Development Across The Life Span 8th Edition Feldman Solutions Manual

Development Across the Life Span 8th
Edition Feldman Solutions Manual

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Chapter 7
PHYSICAL AND
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT IN THE
PRESCHOOL YEARS
CONTENTS
Chapter-at-a-Glance 125
Learning Objectives 126
Chapter Outline 127
Lecture Launchers 134
A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words 134

Understanding Bilingual/Bicultural Young Children 134
Homeless Families and Children 134
How Kids Learn 135
Left-Handedness 135
Student Activities 137
Supplemental Reading 140
Multimedia Ideas 141
Handouts 142
124
Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE
Chapter Outline Instructor’s Resources Professor Notes

Physical Growth Learning Objectives 7.1, 7.2, 7.3
The Growing Body Lecture Launchers 7.3, 7.5
The Growing Brain Student Activities 7.1, 7.4, 7.10
Motor Development
Intellectual Development Learning Objectives 7.4, 7.5

Piaget’s Stage of Preoperational Lecture Launcher 7.4
Thinking Student Activities 7.2, 7.6, 7.8,
Information Processing 7.9
Approaches to Cognitive MyDevelopmentLab Video:
Development Conservation
Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive MyDevelopmentLab Video:
Development: Taking Culture Egocentrism
into Account
The Growth of Language and Learning Objectives 7.6, 7.7, 7.8,

Learning 7.9
Language Development Lecture Launchers 7.1, 7.2
Learning from the Media: Student Activities 7.3, 7.5, 7.7
Television and the Internet MyDevelopmentLab Video:
Early Childhood Education: Scaffolding
Taking the “Pre” Out of the
Preschool Period
< Return to Contents
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO 7.1: Describe a child’s bodily growth and overall health risks during the preschool years.
LO 7.2: Summarize how preschool children’s brains develop.
LO 7.3: Explain how preschool children’s motor skills develop.
LO 7.4: Summarize how Piaget explains cognitive development during the preschool years.
LO 7.5: Summarize the information-processing approaches to cognitive development in the preschool
years.
LO 7.6: Describe Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development in the preschool years.
LO 7.7: Explain how children’s language develops in the preschool years.
LO 7.8: Summarize the effects television and other media have on preschoolers.
LO 7.9: Distinguish the typical educational programs available to children in the preschool years.
126
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Prologue: The Field Trip
II. Physical Growth

Learning Objectives 7.1, 7.2, 7.3
Lecture Launchers 7.3, 7.5
Student Activities 7.1, 7.4, 7.10
A. The Growing Body
1. Children grow steadily during the preschool period.
2. The average 6-year-old child weighs 46 pounds and is 46 inches tall.
3. There are significant individual differences in height and weight.
a) Ten percent of 6-year olds weigh 55 pounds or more, 10% weigh 36 pounds or less.
b) By the age of 6, boys are taller and heavier, on average, than girls.
c) There are profound differences in height and weight between children in economically
developed countries and those in developing countries.
d) Differences in height and weight also reflect economic factors within the U.S.
4. Changes in body shape and structure occur during the preschool years.
a) Boys and girls become less chubby and roundish and more slender.
b) Arms and legs lengthen.
c) Body proportions are more similar to those of adults.
d) Children grow stronger as muscle size increases and bones become sturdier.
e) The sense organs continue to develop.
5. Nutritional needs change during the preschool years.
a) The growth rate slows during this age, thus preschoolers need less food to maintain their
growth.
b) Encouraging children to eat more than they want to may lead to increased food intake.
(1) This may lead to OBESITY, defined as a body weight more than 20% higher than the
average weight for a person of a given age and height.
(2) Obesity among older preschoolers has increased significantly over the last 20 years.
(3) Obesity is brought about by both biological (genetics, responsiveness to sweets) and
social factors (parental encouragement).
c) Children tend to be quite adept at maintaining an appropriate intake of food.
d) The best strategy is to ensure that a variety of foods low in fat and high in nutritional content
are available.
e) Children should be given the opportunity to develop their own natural preferences for foods.
6. The majority of children in the United States are reasonably healthy.
a) For the average American child, the common cold is the most frequent and most severe
illness.
b) An increasing number of children are being treated with drugs for emotional disorders.
(1) The use of antidepressants and stimulants has doubled and sometimes tripled between
1991 and 1995.
7. The danger of injuries during the preschool years is in part a result of children’s high levels of
physical activity.
a) Some children are more apt to take risks than others.
b) Economic and ethnic differences exist in injury rates.
8. Some 14 million children are at risk for lead poisoning.
a) The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has called lead poisoning the most
hazardous health risk to children under the age of 6.
b) Even tiny amounts of lead can permanently harm children.
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(1) Lower intelligence
(2) Problems in verbal and auditory processing
(3) Hyperactivity and distractibility
(4) Higher levels of antisocial behavior, including aggression and delinquency
(5) Illness and death
c) Poor children are particularly susceptible.
d) Parent education and legislation are among the efforts to reduce lead poisoning.
B. The Growing Brain
1. The brain grows at a faster rate than any other part of the body.
2. By age 5, children’s brains weigh 90% of the average adult brain weight.
3. Brain growth is so rapid because of the increase in the number of interconnections among cells,
and the increase in myelin (the protective insulation that surrounds parts of neurons).
4. The corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain,
becomes considerably thicker, developing as many as 800 million individual fibers that help
coordinate brain functioning between the two hemispheres.
5. Brain Lateralization
a) LATERALIZATION, the process where certain functions are located more in one
hemisphere of the brain than the other, becomes more pronounced in early childhood.
b) The left hemisphere focuses on verbal competence (speaking, reading, thinking, reasoning),
and processes information more sequentially.
c) The right hemisphere concentrates on nonverbal areas (spatial relations, recognition of
patterns and drawings, music, emotional expression) and processes information more
globally.
d) The two hemispheres of the brain act in tandem.
e) Individual differences exist in lateralization—10 percent of left-handed and ambidextrous
people have language centered in the right hemisphere, with no specific language center.
f) There are many individual differences in the nature of lateralization, and in relation to gender
and culture.
(1) Males show greater lateralization of language in the left hemisphere, whereas for
females, language is more evenly divided between the two hemispheres. (This may
account for why female language development proceeds at a more rapid rate during early
childhood.)
(2) The differences in lateralization between males and females may be attributed to both
genetic (corpus callosum differences) and environmental factors (girls typically receive
greater verbal encouragement).
g) Baron-Cohen’s theory suggests that the differences between male and female brains may
explain autism (primarily male).
(1) Theory posits an extreme male brain.
6. The Links Between Brain Growth and Cognitive Development
a) There are periods during childhood when the brain shows unusual growth spurts, and these
are linked to cognitive abilities.
b) Other research suggests that increased myelination may be related to preschoolers’ growing
cognitive abilities, for example, increased attention spans and memory (hippocampus).
C. Motor Development
1. Both gross and fine motor skills become increasingly fine-tuned during this age.
a) These skills may be related to increased myelination.
b) Also, children spend a lot of time developing them—preschoolers’ level of activity is
extraordinarily high.
2. Girls and boys differ in certain aspects of motor development.
a) Boys, because of increased muscle strength, tend to be somewhat stronger and have an
overall greater activity level than girls.
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b) Girls tend to surpass boys in tasks of dexterity or those involving the coordination of limbs.
3. Fine motor skills (cutting with scissors, tying one’s shoes, playing the piano, printing) are
progressively developing, too.
4. Another aspect of muscular skills is bowel and bladder control.
a) There is disagreement among professionals as to the correct approach to take to toilet
training.
b) The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends beginning when signs of readiness occur,
such as staying dry for at least two hours during the day or being dry following a nap. These
are indications from the child that they are aware when urination or a bowel movement is
about to occur and that they have the ability to follow simple directions.
c) Even after children are toilet trained during the day, it may take months or even years to
achieve night control.
d) Complete toilet training usually occurs as children mature and attain greater muscle control.
5. Most preschool children show a clear preference for the use of one hand over another—the
development of HANDEDNESS. Ninety percent are right-handed, and more boys than girls are
left-handed.
a) There is no scientific basis for myths that suggest there is something wrong with being left-
handed; in fact, some evidence exists that left-handedness may be associated with certain
advantages such as SAT scores and art.
III. Intellectual Development

Learning Objectives 7.4, 7.5
Lecture Launcher 7.4
Student Activities 7.2, 7.6, 7.8, 7.9
MyDevelopmentLab Video: Conservation
MyDevelopmentLab Video: Egocentrism
A. Piaget’s Stage of Preoperational Thinking
1. Piaget saw the preschool years as a time of both stability and great change.
2. Preschoolers are in the PREOPERATIONAL STAGE, from age 2 to 7, characterized by
symbolic thinking.
a) Mental reasoning and the use of concepts increases, but children are not capable of
OPERATIONS, organized, formal, logical mental processes.
3. A key aspect of preoperational thought is symbolic function, the ability to use symbols, words, or
an object to represent something that is not physically present.
a) Symbolic function is directly related to language acquisition.
(1) Language allows preschoolers to represent actions symbolically.
(2) Language allows children to think beyond the present to the future.
(3) Language can be used to consider several possibilities at the same time.
b) Addressing the question if thought determines language or if language determines thought,
Piaget argued that language grows out of cognitive advances.
4. CENTRATION—the process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus and ignoring
other aspects—is a major characteristic of preoperational thought, and the major limitation of
this period because it leads to inaccuracy of thought.
5. CONSERVATION is the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical
appearance of objects.
a) Preschool children do not yet understand this principle.
b) They cannot focus on the relevant features of a situation or follow the sequence of
transformations that accompanies the change in appearance of a situation.
6. Children in the preoperational period are unable to understand the notion of
TRANSFORMATION, the process in which one state is changed into another.
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7. EGOCENTRIC THOUGHT, thinking that does not take into account the viewpoint of others,
takes two forms.
a) Lack of awareness that others see things from different physical perspectives
b) Failure to realize that others may hold thoughts, feelings, and points-of-view different from
one’s own.
c) Egocentrism is at the root of many preschool behaviors, for example, talking to oneself and
hiding games.
8. A number of advances in thought occur in the preoperational stage.
a) INTUITIVE THOUGHT—the use of primitive reasoning and avid acquisition of
knowledge about the world.
b) Children begin to understand functionality—the concept that actions, events, and outcomes
are related to one another in fixed patterns.
c) They begin to understand the concept of identity—that certain things stay the same
regardless of changes in shape, size, and appearance.
9. Critics of Piaget’s theory argue that he seriously underestimated children’s capabilities.
a) They argue that cognition develops in a continuous manner, not in stages.
b) They believe that training can improve performance in conservation tasks.
c) They also argue that Piaget focused too much on the deficiencies of young children’s
thought.
B. Information Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development
1. Information processing theorists focus on two domains.
a) Understanding of numbers
(1) The average preschooler is able not only to count, but to do so in a fairly systematic,
consistent manner.
(2) By age 4, most can do simple addition and subtraction and compare quantities.
b) Memory: Recalling the Past
(1) AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY, memory of particular events from ones’ own
life, is not very accurate until after age 3.
(2) Preschoolers’ autobiographical memories fade, they may not be accurate (depending on
when they are assessed), and they are susceptible to suggestions.
(a) Preschoolers’ memories of familiar events are often organized in terms of
SCRIPTS, broad representations in memory of events and the order in which they
occur.
(b) With age, scripts become more elaborate.
2. Information Processing Theories in Perspective
a) According to information processing approaches, cognitive development consists of gradual
improvements in the ways people perceive, understand, and remember.
(1) Preschoolers begin to process information with greater sophistication.
(2) They have longer attention spans, attend to more than one dimension of an object, and
can better monitor what they are attending to.
b) Information processing provides a clear, logical, and full account of cognitive development.
(1) Reliance on well-defined processes that can be tested is one of this perspective’s most
important features.
(2) Information processing theorists pay little attention to social and cultural factors.
(3) Information processing theorists pay so much attention to the detailed, individual
sequence of processes that they never paint a whole, comprehensive picture of cognitive
development.
C. Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development: Taking Culture into Account
1. Culture and societies influence cognitive development.
a) Cognition proceeds because of social interactions where partners jointly work to solve
problems.
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b) This partnership is determined by cultural and societal factors.
2. According to Vygotsky, children’s cognitive abilities increase when information is provided
within their ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD), the level at which a child can
almost, but not fully, perform a task independently, but can do so with the assistance of someone
more competent.
a) The assistance provided by others is called SCAFFOLDING, the support for learning and
problem solving that encourages independence and growth.
b) The aid that more accomplished individuals provide to learners comes in the form of cultural
tools, the actual physical items such as pencils, paper, calculators, and computers.
3. Vygotsky’s view has become increasingly influential in the last decade.
a) It helps explain a growing body of research attesting to the importance of social interaction
in promoting cognitive development.
b) The zone of proximal development is not precise and not easily testable.
c) His theory is silent on how basic cognitive functions such as attention and memory develop.
IV. The Growth of Language and Learning

Learning Objectives 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9
Lecture Launchers 7.1, 7.2
Student Activities 7.3, 7.5, 7.7
MyDevelopmentLab Video: Scaffolding
A. Language
1. Between late 2s and mid-3s, sentence length increases.
a) SYNTAX, the ways words and phrases are combined to make sentences, doubles each
month.
2. By 6, the average child has a vocabulary of 14,000 words.
a) They manage this feat through a process known as FAST MAPPING, instances in which
new words are associated with their meaning after only a brief encounter.
b) By age 3, children use plurals and possessive forms of nouns (boys/boy’s), employ the past
tense (adding -ed), use articles (the/a), and can ask and answer complex questions (“Where
did you say my book is?”).
3. Preschoolers begin to acquire the principles of GRAMMAR, the system of rules that determine
how our thoughts can be expressed.
4. Preschoolers engage mostly in PRIVATE SPEECH, speech by children that is spoken and
directed to themselves.
a) Use of private speech allows children to practice the practical skills required in conversation,
known as PRAGMATICS.
(1) Pragmatics is the aspect of language relating to communicating effectively and
appropriately with others.
b) Vygotsky argues that private speech facilitates children’s thinking; it helps them control their
behavior, solve problems, and reflect.
c) Twenty to 60 percent of what children say is private speech.
5. SOCIAL SPEECH, speech directed toward another person and meant to be understood by that
person, increases.
6. The language children hear at home influences their language development.
a) Hart and Risley (1995) researched the effects of poverty on language.
(1) Economic level was a significant factor in the amount of parental interactions, types of
language children were exposed to, and kinds of language used.
(2) Poverty was also related to lower IQ scores by age 5.
B. Learning from the Media: Television and Internet
1. The average preschooler watches more than 21 hours of TV a week.
2. Computers are quite influential in the lives of preschoolers.
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3. Almost 70% of children ages 4 and 6 have used a computer.
4. Television: Controlling Exposure
a) The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends no television for children under the age
of 2.
b) Children exposed to advertising on television are not able to critically understand or evaluate
the messages they are exposed to.
c) Children do not fully understand plot.
d) Children may have difficulty separating fantasy from reality.
e) Some information is well-understood by young viewers, i.e., facial expressions.
f) Yet, much of what is viewed is not representative of events in the real world.
5. Television may be harnessed to facilitate cognitive growth.
a) Sesame Street is the most popular educational program in the U.S.
(1) Viewers had significantly larger vocabularies.
(2) Lower-income viewers were better prepared for school, scored higher on tests of
cognitive ability, and spent more time reading.
(3) Critics of Sesame Street suggest that viewers may be less receptive to traditional modes
of teaching.
b) There are difficulties in assessing the effects of educational viewing (e.g., the effects may be
related to parenting).
C. Early Childhood Education: Taking the “Pre” Out of the Preschool Period
1. Three-quarters of children in the U.S. are enrolled in some kind of care outside the home.
a) Major factor is working parents.
b) Evidence suggests that children can benefit from early educational activities.
2. There Are a Variety of Early Education Programs
a) Early education alternatives are vast. Some outside-the-home care for children is little more
than babysitting, while others are designed to promote intellectual and social advances. The
major choices are as follows:
b) CHILD-CARE CENTERS are places that typically provide care for children all day, while
their parents work.
(1) Some are home-care.
(2) Others are provided by organized institutions.
c) PRESCHOOLS (or NURSERY SCHOOLS) provide care for several hours a day, and are
designed primarily to enrich the child’s development. They vary enormously in the activities
they provide.
(1) Montessori preschools create an environment that fosters sensory, motor, and language
development.
(2) The Reggio Emilia preschool approach is a “negotiated curriculum,” that promotes
cognitive development through the integration of the arts and participation in week-long
projects.
d) SCHOOL CHILD CARE is a child-care facility provided by some local school systems in
the United States.
3. The Effectiveness of Child Care
a) There are pros and cons of attending early education programs.
(1) Advantages might include increases in verbal fluency, memory and comprehension
tasks, self-confidence, independence, and knowledge about the social world.
b) Disadvantages found included children being less polite, less compliant, less respectful of
adults and sometimes more competitive and aggressive.
4. The Quality of Child Care
a) The key factor in determining the effects of early education programs is quality.
b) Well-trained care providers
c) Overall size of the group and the child-care provider ratio
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d) Curriculum
5. In the United States, the best-known program designed to promote future academic success is
Head Start.
a) Designed to serve the whole child, including physical health, self-confidence, social
responsibility, and social and emotional development
b) Although graduates of Head Start tend to show immediate IQ gains, these increases do not
last.
c) Children who attend Head Start are more ready for future schooling than those who do not.
d) Graduates of Head Start have better future school adjustment than their peers, and are less
likely to be in special education programs or to be retained a grade.
6. Are We Pushing Children Too Hard and Too Fast?
a) David Elkind argues that U.S. society tends to push children so rapidly that they begin to feel
stress and pressure at a young age.
(1) Children require DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE EDUCATIONAL
PRACTICE, education based on both typical development and the unique
characteristics of a given child.
(2) Better to provide an environment where learning is encouraged, not pushed.
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LECTURE LAUNCHERS
Lecture Launcher 7.1: A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words
Young children sometimes have difficulty recalling information. One study suggests that drawing can
enhance children’s memories for events.
Sarnia Butler, of the University of Otago in Dunedin, New Zealand, led a study involving 5- and 6-year-olds
who took a field trip to a fire station. While there, the children clambered on the fire engines, watched drills
performed by the firefighters, tried on the firefighting gear, and even watched as one of their chaperones slid
down the firepole, much to the displeasure of the tour leader, who reprimanded her. (This event, and several
others, were prearranged ahead of time.) Both one day and one month later, the children were asked about
their outing. Those children who were asked to draw and describe the events of that day—how they got there,
what they saw, the events that transpired—accurately reported much more information than those children
who were simply asked to tell what happened. This effect was not observed among 3- to 4-year-olds, although
among both groups drawing did not appear to increase errors in recall.
This research indicates that memory for pleasant events may be increased by coupling words and pictures. It
remains to be seen whether the same effect would hold for negative events. If so, this technique may hold
promise for boosting children’s recall of abuse, incest, or other traumatic events.
Butler, S., Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (1995). The effect of drawing on memory performance in young children. Developmental
Psychology, 31(4), 597–608.
Staff (1995). Kids draw on their memories. Science News, 148, 111.
Lecture Launcher 7.2: Understanding Bilingual/Bicultural Young Children
A discussion of linguistically diverse children might be of value, especially if there are a number of education
majors in your class. Meeting the needs of bilingual/bicultural children is a growing challenge for educators.
Language minority students comprise an increasing proportion of our young learners. Reports suggest that the
number of non-English language background (NELB) children aged birth to 4 years old rose from 1.8 million
in 1976 to an estimated 2.6 million in 1990, and the number of NELB children aged 5 to 14 was around 3.6 to
5.1 million in the year 2000. In response to this trend, the field of Bilingual Early Childhood Education has
evolved primarily in two directions. One emphasizes formal language learning instruction, whereas the other
emphasizes natural language acquisition. Most experts in the field suggest that educators need to incorporate
practices that enhance, enrich, and optimize educational opportunities for speakers of other languages.
Soto, L. D. (2001). Making a difference in the lives of bilingual/bicultural children. New York: Peter Lang Publishers.
Soto, L. D., & Kharem, H. (Eds.) (2010). Teaching bilingual/bicultural children: Teachers talk about language and learning.
Teachers College Press.
Lecture Launcher 7.3: Homeless Families and Children
Reports suggest that the face of homelessness has shifted since the early 1980s. Families with children
comprise an increasing percentage of the homeless population, and women with young children are often
most vulnerable to becoming homeless. One reason for this change is the baby boom that led to larger
numbers of people competing for affordable living space. Another reason, especially for the already poor, is
having children, which increases expenses and makes it more difficult to work. Ask your students about other
possible reasons for increased homelessness among women with children; for example, substance abuse,
domestic violence, unmarried mothers, noncontributing fathers, or mental illness. Have students discuss some
of the immediate and long-term consequences of homeless families—for the homeless children, mothers
and/or fathers, and also society. What can or should be done to curb or prevent homelessness?
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DeAngelis, T. (May 1994). Homeless families: Stark reality of the 90s. APA Monitor, pp. 1, 38. (Reprinted in Child Growth and
Development, Annual Editions 1995/1996. Guilford, CT: Dushkin/Brown & Benchmark.)
Menke, E. M. (2010). Comparison of the stressors and coping behaviors of homeless, previously homeless, and never homeless poor
children. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 21, 691–610.
Sherman, P. & Redlener, I. (1999). Homeless women and their children. In H. M. Wallace, G. Green, K. J. Jaros, L. L. Paine, & M.
Story (Eds.), Health and welfare for families in the 21st century (pp. 205–218). Sunbury, MA: Jones and Barlett.
U.S. Conference of Mayors (1998). A status report on hunger and homelessness in America’s cities: 1998. Washington, DC: Author.
Lecture Launcher 7.4: How Kids Learn
Some of your students may be parents of preschoolers or entering the field of education. Recent arguments
suggest that children between the ages of 5 and 8 learn differently than older children. Young children learn
best through active, hands-on teaching methods like games or dramatic play, not from hours of workbooks
and homework. Raise this issue with your students and ask for their opinions, as well as their own experiences
when they were young.
Lecture Launcher 7.5: Left-Handedness
A great deal of research reveals that the two hemispheres of the brain are lateralized or dominant for different
functions. Handedness is an interesting example of lateralization. Most people (90%) are right-handed and
have dominant motor control in their left hemisphere. There are some intriguing differences between right-
and left-handed populations.
• Males are more likely to be left-handed than females.

• There is a higher proportion of left-handers among architects, engineers, university mathematics
teachers, mathematics students, artists, astronauts, chess masters, and performing musicians than in
the general population.
• According to Jerre Levy, 60% of left-handers have their speech and language control in their left
hemisphere (as do right-handed people). These tend to be left-handers who write with a hooked hand
posture.
• Forty percent of left-handers have speech and language controlled in their right hemispheres. These
lefties tend to write with their hands in an upright posture.
• Reading disabilities, stuttering, autism, immune diseases, migraine headaches, allergies, eczema, and
some categories of mental retardation are more prevalent in left-handers than in right-handers.
• Left-handers are more likely to be precocious, mathematical, and less skilled at verbal tasks (except
for analogies).
No one knows, however, why left-handedness develops. As with most other human traits, theories can be
roughly divided into four categories: environmental, genetic, developmental, and evolutionary.
Environmental Theories
1. The sword and shield theory

This theory (supposedly put forth by Thomas Carlyle) suggests that, because shields were held in the left
hand in order to protect the heart, those soldiers who were right-handed survived battle in greater
numbers.
2. The mother with baby theory
This theory claims that mothers evolved to become right-handed because when they held their babies
close to their hearts (on the left side) it freed their right hands to perform tasks. (This is not a very popular
theory.)
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3. The parental pressure theory
This theory claims that we are mostly right-handed because our parents were mostly right-handed and
taught us to be right-handed.
Genetic Theories
1. Meta-analyses show that right-handed parents have a 9.5% chance of having a left-handed child; a 19.5%
chance of having a left-handed child if one parent is left-handed; and 26.1% chance of having a left-
handed child if both parents are left-handed.
2. Adopted children are more likely to follow the handedness of their birth parents than their adopted
parents.
3. Identical twins are more likely (76%) to both be left-handed. (However, if handedness were purely
genetic, there would be a 100% concordance rate for handedness in identical twins.)
Developmental Theories
1. Geschwind and Galaburdas testosterone theory

This theory claims that elevated levels of testosterone are responsible for deviations from normal
hemispheric dominance (i.e., right-handed and left hemisphere dominant for language and right
hemisphere dominant for visual-spatial skills). It is believed that excess testosterone delays left
hemisphere growth. The right hemisphere compensates for this growth delay by developing more quickly.
This seems to account for many correlations between being left-handed, male, and various skills or
disabilities.
2. Bakan’s birth stress theory
This theory argues that left-handedness is caused by prenatal stress. Much evidence seems to support this
theory. Lefties have more birth complication, lower APGAR scores, and developmental disorders such as
Down syndrome, autism, and cerebral palsy. (We know, however, that stress raises testosterone levels in
rats and might be implicated in this theory also.)
3. Previc’s vestibular-monoaminergic theory
This theory posits that human laterality can be traced to fetal position in the womb. When the fetus is
confined to a leftward position in the last trimester, the mother’s walking puts forces on the developing
fetus and causes asymmetrical laterality.
Evolutionary Theories
1. Corballis
This theory proposes that because handedness and language require so much fine motor control, both are
lateralized in the same hemisphere.
2. MacNeilage’s postural origins theory
Because language requires body movements (postures) different than other skills, the left hemisphere
evolved to process language and the right hemisphere evolved to process visual-spatial abilities.
Coren, S. & Halpern, D. F. (1991). Left-handedness: A marker for decreased survival fitness. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 90–106.
Gilbert, A. N. & Wysocki, C. J. (1992). Hand preference and age in the United States. Neuropsychologia, 30, 601–608.
Halpern, D. F. (1992). Sex differences in cognitive abilities (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Harris, L. (1993). Do left-handers die sooner than right-handers? Psychological Bulletin, 113, 203–234.
Watkins, M. (1995). Creation of the sinister: Biological contributions to left-handedness. Retrieved May 21, 1997, from
http://hcs.harvard.edu/~husn/BRAIN/vol12/left.html.
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STUDENT ACTIVITIES
Student Activity 7.1: On-the-Spot Mini-Lecture
An in-class mini-lecture is ideal for class sizes between 15 and 30. These “lecturettes” are also quite effective
in covering a chapter’s topic quickly, yet thoroughly. Suggest that students bring their textbook to the next
class meeting. When the next class begins, quickly divide students into groups, giving each group a copy of
the Lecture Guidelines and Topics (see Handout 7-1) and assigning each group a different numbered
question. (Last-minute shifts or deletions are almost always necessary. You might also be selective in terms of
which students or groups respond to which question—as some questions are more complex than others.)
Highlight the guidelines. Tell the students to get right to work, and that time is of the essence. It’s amazing
how focused they will become. You might have to direct some groups as to how they can divide the material
or how to get started. Several minutes into their preparation, you might wish to comment as to whether you
had mentioned that those members in groups with good lectures will get extra points. This serves as a
motivator. (Of course, in the end each participant will receive the bonus points. Sending around a group sign-
up sheet will help in awarding the points.) When the preparation time is up, you simply act as conference
moderator introducing the various groups of scholars to report on their findings (and timing them). Students
enjoy the mock conference approach, especially the first time they do an On-the-Spot Mini-Lecture. You can
also direct the content by asking a question or briefly clarifying comments. Test items can be drawn from the
presentations.
Student Activity 7.2: Visiting Children: Piaget and Memory Demonstrations
Some students have had little, if any, contact with preschoolers. It can be a real eye-opener to see these
youngsters in action. Invite three or four children to class. Ideally, the children’s ages should vary, 3–4, 5–6,
or 7–8 years. (This will better illustrate the concept of development.) Bring various props to class (e.g.,
different-sized clear containers, colored water, checkers, Play-Doh, flashcards, children’s books, a doll, etc.).
Begin to test the children. Can they conserve? Which row of checkers has more? What does the doll see?
What were the pictures on the flashcards? Can you remember what I read from the book? You might have
students take observational notes, much like an experimenter would. Afterwards, involve students in
discussion.
Student Activity 7.3: Children’s TV: Let’s Talk About It
Record brief segments of various television shows children might watch, such as Sesame Street, Barney,
cartoons, early evening sitcoms, reruns, or the news. Show the segments to the class, and have them comment
after each, compare the segments, and/or discuss these in relation to child development. You might hand out a
series of questions to facilitate discussion (see Handout 7-2). If you cannot tape segments for use in class,
you might have students do this as a take-home project. Build your next class discussion around their findings
and comments.
You might use the clips (or student projects) to move into a broad discussion about children and television in
general. Is it good or bad? Does it make them passive/active participants in their development? Does it
stimulate thinking? How does television viewing impact the parent-child relationship? Do parents monitor
their children’s viewing? Should TV programs be rated by the industry? What is the impact of violence on
TV? Do all children react the same? How do commercials influence young children (some parents may have
some interesting input here)?
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Student Activity 7.4: Let’s Share, Show, or Recall
Select a class meeting when you’ll be discussing memory, and ask students to bring a photo of themselves as
preschoolers, preferably engaged in some activity or attending some event. If students are unable to locate an
early photo, ask them to make a note about their very earliest memory. At the beginning of class you might
divide the students into groups and have them share as much as they can remember about what was going on
when their photo was taken. Can they remember the place, who took the photo, how old they were, the time
of year, anything special about the clothes they were wearing or any props in the photo? Similarly, have
students describe their earliest memory. Encourage students to interpret their memories in light of knowledge
about young children’s cognitive development.
Invite the class into a discussion about the memory capabilities of preschoolers, especially autobiographical
memory. Note that memories are not very accurate until after age 3, and that they are susceptible to
suggestion. Also discuss the fact that preschoolers have difficulty describing certain information and tend to
oversimplify recollections. You might also discuss whether preschoolers can learn to remember. What
strategies might parents or preschool teachers employ to facilitate children’s memory? Ask the students to
share whether they felt their memories of those earlier times had been influenced in some way. Ask them if
they have learned to improve their ability to remember information. You might engage in a more in-depth
discussion of information processing theory (e.g., sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory)
as well as metacognitive strategies (e.g., rehearsal, mnemonic devices).
Student Activity 7.5: Design an Early Education Program
Assign students to small groups, and tell them their task is to design an education or care program for
preschoolers. You will probably want to allow some time during several class periods for groups to get
together, although students might also meet on their own. Have students prepare a brief written report as well
as a class presentation describing their program. You might have students address the following: What is the
name of the school or center? Why? What is your architectural design or layout? Is it appropriate, safe and/or
conducive to preschoolers? What type of program is it? What is the philosophy, purpose, or objective of the
program? What about the number of children, teachers, and ratios? Provide an example of a typical day,
sample menus for meals or snacks, and an example of their curriculum. What types of toys, materials,
supplies, or playground equipment will be needed? Are their ideas consistent with the concepts, issues and
suggestions discussed in the text?
Student Activity 7.6: Create-a-Flyer
Have students form small groups. Tell them they have just been hired as part of a large grant to educate young
parents about the physical and cognitive development of young children, aged 3 to 6.
Their job is to create two flyers or brochures, one on physical development and the other on cognitive
development. In these brochures they are to inform parents about early childhood development. They also
need to address the major developmental milestones in each area (e.g., what parents can and cannot expect
from their children) and provide examples of activities parents can do to promote their child’s development.
Remind them that just like textbooks, brochures that are clear, interesting, and manageable are more likely to
be read! Students will need some class time to meet, as well as time to work outside class. Have the class
discuss and share their flyers.
Student Activity 7.7: Vygotsky’s View in Light of Present-Day American Society
In the spirit of Vygotsky’s views, ask students to consider:
1. What is important and meaningful to members of present-day American society?
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2. How might this be predicting or influencing cognitive development, which, according to Vygotsky,
proceeds as the result of social interactions in which partners jointly work to solve problems? (See
Handout 7-3.)
This could be used either as an in-class group discussion or an individual assignment.
Student Activity 7.8: Analysis of Children’s Books
Children’s books offer a great resource for studying themes in early childhood development. You might have
students create an inventory of books intended for the preschool or young school-aged child, perhaps listing a
minimum of 10. Then ask students to analyze or discuss the books (or a selected few of them) in terms of
developmental themes or principles. You might suggest that they look at the books in terms of content. For
example, many children’s books attempt to strengthen children’s development with respect to moral
development (e.g., lying, stealing), coping with adversity or stress (e.g., death, divorce), enhancing cognitive
development (e.g., vocabulary, information), teaching skills or social development (e.g., sharing, self-esteem),
or tolerance for diversity (e.g., racial or religious differences). Suggest also that they look at the books in
terms of gender, stereotypes, artwork, intended messages, possible unintended interpretations, attention span
or memory, and any other developmentally related themes (e.g., is the book designed for the fine motor skills
of the reader?).
Student Activity 7.9: Early Childhood Observations
Students often benefit from observing and interacting with preschoolers. This assignment provides an
opportunity for both, and also facilitates students’ understanding of research the research process. Distribute
the accompanying directions (see Handout 7-4) for the assignment and review them in class. Some students
may have access to children on their own. Perhaps others can visit a nearby child-care center. Be certain that
you have made arrangements with the center ahead of time! Also be certain to inform students about
politeness, safety, and appropriate behaviors related to visiting a center.
Student Activity 7.10: Reflective Journal
It’s difficult for adults to imagine themselves as little children or what their life was like then (let alone
remember), but ask your students to try. As they do, ask them to reflect on how those early days might have
influenced their development. Handout 7-5 will provide them with some questions and ideas to help fuel
their memories.
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SUPPLEMENTAL READING
Adolph, K. E., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Karasik, L. B. (2010). Cinderella indeed—A commentary on
Iverson’s ‘Developing language in a developing body: The relationship between motor development
and language development.’ Journal of Child Language, 37, 269–273.
Berk, L. (November 1994). Why children talk to themselves. Scientific American, 78–83.
Wertsch, J. V., & Tulviste, P. (1992). L. S. Vygotsky and contemporary developmental psychology.
Developmental Psychology, 28, 548–557.
Zigler, E., & Styfco, S. (2010). The hidden history of Head Start. New York: Oxford University Press.
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MULTIMEDIA IDEAS
MyDevelopmentLab Video Series + Discussion Questions
The MyDevelopmentLab Video Series engages students and brings to life a wide range of topics spanning
prenatal development through the end of the lifespan. New international videos shot on location allow
students to observe similarities and differences in human development across various cultures.
Video: Conservation
Discussion Questions
1. Succinctly explain what the principle of conservation is.

2. When children achieve an understanding of conservation, what does it signal about their overall cognitive
development? What other cognitive changes would you predict should follow?
3. How would the responses of an 8-year-old child differ from the responses of a 3-year-old child when
faced with a typical conservation task?
Video: Egocentrism
1. Succinctly explain what egocentric thinking involves.

2. At what age do children typically move away from egocentric thinking?
3. What does egocentric thinking reveal about the internal cognitive processes of young children?
Video: Scaffolding
1. How does a child’s construction of a puzzle illustrate the concept of scaffolding?

2. Do you think cognitive skills develop in stages, waves, or overlapping sequences? That is, does cognitive
development seem to have identifiable starting and stopping points, or is it more like a story that becomes
more elaborated with each chapter?
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Handout 7-1
“On-the-Spot” Mini-Lecture (Guidelines and Topics)
Below are seven lecture topics about the physical and cognitive development of the preschooler. Your goal, as
a group, is to match your group number with the numbered topic and prepare a brief presentation for the class
(from the front of the room). “Brief” means no more than five minutes! In preparing your presentation, keep
the following in mind:
• Everyone in your group must participate in the presentation.
• Your goal is to enhance the class understanding of the topic; thus you may define, demonstrate, give
examples, or use the blackboard.
• You must have all your preparation completed during the allotted time! Simply stated, when the other
groups are presenting you must be attentive, not working among yourselves.
• Also, in giving your presentation, remember: Others will be listening—so strive to be interesting and to
keep their attention.
• You will NOT be able to address everything in the time frame, so plan accordingly.
• You can refer to your text and/or notes in presenting, but you cannot simply read from the text.
• Note that your audience is the class—not me.
1. Discuss physical growth in early childhood, including height, weight, and changes in body shape and
structure.
2. Briefly discuss nutrition and health issues in the preschool years.
3. Describe brain growth and lateralization, discuss the cerebral hemispheres, and comment on gender
differences.
4. Describe gross and fine motor development, provide examples, and discuss handedness.
5. Briefly discuss the views of Piaget, information processing theory, and Vygotsky.
6. Briefly discuss language development; define private and social speech.
7. Briefly discuss television’s effects on preschoolers; define the different types of early education programs
and some of their outcomes; and comment on David Elkind’s ideas about improving cognitive skills.
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Handout 7-2
Children’s TV: Let’s Talk About It
For each television show or clip viewed, answer as many of the following questions that apply.
Give the title or a brief description of the television program or scene.
1. Is the television program designed specifically for young children? How do you know? Did it
intentionally provide an educational message? If so, what was the intended message? If not, what do you
think a preschooler would have learned from viewing the show?
2. Identify several stimuli (e.g., characters, acoustics, colors, themes) that you think a preschooler would
most readily attend to, and explain why. What image or message would they have learned from these
salient features of the show?
3. How many aggressive or violent acts are in the show? Briefly describe one. Try to explain this scene
through the eyes of a preschooler (e.g., what might he or she be thinking or concluding?). Did anything
occur that you think might promote fear or distress for a young viewer? Why?
4. How many prosocial or humorous acts are in the show? Briefly describe one. Try to explain this scene
through the eyes of a preschooler (e.g., what might he or she be thinking or concluding?).
5. Are references made to both males and females? How is each portrayed? Were there any role or cultural
stereotypes? Was there any comment, scene, or action that might send a message about social norms or
expectations (e.g., discipline, materialism, relationships)?
6. Would you let your own preschool child view this television show? Explain why or why not.
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Handout 7-3
Vygotsky’s View in Light of Present-Day American Society
Lev Vygotsky believed that by emphasizing particular tasks, culture and society shape the nature of specific
cognitive advances. He argued that unless we look at what is important and meaningful to members of a given
society, we may seriously underestimate the nature and level of cognitive abilities that ultimately will be
attained.
Consider present-day America, and list at least five specific tasks, skills, abilities, expectations, or norms that
exist. Comment as to how you think these might be shaping an individual’s cognitive focus or development.
For example, one of the most commonly asked questions when people first meet is, “What do you do for a
living?” How might this influence or shape cognitive or personal development?
1. Describe a specific social task, skill, ability, expectation, or norm, and explain how this influence might
shape cognitive or personal development.
2. Describe a specific social task, skill, ability, expectation or norm, and explain how this influence might
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Handout 7-4
Early Childhood Observation Assignment
The purpose of this assignment is to give you an opportunity to better understand early childhood
development by observing and interacting with someone in this age group. The assignment consists of three
loosely defined tasks—one related to each of the domains of development (physical, cognitive, psychosocial).
In short, you will be like a researcher, gathering insight into the developing child through observation and
interviews. For each of the areas, define and state your purpose. Identify your subject(s) or the participants
in your observation. You do not need to have the same subject(s) for each area. Develop strategies to gather
your data (e.g., interview questions, props, observation guidelines). Briefly summarize your results and relate
this to information, concepts, or theories discussed in the text.
First, address the physical abilities or motor development of a preschooler. You might want to observe his
or her activity for an identified amount of time—maybe three intervals of two minutes, and precisely record
EVERYTHING the child does. You might ask the child to perform a few tricks like standing on one foot,
jumping on one foot, holding a crayon, or cutting paper—maybe compare these across ages or between boys
and girls.
Second, explore the cognitive abilities of the young child. You might use Piaget’s model or information
processing theory. You could test children’s conservation skills by asking them some “why” questions to see
if their answers are egocentric or if they use animism. You might test their memory by asking them to repeat a
list of words and/or then ask them how they remember, or perhaps teach them to use rehearsal and see if
there’s a difference in recall.
Third, examine an area of social development. Here you may observe a group of children playing and note,
describe, and/or time the types of play they engage in. You may ask a child to describe herself or himself and
interpret her or his response in terms of research on self-development. Try to observe boy/girl play, toys, or
socialization in terms of gender role development, or interview a child about various role models and what
their jobs are.
NOTE: You are free to arrange and organize your observations, results, and interpretations as you see fit.
I will evaluate you on the clarity of your stated purpose, the appropriateness of your data collection (i.e.,
whether or not you are addressing your purpose), the logic behind your summaries and interpretations, and the
degree to which you integrate and refer to the information, concepts, or theories discussed in the textbook.
You might want to follow an outline to write your report. For example:
Physical Development
Purpose: To examine fine and gross motor skills and note any age or gender differences, to evaluate these,
and comment in terms of motor skill development.
Participants: 3-year old, 4-year old, and 5-year old females; 3-year old, 4-year old, and 5-year old males.
Setting: All were at the day care center. It was mid-afternoon, and the children were outside in free play.
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Procedure: Asked the children to do a number of motor tasks (e.g., hop on one foot, skip).
Age Task Outcome Comments
3-F
4-F
5-F
3-M
4-M
5-M
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Handout 7-5
Reflective Journal Exercise #7
It’s difficult for grownups to imagine themselves as little children or what their life was like then. Write an
essay titled “When I Was a Preschooler...” Listed below are a number of questions to help you recreate your
life as a preschooler. You might have to ask a parent or relative for some of the answers. Feel free to include
other relevant information or stories about yourself. As you reflect back on or find out about your life as a
young child, consider how those early days might have influenced your later development.
1. Where did your family live when you were a preschooler? Who was living in the house? Did you share a
bedroom? With whom? Did you have a “going to bed” routine? Can you describe it?
2. What was your favorite toy? Game? Story?
3. Describe one of your preschool birthdays. Who was there? What presents did you get?
4. Recreate an early holiday or special occasion. Do any of the family traditions still occur today? If you
have children, do you carry on these traditions for holidays in a similar fashion?
5. Did your parents work? Did you go to preschool or have a babysitter? When did you first write your
name? Is there a copy of it somewhere?
6. Do you recall any special event, pleasant or traumatic, that happened to you or in your family between 2
and 6 years of age? How might this have affected your later development?
7. Who was your closest friend? Describe a common activity you enjoyed.
8. What was your health like? Any serious illnesses? Did you have any food preferences?
9. Ask someone to describe your personality and some of your typical behaviors.
10. Try to describe your earliest memory.
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Development Across the Life Span 8th

Edition Feldman Solutions Manual

Learning Objectives 126

Chapter Outline 127

Lecture Launchers 134

A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words 134

Student Activities 137

Supplemental Reading 140

Multimedia Ideas 141

Chapter Outline Instructor’s Resources Professor Notes

Intellectual Development Learning Objectives 7.4, 7.5

The Growth of Language and Learning Objectives 7.6, 7.7, 7.8,

< Return to Contents

LO 7.2: Summarize how preschool children’s brains develop.

LO 7.3: Explain how preschool children’s motor skills develop.

LO 7.5: Summarize the information-processing approaches to cognitive development in the preschool

LO 7.6: Describe Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development in the preschool years.

LO 7.7: Explain how children’s language develops in the preschool years.

< Return to Contents

I. Prologue: The Field Trip

II. Physical Growth

III. Intellectual Development

IV. The Growth of Language and Learning

< Return to Contents

Lecture Launcher 7.2: Understanding Bilingual/Bicultural Young Children

Lecture Launcher 7.3: Homeless Families and Children

Lecture Launcher 7.4: How Kids Learn

Lecture Launcher 7.5: Left-Handedness

• Males are more likely to be left-handed than females.

1. The sword and shield theory

1. Geschwind and Galaburdas testosterone theory

< Return to Contents

Student Activity 7.2: Visiting Children: Piaget and Memory Demonstrations

Student Activity 7.3: Children’s TV: Let’s Talk About It

Student Activity 7.5: Design an Early Education Program

Student Activity 7.6: Create-a-Flyer

Student Activity 7.7: Vygotsky’s View in Light of Present-Day American Society

In the spirit of Vygotsky’s views, ask students to consider:

1. What is important and meaningful to members of present-day American society?

This could be used either as an in-class group discussion or an individual assignment.

Student Activity 7.8: Analysis of Children’s Books

Student Activity 7.9: Early Childhood Observations

Student Activity 7.10: Reflective Journal

< Return to Contents

< Return to Contents

MyDevelopmentLab Video Series + Discussion Questions

1. Succinctly explain what the principle of conservation is.

1. Succinctly explain what egocentric thinking involves.

1. How does a child’s construction of a puzzle illustrate the concept of scaffolding?

< Return to Contents

“On-the-Spot” Mini-Lecture (Guidelines and Topics)

• Everyone in your group must participate in the presentation.

• Note that your audience is the class—not me.

2. Briefly discuss nutrition and health issues in the preschool years.

6. Briefly discuss language development; define private and social speech.

Children’s TV: Let’s Talk About It

Give the title or a brief description of the television program or scene.

Vygotsky’s View in Light of Present-Day American Society

Early Childhood Observation Assignment

Age Task Outcome Comments

Reflective Journal Exercise #7

2. What was your favorite toy? Game? Story?

10. Try to describe your earliest memory.