1) Di erences between Data and Information:

- Nature: Data refers to raw, unprocessed facts, gures, or symbols. Information, on the other
hand, is data that has been processed, organized, and given meaning or context.

- Meaning: Data by itself lacks meaning and doesn't provide any insight. Information is
meaningful and helps in making informed decisions.

- Context: Data is context-independent and may not make sense without proper interpretation.
Information is contextual and provides a clear understanding of a speci c topic or situation.

- Structure: Data can be structured or unstructured, while information is usually structured and
presented in a comprehensible format.

- Example: Consider a set of numbers: [5, 8, 12, 15, 20]. This is data. If you calculate the
average (mean) of these numbers, which is 12, and interpret it as the average score on a test, it
becomes information.

2) Seven Types of Statistical Analysis:

- Descriptive Statistics: This involves summarizing and describing data to provide insights into
its main features, such as measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and dispersion
(variance, standard deviation).

- Inferential Statistics: Inferential statistics uses sample data to make inferences or predictions
about a larger population. It includes techniques like hypothesis testing and con dence intervals.

- Regression Analysis:This analyzes the relationship between one or more independent variables
and a dependent variable. It is used for prediction and understanding the strength and nature of
relationships.

- Anova (Analysis of Variance): ANOVA is used to compare means among more than two groups
or populations to determine if there are statistically signi cant di erences between them.

- Time Series Analysis: Time series analysis focuses on data collected over time, such as stock
prices or weather data, to identify patterns, trends, and seasonality.

- Factor Analysis:Factor analysis identi es underlying factors or latent variables that explain the
patterns in observed data. It's often used in elds like psychology to understand the structure of
data.

- Cluster Analysis: Cluster analysis groups similar data points together based on certain criteria.
It's commonly used in market segmentation, pattern recognition, and image analysis.

3) Examples of Probability Sampling Methods:

- Random Sample: In a population of 1,000 students, you assign each student a unique number
and then use a random number generator to select 100 students for a survey.

- Systematic Sample:In a factory with 500 employees, you select every 10th employee from a
sorted list of employees, starting at a random point, to participate in a quality control study.

- Strati ed Sample: In a city with a diverse population, you divide the residents into income
brackets (strata) and then randomly select 20 people from each income bracket for a survey.

- Cluster Sample: In a large country with many cities, you randomly select several cities, and
then within those cities, you randomly select households to participate in a national census.

4) Examples of Non-Probability Sampling Methods:

ff
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
ff
fi
fi
 - Convenience Sample: You conduct interviews with people who are readily available at a
shopping mall to gather opinions about a new product.

- Purposive Sample: In a study on expert opinions, you select speci c individuals who are
recognized as experts in a eld to participate in interviews.

- Snowball Sample:*When studying a rare and hard-to-reach population, you start with one or a
few initial participants and ask them to refer others from the same population to participate.

- Quota Sample: In a survey about political preferences, you ensure that the sample re ects the
same proportion of di erent political a liations as the overall population, even if the selection is
not entirely random.
ff
fi
ffi
fi
fl