors with impunity
b. Remembering general material without specific prompts
c. Freedom to earn cash rewards for good recall performance
d. Being free to think about the accuracy of recall
MSC: Conceptual
140. When preschoolers do memory recall, they perform

a. very badly with either cued recall or free recall.
b. better with free recall than with cued recall.
c. better with cued recall than with free recall.
d. superbly with either cued recall or free recall.
MSC: Factual
285
141. Conversations with preschoolers are more likely to be informative when the child is asked
a. to describe her or his understanding about metamemory.
b. to apply free recall to his or her general knowledge.
c. to apply elaboration to what he or she already knows.
d. about specific information.
MSC: Conceptual
142. The child’s knowledge about her own memory is called

a. metamemory.
b. memorial insight.
c. the knowledge base for memory.
d. discernible resistance to forgetting.
MSC: Conceptual
143. A teacher says, “Your child is strong in the area of metamemory.” The parent has been told that her
child is well developed in the domain of
a. having a slow rate of forgetting.
b. knowledge about her own memory processes.
c. being able to reason with verbal analogies.
d. willingness to attempt difficult memory feats.
MSC: Applied
144. A teenager writes an essay for a high school English course entitled, “What I Know about My Own
Memory.” The essay is about the teen’s
a. decomposition strategies.
b. ontological development.
c. learning to learn.
d. metamemory.
MSC: Applied
145. If a child isn’t sure which memorization strategies she knows, or which ones work best, then her ____
is deficient.
a. analogical reasoning
b. metamemory
c. relational primacy hypothesis
d. decomposition of cardinality
MSC: Conceptual
286
146. As is also true of various other cognitive skills, metamemory awareness ____ during early and middle
childhood.
a. fails to begin to develop
b. declines
c. remains at a stable moderate level
d. improves
ANS: D DIF: easy
MSC: Factual
147. There is ____ correlation between the child’s metamemory awareness and memorization performance.
a. a strongly negative
b. a weakly negative
c. zero
d. a moderately positive
MSC: Factual
148. Good metamemory awareness particularly assists the child in doing well on memory performance
tasks
a. when the child understands reasons why each strategy works.
b. when the child performs competitively with others.
c. when strategies have been learned via rehearsal.
d. regardless of other factors.
MSC: Factual
149. Soupy’s preschool teacher asks if it is harder to recall the names of four cars or the names of six bikes.
Soupy will say that it is easier to recall the names of the
a. cars because there are fewer of them.
b. bikes because he likes bikes more.
c. bikes because he has his own bike.
d. bikes or the cars equally.
MSC: Applied
150. Children who have expertise in particular topics have greater ____ than their peers.
a. resistance against infantile amnesia
b. fuzzy-trace gist clarification
c. span of apprehension
d. knowledge base
ANS: D DIF: easy
MSC: Applied
287
151. Dino, age 10, has read every dinosaur book in all the local libraries, and he has seen every TV show
and movie about dinosaurs. When his class studies dinosaurs, Dino learns the new material faster than
his peers. This illustrates the importance of ____ for memory.
a. free recall
b. knowledge base
c. analogical reasoning
d. memorization strategies
MSC: Applied
152. Being an expert on a particular topic of knowledge

a. provides schemes that speed further learning.
b. diminishes the child’s interest in doing more learning.
c. impedes further learning due to the confusion of old vs. new knowledge.
d. speeds further learning for girls but not for boys.
MSC: Factual
153. For children in ____, memory strategies like rehearsal and organization are especially helpful.
a. literate, low-income, third-world societies
b. illiterate, low-income, third-world societies
c. industrialized Western countries
d. isolated places like lighthouses
MSC: Factual
154. The memorization strategies learned by American children will be LEAST helpful in recalling this
type of material:
a. instructions for a set of related video games.
b. orally transmitted stories.
c. grammatical rules for language.
d. word lists.
MSC: Applied
155. Despite their lack of instruction in memorization strategies, Australian aboriginal children do better
than educated Caucasian children while learning
a. items on shopping lists.
b. names and dates of historical events.
c. locations of objects in a local setting.
d. events that happened during infancy in one’s own life.
MSC: Factual
288
156. Researchers have found that African adolescents display better recall for orally transmitted stories than
do American adolescents. This is an example of
a. the impact of economics on schooling practices.
b. differences in brain function across cultures.
c. biological predispositions for the use of certain strategies.
d. cross-cultural differences in the tools of intellectual adaptation for remembering.
MSC: Conceptual
157. Older children know more than younger children, which expands their ____ to improve their memory.
a. working memory capacity
b. memory strategies
c. knowledge base
d. metamemory
ANS: C DIF: easy
MSC: Conceptual
158. Older children know more about their memory than they did at younger ages, thus expanding their
a. metamemory.
b. knowledge base.
c. memory strategies.
d. working memory capacity.
ANS: A DIF: easy
MSC: Conceptual
159. As compared with young children, older children apply better tactics or ____ to enhance performance.
a. working memory capacity
b. memory strategies
c. a knowledge base
d. metamemory
ANS: B DIF: easy
MSC: Conceptual
160. While they mature, older children process information faster and more efficiently, thus expanding their
a. metamemory.
b. knowledge base.
c. memory strategies.
d. working memory capacity.
MSC: Conceptual
289
161. A slogan of the mental skill called reasoning would be,
a. “Make decisions like a computer would do.”
b. “Wrong answers are completely false.”
c. “Go beyond the information given.”
d. “One false move and you’re out.”
ANS: C DIF: moderate REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills
MSC: Conceptual
162. A slogan of analogical reasoning would be,

a. “Identify a similar relation.”
b. “Which of these statements is false?”
c. “Think of an exception to the general rule.”
d. “It is better to be sometimes right than always wrong.”
ANS: A DIF: moderate REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills
MSC: Conceptual
163. Reasoning with analogies is like

a. scolding yourself for being forgetful.
b. cautiously avoiding mistakes whenever you can.
c. rearranging mental images by their pictorial shapes.
d. noticing resemblances in how ideas connect with others.
ANS: D DIF: difficult REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills
MSC: Conceptual
164. Gifted children ____ at analogical reasoning.

a. do poorly
b. perform at an average level
c. perform impressively well
d. do well
MSC: Factual
165. The relational primacy hypothesis by Goswami asserts that analogical reasoning
a. emerges during early infancy.
b. depends on the application of strategic memory.
c. becomes part of the child’s intellectual repertoire fairly late, at about the age of entering
grade school.
d. is based on the cardinality principle.
ANS: A DIF: difficult REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills
MSC: Conceptual
166. Children do better at tasks of analogical reasoning when

a. the analogies are applied to familiar objects.
b. family pets are observed while reasoning analogically.
c. punishments and rewards are given following wrong and right responses.
d. training begins prenatally.
MSC: Factual
290
167. Piaget theorized that analogical reasoning is a mental skill that is well developed
a. very early, possibly at birth.
b. during the preoperational stage.
c. during the concrete-operational stage.
d. late, during adolescence.
ANS: D DIF: moderate REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skillspage 328
MSC: Conceptual
168. To assess analogical reasoning in infants, Chen and colleagues used this task:
a. tasting similarities in foods that look alike.
b. judging similarities of simple word meanings.
c. using similar movements to retrieve toys.
d. smiling in response to similar musical melodies.
MSC: Factual
169. In the “pull on a toy string” experiment, Chen and colleagues showed that analogical reasoning
a. is difficult for adults as well as for children.
b. is done better by grade-schoolers than by adults.
c. begins to be mastered during adolescence.
d. is within the capabilities of one-year-old babies.
ANS: D DIF: moderate REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills
MSC: Conceptual
170. The analogical reasoning tested by Chen and colleagues in their “pull on a toy string” experiment drew
upon
a. semantic similarity of words.
b. perceptual similarity among objects.
c. auditory similarity among sounds.
d. relational similarity.
ANS: B DIF: moderate REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills
MSC: Factual
171. Using picture series, Goswami and Brown showed that analogical reasoning based on relational
similarity emerges at least by the age of
a. birth.
b. one year.
c. three years.
d. four years.
ANS: D DIF: difficult REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills
MSC: Factual
291
172. Scruffy, age eight, says, “Spanky is smarter than Zowi, and Zowi is smarter than Gummy, so Spanky
is smarter than Gummy.” Scruffy applied a(n)
a. cardinality count.
b. transitive mapping.
c. span of apprehension.
d. elaboration memory strategy.
MSC: Applied
173. The upshot of Goswami’s study of preschoolers and the story of Goldilocks and the three bears was
that
a. transitive mappings cannot be understood at this age.
b. familiarity with the Goldilocks story helped the preschoolers reason with transitive
mappings.
c. preschoolers look for transitive hints from parents.
d. transitive mappings are confused with strategic memory.
MSC: Conceptual
174. When analogical reasoning is shown in infants, then ____ is likely to be its basis.
a. strategic memory
b. implicit knowledge of relations
c. explicit knowledge of relations
d. infantile amnesia
MSC: Conceptual
175. Preschoolers get steadily better by being trained to reason with analogies. Their improvement
demonstrates
a. recall from the short-term store.
b. the relational primacy hypothesis.
c. learning to learn.
d. free recall.
MSC: Conceptual
176. Vinnie, age 10, loves video games. He gets increasingly better at helping the video hero escape from
40 different types of cages. His improvement with practice in similar escape situations illustrates
a. overcoming a production deficiency.
b. multistore modeling.
c. gist clarification.
d. learning to learn by analogy.
MSC: Applied
292
177. Children get better at solving problems when they can generalize a strategy used successfully in other,
similar problems. This is known as
a. metacognitive inspirational insight.
b. learning to learn.
c. strategic application.
d. instructional support.
MSC: Conceptual
178. In the study of preschoolers’ efforts to move gumballs between bowls, Brown and Kane found that
children
a. were incapable of solving the task.
b. were aware of analogical hints but could not apply them.
c. used analogical hints effectively to solve the task.
d. induced the correct strategies from their own efforts.
MSC: Factual
179. Learning to learn speeds performance because the child

a. avoids being hampered by fuzzy traces.
b. perceives analogies among the several problems.
c. avoids thinking about tragic episodes from the past.
d. rehearses to minimize the effects of infantile amnesia.
MSC: Factual
180. Current research indicates that analogical reasoning, in its simplest form, is first used during
a. prenatal development.
b. infancy.
c. the preoperational stage.
d. the concrete-operational stage.
MSC: Factual
181. Arithmetic reasoning deals with understanding about

a. quantities or amounts.
b. temporal progressions.
c. familiarity vs. unfamiliarity.
d. thinking with meaningful categories.
ANS: A DIF: easy REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills
MSC: Conceptual
293
182. Toddlers’ use of terms such as little, small, giant, lots, big, huge, or many suggests that they are ready
developmentally to think about
a. extent.
b. duration.
c. permanence.
d. quantity.
ANS: D DIF: easy REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills
MSC: Applied
183. Accurate counting is commonly achieved by the age of

a. one.
b. two.
c. four.
d. six.
MSC: Factual
184. The cardinality principle of counting states that

a. any objects can be counted.
b. each object must be counted exactly once.
c. the numbers’ names must be recited in correct order.
d. the highest number reached in the count is the total.
MSC: Conceptual
185. When counting, the total is the highest number reached. This is known as the ____ principle.
a. cardinality
b. one-on-one
c. abstraction
d. fixed order
MSC: Conceptual
186. Children master the cardinality counting principle by the age of

a. three months.
b. one year.
c. three years.
d. five years.
MSC: Factual
187. The developmental trend about counting on one’s fingers is that it

a. is used increasingly often through adulthood.
b. continues at a stable level through adulthood.
c. is used less often as mathematical skills are acquired.
d. continues to occur even in the post-mortem body.
MSC: Factual
294
188. Countia, a preschooler, adds the numbers 3 and 2 by stating the first number 3 and then counting up
from 3. Countia applies the ____ method of adding.
a. decomposition
b. sum
c. min
d. finger
MSC: Applied
189. Numbrinia can count big numbers. To add 42 and 21, she takes apart the numbers, adding four tens to
two tens to get six tens, then adding two ones and one to get three ones, and then putting together the
tens and ones to get 63, the total. This is the ____ counting strategy.
a. min
b. fact retrieval
c. decomposition
d. sum
MSC: Applied
190. Paige knows that 5 + 7 = 12 without even thinking about it. Paige is using
a. decomposition strategy.
b. min strategy.
c. sum strategy.
d. fact retrieval.
191. Jaime is adding 10 + 8, and then 8 + 6. It takes her a really long time to do it, and also it takes her
longer to add the former than the latter. This pattern suggests that Jaime is using which strategy?
a. Min
b. Sum
c. Decomposition
d. Fact retrieval
ANS: A DIF: difficult REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills
192. When a child is using a min strategy, the reaction time for addition problems should _____ as the size
of the smaller of two numbers in the arithmetic problem _____.
a. decrease; increases
b. increase; decomposes
c. increase; increases
d. increase; decreases
ANS: C DIF: difficult REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills
295
193. Unschooled children are more likely to solve mathematical problems correctly
a. when they are presented the problem in the abstract.
b. when they are presented the problem in real-life context.
c. when they are in a group.
d. when they are alone.
MSC: Conceptual NOT: New
194. A first-grade child from _____ is LEAST likely to use a fact retrieval strategy.
a. Taiwan
b. Japan
c. China
d. United States
195. The fact that American children must master idiosyncratic number words and this makes it more
difficult for them to develop arithmetic skills illustrates how
a. American culture is substandard for teaching science and math.
b. linguistics affects acquisition of arithmetic skill.
c. arithmetic skill affects linguistics.
d. poorly adapted the Chinese numbering system is.
196. The fact that East Asian children tend to practice math facts more often than American children
illustrates how _____ can impact acquisition of arithmetic skill.
a. linguistic support
b. instructional support
c. physcial support
d. strategic development
ANS: B DIF: easy REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills
197. Which of the following is NOT a strength of the information-processing approach?

a. It detailed processes that Piaget did not identify.
b. It has led to important instructional changes to support learning.
c. It has identified domain-specific academic skills.
d. It provides a coherent, holistic picture of the development of cognition.
ANS: D DIF: moderate REF: Evaluating the Information-Processing Perspective
296
198. Which of the following is NOT a legitimate criticism of the information-processing approach?
a. It has had limited impact on instructional strategies.
b. The mind-computer analogy underestimates the richness of human cognition.
c. It is a fragmented understanding of human cognition.
d. The assumption that working memory is a single, limited capacity store is flawed.
ANS: A DIF: difficult
REF: Evaluation of the Information-Processing Perspective MSC: Conceptual
NOT: New
199. INFORMATION PROCESSING is to PIAGET as _____ is to _____.

a. QUANTITATIVE; QUALITATIVE
b. QUALITATIVE; QUANTITATIVE
c. ACTIVE; PASSIVE
d. PASSIVE; ACTIVE
REF: Applying Developmental Themes to Information-Processing Perspectives
200. Research on metacognition reveals children are

a. active in their development.
b. passive in their development.
c. qualitatively changing in stages.
d. quantitatively changing in stages.
REF: Applying Developmental Themes to Information-Processing Perspectives
SHORT ANSWER
1. Explain what information-processing theorists mean when they refer to the mind’s hardware and
software.
ANS: Answer not provided.
DIF: moderate REF: Introductory Section MSC: Conceptual
2. What type of cognitive theory is the multistore model? Briefly describe this model.
ANS: No answer provided
DIF: easy REF: The Multistore Model MSC: Factual
3. Identify each of the three memory stores in Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model of the human
information-processing system, and note the capacity and duration of each store.
DIF: difficult REF: The Multistore Model MSC: Conceptual
297
4. Explain what is meant by metacognition.
DIF: easy REF: The Multistore Model MSC: Factual
5. List three ways in which fuzzy traces differ from verbatim traces.
DIF: moderate REF: Development of the Multistore Model

MSC: Conceptual
6. Explain what memory span refers to, and provide the typical memory span found in preschool children
and in grade-school children.

MSC: Factual
7. Identify two maturational developments that may partially account for age-related increases in speed
of processing.

MSC: Factual
8. Distinguish between production deficiencies and utilization deficiencies.
DIF: easy REF: Development of the Multistore Model

MSC: Conceptual
9. Describe Siegler’s adaptive strategy choice model.
ANS: Answer not provided
DIF: moderate REF: Development of the Multistores Model

10. Describe what is meant by event memory and strategic memory, and provide an example of each type
of memory.
DIF: easy REF: Development of Memory: Retaining and Retrieving Information

MSC: Conceptual
298
11. Outline how the use of rehearsal changes across childhood.
DIF: moderate REF: Development of Memory: Retaining and Retrieving Information

MSC: Conceptual
12. Outline how metamemory typically changes between the ages of four and 12.

MSC: Conceptual
13. List four general conclusions about the development of strategic memory that are supported by
evidence from a variety of research studies.
DIF: difficult REF: Development of Memory: Retaining and Retrieving Information

MSC: Factual
14. Explain what is meant by infantile amnesia, and discuss contemporary cognitive explanations for this
phenomenon.

MSC: Conceptual
15. Describe what scripted memories are, and discuss how scripts may interfere with memories of novel
events.
DIF: difficult REF: Development of Memory: Retaining and Retrieving Information

MSC: Conceptual
16. Describe the ways that cultures clearly differ in the extent to which they support and encourage
particular memory strategies.
ANS: Answer not provided

MSC: Conceptual
299
17. Describe two implications for effective classroom instruction that are based on information-processing
theories.
DIF: difficult REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills

MSC: Application NOT: New
18. Identify five strategies that children might use to solve addition problems, and illustrate each strategy
using the problem 12 + 8.
DIF: difficult REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills

MSC: Factual
19. Identify two differences between East Asian languages and English that may partially explain
observed differences in mathematical skills.
DIF: moderate REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills

MSC: Conceptual
20. Identify two ways in which information-processing theories of cognitive development differ from
Piaget’s theory.
DIF: difficult REF: Applying Developmental Themes to Information-Processing Perspectives

MSC: Conceptual
300
ESSAY
1. A major part of the information-processing perspective is the multistore model, through which
information flows. Write explanatory notes about these elements of the multistore model: the sensory
store, the short-term store, and the long-term store.
ANS: The multistore model was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968 and has been tweaked in
many of its details since then. The general idea of information flow is that materials pass through a
series of processing stages, and the information is transformed systematically during that passage. In
the “sensory store” (known also as sensory memory), information persists very briefly in a sensory
form. It can be likened to a sensory afterimage. Separate sensory stores are found for each sensory
modality, although vision and hearing have been the focus of most research. Most information is
quickly lost from the rapidly decaying sensory trace. Attention can be applied to select a small amount
for transfer to the “short-term store” (STS or short-term memory). In the STS, coding is mostly
auditory, even if the information arrived through the eyes. Capacity is very small, limited to
five-to-nine items, although chunking can expand the size of each item. Vocal or silent rehearsal can
be applied to sustain information in STS longer than its 15 to 30 seconds of duration. Forgetting
happens from the STS when rehearsal is not done, if other incoming material bumps out the present
contents, or if attention is diverted elsewhere. Material may be transferred to the “long-term store”
(LTS or long-term memory), where it may be held for durations of seconds up to the remainder of the
lifetime. Most coding in long-term memory is based on the meaning of the learned materials.
Subcategories of the LTS include strategic memories, which are willfully learned and willfully
retrieved, and event memories, which are passively learned by experiencing one’s own life. Faculty
should be aware that students will have learned about the multistore model in other courses such as
learning, memory, or cognition, and that the vocabulary learned in those courses may differ from
Shaffer. From other sources, students may have learned that the types of long-term memory are
semantic long-term memory, episodic (autobiographical) long-term memory, procedural long-term
memory, and prospective long-term memory (for one's immediate medium-term future plans). Also, in
courses on memory, some students might mention the Craik and Lockhart “depth of processing” model
as an alternative to the multistore model.
DIF: easy REF: The Multistore Model MSC: Conceptual
301
2. Memory processes are an integral component of the information-processing viewpoint of cognitive
development. One type of memory, recall memory, has been found to improve dramatically with age.
Four explanations have been offered. Name and evaluate each of these explanations.
ANS: An increase in memory capacity is one proposed explanation. Evidence does not support the
hypothesis that there is an increase in actual physical capacity of memory with age, but it does support
the view that children become more efficient information processors with age, leaving more space in
working memory for other cognitive activities--and better allowing for recall memory. Increased use
of memory strategies is another explanation that has been offered for the increased recall memory of
older children. Evidence indicates that older children are more likely to spontaneously use a memory
strategy at the time of storage and at retrieval and are more likely to utilize the most efficient strategy.
Another explanation offered is that older children have greater metamemory. It has been shown that
they are more aware of the limits of their memory and that certain strategies are more helpful than
others. Evidence suggests that while metamemory does improve with age, good metamemory is not
required for good recall, and good metamemory does not guarantee good recall. Metamemory does
confer an advantage to actual recall behavior when the child understands why a particular strategy is
effective and when it will be advantageous to use it. A fourth explanation argues that older children
show better recall than younger ones because they have a broader knowledge base and hence, are
likely to be more familiar with the material to be retained. Evidence also indicates that familiarity and
knowledge about the material to be remembered does improve recall, independent of the age of the
individual. A knowledgeable child will recall more than a less knowledgeable adult about material
related to that knowledge base. Since older children do, in general, know more, they are likely to
exhibit better recall in most content areas. In sum, there is some support for a contribution of all four
factors to the improved recall memory of older children. There is no one “best” explanation.

MSC: Conceptual
3. Pressley and Woloshyn provide a general model for how to teach strategies, which is summarized in
the text. Outline the steps of the strategy, and provide an example of how it could be applied.
ANS: Teach a few strategies at a time, intensively and extensively, as part of the ongoing curriculum;
in the beginning, teach only one at a time, until students are familiar with the “idea” of strategy use.
Model and explain each new strategy. Model again and re-explain strategies in ways that are sensitive
to aspects of strategy use that are not well understood. (Students are constructing their understanding
of the strategy, refining the understanding a little bit at a time.) Explain to students where and when to
use strategies, although students will also discover some such metacognitive information as they use
strategies. Provide plenty of practice, using strategies for as many appropriate tasks as possible. Such
practice increases proficient execution of the strategy, knowledge of how to adapt it, and knowledge of
when to use it.
Encourage students to monitor how they are doing when they are using strategies. Encourage
continued use of and generalization of strategies, for example, by reminding students throughout the
school day about when they could apply strategies they are learning about. Increase students’
motivation to use strategies by heightening their awareness that they are acquiring valuable skills that
are at the heart of competent functioning with learning tasks.
Emphasize reflective processing rather than speedy processing; do all possible to eliminate high
anxiety in students; encourage students to shield themselves from distraction so they can attend to the
academic task.

MSC: Conceptual
302
4. What are “metamemory” and “metacognition,” and what developmental trends are evident with these
mental skills?
ANS: “Metamemory” refers to the person’s awareness of and understanding about his or her own
memory processes. “Metacognition” denotes one’s awareness about one’s own cognitive processes.
Both types of knowledge are poorly developed early in life and become greatly expanded while the
child matures. In infants, they must be inferred directly through the baby’s basic responses such as
orientation and dishabituation to stimuli. It could be argued that infants lack these areas of knowledge
because their notion of self is absent and there is scant evidence of intentionality at this age in the areas
of memory or thought. At the preschool age, children’s metamemory/metacognition is very basic.
Preschoolers realize that some tasks are harder than others, and they may be dimly aware about basic
strategies. Still, they are unsure when strategies should be applied or which are best suited for
particular memory or cognition tasks. The metaskills become greatly advanced in school-age children
because they learn many strategies. Many children overestimate their thinking/cognition skills, which
leads them to underestimate the time and effort that must be allocated to studying or to other mental
tasks. Mere knowledge about mnemonics or other strategies is insufficient to ensure good
performance; it helps if the child is given explanations about why the strategies are effective for
particular tasks. Metamemory and metacognition continue to improve through adolescence and
adulthood, as is commonly true for other skills. These skills respond to continued higher education and
also to advancements in specialized areas of expertise. Paradoxically, some areas of advanced
knowledge become inaccessible to awareness. These are areas for which expertise has greatly speeded
decisions or have automated mental operations that were consciously chosen at lower levels of
expertise. For example, grandmaster chess experts may have trouble introspecting about their choices
because their expertise has rearranged their decision-making into larger units that are difficult to take
apart to describe.
DIF: moderate REF: Development of the Multistore Model | Development of Memory

MSC: Conceptual
5. Discuss the development of problem-solving strategies. What is the adaptive strategy choice model?
What are the implications of the findings regarding strategy choice for the field of education?
ANS: As children grow, they develop a larger repertoire of strategies and are able to learn strategies
that are more complex and sophisticated. According to the strategy choice model, children learn new
strategies slowly, and their development appears to be influenced by the development of the brain and
related cognitive abilities. Thus, while children appear to be able to learn more sophisticated strategies
when they are taught to use them, they tend to rely primarily on those for which they are cognitively
ready. The fact that children’s use of strategies is dictated by their acquired level of cognitive
development would suggest that educators should not expect children to use effectively those
strategies for which they are not cognitively prepared.
DIF: difficult REF: Development of the Multistore Model

MSC: Conceptual
303
6. Suppose you are an elementary school teacher. What developmental trends and individual differences
in attention might be useful for you to know about in making curricular decisions and developing
individual learning plans?
ANS: (a) Younger children are notorious for having a shorter attention span than older children. The
fact that the capacity for sustained attention continues to improve throughout childhood and early
adolescence is one factor that could affect curricular decisions and expectations. These improvements
have been linked to the slow, late myelinization of the reticular formation. (b) Visual scanning
becomes more systematic and exhaustive, meaning that older children are likely to explore all the
input before making a discrimination, to detect subtle differences, and to find missing object skills that
help them in many school tasks. The complexity of material that we present, the subtlety of
distinctions we expect children to detect, the time needed to detect differences, the amount of
information needed to make an identification, and the amount of guidance children require in what to
attend to will vary markedly with the grade level. (c) Children improve with age in their ability to
selectively attend to only the input that is relevant at the moment, making older children much more
efficient information processors. (d) There are also marked individual differences in the deployment of
attention. In the extreme are children diagnosed as having ADHD. These children typically show short
attention spans and have great difficulty in systematic scanning and in selective attention, deficits that
markedly affect their ability to function well in the school environment. They can be helped through
the use of stimulant drugs and behavioral interventions.

MSC: Application
304
7. Your neighbor is about to leave for the toy store to shop for Christmas gifts for her children. You’ve
told her about the information-processing perspective. She says, “Hey, that’s great! In what ways can
the right toys help the kids become good information processors?” Discuss.
ANS: Play is a major activity for grade-school children, especially for preschoolers. Parents can
promote their children’s development through a careful selection of toys. First, the toys should be
age-appropriate; most packaged toys have a recommended age range stated on the packaging. Choose
the right level of toy; if it is recommended for an older age, the child might not understand it or
experience frustration while playing with it. Either outcome could extinguish the child’s interest in the
toy. The parent should not “hurry” the child toward false precocity. Second, the toy should capture the
child’s spontaneous interest and be really fun to use. If it is fun, then the child will use it often and
attentively. If the toy is a boring “educational prop,” then the child will abandon or avoid it. Third,
solitary toys are okay, but if the toy invites social use among friends, it’s even better! Having others
play with it is a way to further the child’s interest in the learning activity. The very best toys will be
those that permit either solitary or social play. The parent should review the information-processing
skills that are common for the child’s age, and choose toys that will maximize those skills. For
preschoolers, counting numbers is a major interest and skill, so an appropriate toy for a preschool
would be one that encourages number counting. Memory toys or memory games are appropriate at
various ages for preschoolers or grade-schoolers. Memory-based toys/games introduce strategies to
children and let them experiment with various options. Many of the simpler board games for children
encourage them to apply memory strategies, and some call for deductive or analogical reasoning.
Language learning, such as vocabulary building, is promoted by word games such as Scrabble; rule
learning, another information-processing skill, is facilitated by games such as Mastermind.
Furthermore, there are computer software versions of many popular games, so children with computers
may prefer those versions instead.
DIF: difficult
REF: Development of the Multistore Model | Development of Memory | Development of Other
Cognitive Skills MSC: Application
305
8. A neighbor tells you, “So you’re the one who’s taking the Child Psychology course, eh? My
preschooler still can’t count, even though I spanked her plenty for being so slow to learn counting.
What should I do to make her start to count?” What practical advice could be offered to the
preschooler’s mother?
ANS: First, the preschooler should NOT be beaten for being slow to start to count. Behavioral
psychologists assert strongly that punishment has many harmful side effects. Being punished could
even extinguish a child’s interest in learning. Teaching counting to the preschooler should be made
into an interesting game to restore her interest in the subject. To get ideas about making it a game,
check TV shows for preschoolers such as Sesame Street. The child could watch the TV show with you;
when it’s over, then the games could begin. Game activities should be kept brief and varied because it
is known that preschoolers have short attention spans. Does the child attend preschool? If so, then
meet with the preschool teacher to learn what counting-related activities are done there. Home
activities could repeat what is done at preschool and add others as well. While doing the practice with
the child, observe carefully the types of errors made by the child while counting, and then adjust the
tutoring to fix those deficiencies. This closely adjusted support was recommended highly by Vygotsky,
who called it parental “scaffolding.” Teach counting skills patiently and in small steps so that no
errors, or very few errors, are made. For preschoolers, counting should begin with concrete (real)
objects. Don’t expect the child to count in her head until object-counting is done well. Have her count
objects while riding in the car. Notice the elements of counting, and help her improve in areas of
weakness: Does she have the numbers memorized accurately in sequence from zero to 10? Does she
count each object exactly once? Does she realize that any objects can be counted, even when they are
from different categories? Does she understand that counting gives the same result when counting left
to right or right to left, etc.? Is cardinality understood, that the total is the last number reached in the
count? Cardinality is the last of the counting principles to be mastered, at about the age of five, so if
the preschooler is not yet at that age, then the parent should be patient with her on that principle.
DIF: easy REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills

MSC: Application
9. Discuss some of the cultural influences on mathematics performance as delineated in the text. Why is
it important to have an understanding of cultural differences in math ability?
ANS: American schoolchildren perform significantly more poorly in mathematics than children from
East Asian cultures, beginning in the first grade, with the magnitude of the cultural difference
increasing with age. In attempting to explain these findings, researchers quickly ruled out the
possibility that East Asian students are inherently smarter than Americans; first-graders in the US,
Taiwan, and Japan perform equally well on standardized intelligence tests (Stevenson et al., 1985). Yet
East Asian first-graders already rely on a more sophisticated mix of basic arithmetic strategies than
American first-graders do, including the relatively sophisticated (for first-graders) decomposition and
fact-retrieval strategies. And other research reveals that the math-strategy advantage that East Asian
children display is already apparent during the preschool period (Geary et al., 1993).
Basic differences in how the Chinese (and Japanese and Korean) versus the English language
represents numbers seems to contribute to some of the early differences in arithmetic proficiency.
Recall from Chapter 7 that the number words in Chinese for 11, 12, and 13 are translated as “ten-one,”
“ten-two,” and “ten-three,” which helps children learn to count sooner than American children, who
must use the more idiosyncratic number words of “11,” “12,” and “13.” The Chinese number-naming
system also helps children to understand that the one in 13 has a place value of 10 (rather than one).
By contrast, English words for two-digit numbers in the teens are irregular and do not convey the idea
of tens and ones.
306
Several East Asian instructional practices support the rapid learning of math facts and computational
procedures involved in multidigit addition and subtraction. East Asian students practice computational
procedures more than American students do, and practice of this sort fosters the retrieval of math facts
from memory. The type of instruction provided also seems to matter. For example, Asian teachers
instructing students how to carry a sum from one column of a multidigit number to the next will say to
“bring up” the sum instead of “carrying” it. The term bring up (rather than carry) may help children
learning multidigit addition to remember that each digit to the left in a multidigit number is a base-10
increment of the cardinal value of that digit.
Differences in mathematical competencies between East Asian and American students seem to be a
relatively recent phenomenon that undoubtedly reflects broader cultural differences in educational
philosophies and supports for education and the differences in linguistic and instructional supports for
mathematics learning that we have discussed here.
DIF: moderate REF: Development of Other Cognitive Skills

MSC: Conceptual
10. A student complains, “I hate the information-processing perspective with its computer analogy. It
make me feel that the person is nothing more than a ghost in a biological machine.” What are the pros
and cons of this criticism?
ANS: The term “ghost in a biological machine” originated with John Watson, founder of the
behaviorist perspective. He objected to the structuralist perspective that dominated psychology a
century ago and focused on subjective conscious experience. For Watson, the structuralists’ mentalism
was unscientific because it was observable only to the thinker herself. The student’s complaint reflects
a humanistic concern that mechanical analogies reduce and dehumanize the richness and creativity of
each person. Humanists take a holistic view of psychology, arguing that limiting our consideration to a
single aspect of behavior or mental life makes us lose sight of the person’s integrated wholeness of our
experiences. This viewpoint is commonly held by humanists and others outside of psychology, who
object against mechanistic or analytical approaches in scientific psychology. In their own defense,
information-processing (IP) theorists would argue that the computer analogy is merely a metaphor that
helps us understand how the child thinks and makes decisions. None would argue that the mind is
controlled by a computer; yet, the metaphor helps us understand the nature of particular subprocesses
that guide thought and action. The holistic approach limits psychology to the study of vague
generalities, while the IP perspective allows precise scientific knowledge to be gained about fleeting
mental experiences. Further, the indirect test methods pioneered by IP researchers enables the mental
processes of infants to be studied and understood, even though the baby is totally unable to describe
for others the contents of its thoughts.
DIF: difficult REF: Introductory Section | Evaluating the Information-Processing Perspective

MSC: Conceptual
307

Developmental Psychology Childhood Adolescence 9th Edition Shaffer Test Bank

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Developmental Psychology Childhood Adolescence 9th Edition Shaffer Test Bank

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Developmental Psychology Childhood

Adolescence 9th Edition Shaffer Test

3. SOFTWARE is to HARDWARE as ____ is to ____.

5. The information-processing perspective is applied particularly to the child’s ____ development.

7. According to the information-processing perspective, the child’s mind is like a

8. In the information-processing perspective, the mind’s hardware is the

9. In the mind, the software is considered to consist of the

13. A visual sensory store is like a(n)

15. The information capacity of the ____ is extremely large.

19. Cognitive “executive control processes” are like having a

21. Metacognition is another term for the brain’s

22. A slogan for metacognition would be,

24. As the child ages, memory span tends to

26. Chi’s study of children’s chess memory showed that recall

28. “Domain specificity” of mental performance means that

33. Strategies are operations that are

36. Which of these LEAST requires willful application of a cognitive strategy?

42. Regarding learning/memory strategies, PRODUCTION is to UTILIZATION as ____ is to ____.

47. Small children are prone to which deficiencies in applying strategies?

49. A slogan of Siegler’s adaptive strategy choice model might be,

51. In Siegler’s adaptive strategy choice model,

53. Implicit cognition is mental activity that

54. IMPLICIT COGNITION is to EXPLICIT COGNITION as ____ is to ____.

66. A slogan of implicit cognition would be,

69. The general pattern of implicit memory results is that

72. GIST is to VERBATIM as ____ is to ____.

76. Which statement about fuzzy traces is FALSE?

80. A slogan of the fuzzy-trace theory of knowledge would be,

100. STRATEGIC MEMORY is to EVENT MEMORY as ____ is to ____.

101. EVENT MEMORY is to STRATEGIC MEMORY as ____ is to ____.

105. Rehearsal applies most directly to ____ memory.

114. Scripts become established as memories for

116. What kind of information is especially suitable to be organized in memory as scripts?

119. Infantile amnesia refers to

130. Memory rehearsal is like

131. Mnemonics are

139. What is “free” about free recall?

140. When preschoolers do memory recall, they perform

142. The child’s knowledge about her own memory is called

152. Being an expert on a particular topic of knowledge

162. A slogan of analogical reasoning would be,

163. Reasoning with analogies is like

164. Gifted children ____ at analogical reasoning.

166. Children do better at tasks of analogical reasoning when

179. Learning to learn speeds performance because the child

181. Arithmetic reasoning deals with understanding about

183. Accurate counting is commonly achieved by the age of

184. The cardinality principle of counting states that

186. Children master the cardinality counting principle by the age of

187. The developmental trend about counting on one’s fingers is that it

197. Which of the following is NOT a strength of the information-processing approach?

199. INFORMATION PROCESSING is to PIAGET as _____ is to _____.

200. Research on metacognition reveals children are

ANS: Answer not provided.

DIF: moderate REF: Introductory Section MSC: Conceptual

ANS: No answer provided

DIF: easy REF: The Multistore Model MSC: Factual

ANS: Answer not provided.

DIF: difficult REF: The Multistore Model MSC: Conceptual

ANS: Answer not provided.

DIF: easy REF: The Multistore Model MSC: Factual

ANS: Answer not provided.

DIF: moderate REF: Development of the Multistore Model

ANS: Answer not provided.

3. SOFTWARE is to HARDWARE as is to .

42. Regarding learning/memory strategies, PRODUCTION is to UTILIZATION as is to .

54. IMPLICIT COGNITION is to EXPLICIT COGNITION as is to .

72. GIST is to VERBATIM as is to .

100. STRATEGIC MEMORY is to EVENT MEMORY as is to .

101. EVENT MEMORY is to STRATEGIC MEMORY as is to .

199. INFORMATION PROCESSING is to PIAGET as _ is to _.