COMPARISON OF NEEDLE-PUNCHED AND THERMALLY BONDED

NONWOVEN GEOTEXTILES IN ROADS RELATED APPLICATIONS

INTRODUCTION

In developed countries nonwoven geotextiles are extensively used as separators below

granular base/subbase courses and also as filters for granular drainage media in trench
drains. In India also, it is expected that geotextiles will be increasingly used, especially in
national highways, golden quadrilateral, north-south and east-west corridor etc. Most
manufacturers of non-woven geotextiles use the needle-punching process, while a few
use the thermal bonding process. In India there are many suppliers of needle-punched
nonwovens, where as there is virtually no competition in the case of thermally bonded
nonwovens.

In some of recent tenders for prestigious road projects, the specifications of the
nonwoven geotextiles appears to be apparently in favour of thermally bonded nonwoven
geotextiles. Some consultants are of the opinion that the guidelines effectively prohibit
the use of needle-punched geotextiles. This has created a situation wherein
manufactures/suppliers of needle-punched nonwovens could be denied an opportunity to
take part in competitive bidding and the contractors face the problem of virtually no
choice of suppliers.

The purpose of this note is to examine the issue from the following four angles:

 Are there any compelling technical reasons to favour thermally bonded

nonwoven geotextiles over needle-punched nonwoven geotextiles.

 Do regulatory agencies in other countries (especially those with considerable

experience and expertise) favour a particular type of nonwoven in their
guidelines?

 How do leading international consultants rate the performance of both types

of nonwoven geotextiles?

 What are the consequences of following a policy which favours (or can be
interpreted as to favour) the use of only thermally bonded nonwovens

It is hoped that a thorough examination of the various aspects will bring some clarity to
the issue and would help policy makers and user agencies to make informed decisions.
TECHNICAL COMPARISON OF NEEDLE-PUNCHED AND THERMALLY
BONDED NONWOVEN GEOTEXTILES

Polymer Composition

Most of the nonwoven needle-punched geotextiles and thermally bonded geotextiles are
manufactured from Polypropylene. Hence their response to the physical, chemical and
biological environment will be similar.

Manufacturing Process

Manufacturing process of nonwoven geotextiles generally includes four basic steps –

fibre preparation, web formation, web bonding and post-treatment. The fundamental
difference between needle-punched and thermally bonded geotextiles lies in the different
methods of web bonding used.

In the needle-punching process, a fibrous web is introduced into a machine equipped with
groups of specially designed needles (figure 1). The needles are about 75mm long and
each have three to four barbs. While the web is trapped between a bedplate and stripper
plate, beds of needles are alternately punched and pulled through it. This reorients and
entangles the fibres, so that mechanical bonding is achieved among the individual fibres.
The mechanical entanglement of individual fibres results in highly ductile bonds leading
to excellent elongation characteristics and flexibility. With needle-punching relatively
thick nonwovens with good strength and excellent flexibility are obtained.

Figure 1: Manufacture of nonwoven geotextiles using needle-punching process

In the thermal-bonding (also called heat-setting or melt bonding process), the fibres are
melted and fused together at fibre crossover points. This is achieved by a high
temperature calendaring operation in which the fabric is passed through two counter
rotating hot rollers (figure 2). In some processes, low melt temperature fibres are also
introduced into the fabric. Melt-bonding of fibres result in a brittle bond. The thermal
bonding process results in a relatively thin, less flexible nonwoven geotextile with a
relatively flat and smooth surface and lower elongation characteristics.
Figure 2: Manufacture of nonwoven geotextiles using the thermal bonding process

Functions of Nonwoven Geotextiles in Highway Applications

Nonwoven geotextiles are used primarily as separator below granular base/subbase

courses or as filters for trench drains.

Nonwoven Geotextiles as Separators

Here the function of the geotextile is to prevent the penetration of aggregate into the
subgrade and to minimize the pumping of fines from subgrade into the granular
base/subbase courses. Hence filtration characteristics are very important in separation
applications also. In paved roads where only relatively less deformation can be permitted,
reinforcement function may not be very significant. Hence strength and modulus are of
relatively less importance. However the geotextile should have sufficient tensile,
puncture, tear and burst strength to withstand the loads during construction and service.

Nonwoven Geotextiles as Filters

A major function of geotextile separators is to prevent mud pumping, which involves the
filtration function. Geotextiles may also be used as filters for granular trench drains.

Geotextile filters should satisfy the following three filter requirements

 Soil retention – The apparent opening size should be small enough to retain the
fines. Also thick nonwovens are better than thin nonwovens (Some European
guidelines specify a thickness of 25 – 50 times the apparent opening size). Hence
higher the thickness, better the performance.
 Permeability – The geotextile should have sufficiently high permeability. Higher
the permeability, better will be the performance.
 Clogging resistance
o Use highest opening size, which satisfies soil retention criteria.
o Use a geotextile with high porosity (porosity = volume of openings / total
volume of the geotextile). Higher the porosity, better the clogging
resistance.
In addition, the geotextiles should satisfy certain survivability requirements (tensile
strength, puncture strength, tear strength etc.) and durability requirements.

Important Differences Between Needle-punched and Thermally Bonded Nonwovens

The major differences between the two types of nonwoven geotextiles are discussed
below.

Thickness

Needle-punched nonwovens are thicker than thermally bonded geotextiles. Higher

thickness gives the following advantages.
 Better soil retention characteristics and hence higher filter efficiency (see
figure3)
 Higher transmissivity, hence better drainage

Figure 3: Recommended correlation between opening size and thickness for geotextile
filters (DVWK Vol. 221/1992)

Structure

Needle punched nonwovens have an open structure and ductile bonding between fibres
(bonding is through mechanical entanglement of fibres). Thermally bonded nonwovens
have a dense structure and brittle bonding between fibres (melt bonding). These
differences lead to differences in properties like flexibility, puncture resistance,
elongation and permeability.
 Figure 4: Needle punched nonwovens Figure 5: Thermally bonded nonwovens

Flexibility (Flexural stiffness)

Needle-punched geotextiles are flexible, i.e. they have low bending stiffness compared
to thermally bonded nonwovens. This is due to the differences in structure and fibre
bonding. Because of their excellent flexibility, it is easier to establish intimate contact
with irregular soil surfaces. On the other hand, stiff thermally bonded nonwovens may
span across small depressions and irregularities on the soil surface and could be
subjected to high stresses at these locations leading to localized failures.

When geotextiles are used as filters to encapsulate granular materials in trench drains, it
is very important that the geotextile is in intimate contact with the irregular side of the
trench walls. Voids or pockets are left between the geotextile and vertical soil surface,
may quickly be filled with a slurry of fine soil and water. This slurry will easily pas
through the geotextile and will clog the drain. Flexible needle-punched nonwovens can
easily adapt to the irregular soil profile of the trench walls and hence can establish
intimate contact. However, stiff thermally bonded nonwovens are likely to leave pockets
or voids, which may affect the performance of the drain.

Modulus (Axial Stiffness)

Thermally bonded nonwovens have higher modulus compared to needle-punched

geotextiles. However ultimate tensile strengths are similar. Higher modulus is very
important when the primary function of the geotextile is reinforcement. However, the
primary functions of nonwoven geotextiles in roads are separation and filtration. Hence
the higher modulus of thermally bonded nonwovens do not lead to any great advantage
in terms of actual performance of the pavement.

Puncture Resistance

Because of their superior elongation characteristics needle-punched nonwovens have

better resistance to puncture. The more ductile behaviour of needle-punched geotextile
enable them to elongate and deform without rupture. On the other hand thermally
bonded nonwovens exhibit a brittle behaviour and may puncture at small strains (Figure
6 and 7). Because of their superior resistance to puncture, needle-punched nonwovens
are able to perform better as filters and separators.

Figure 6: Typical behaviour of a 200 Figure 7: Typical behaviour of a

g/m2 needle-punched and thermally 200 g/m2 needle-punched and
bonded nonwovens in the plunger thermally bonded nonwovens in the
puncture test cone drop test

Behaviour Under Compressive Normal Stress

Because of their open structure, needle-punched nonwovens undergo relatively large

reduction in thickness, transmissivity and normal permeability when subjected to
compressive normal stress. In the case of thermally bonded nonwovens, the reduction in
thickness, transmissivity and normal permeability is small.

Assuming the maximum thickness of a typical flexible pavement to be 1000mm, average

unit weight of materials to be 22 kN/m 3 and equivalent surcharge due to traffic of 12
kPa, the maximum normal compressive stress likely to act on a geotextile may be
calculated as follows.

Dead load due to weight of pavement = 1.0 x 22.0 = 22 kPa

Live load due to traffic = 12 kPa
Total compressive normal stress on geotextile = 34 kPa

Reduction in Thickness

When needle-punched nonwovens are subjected to compressive stress they undergo

reduction in thickness (see Figure 2.6, page 97 of the book Designing with
Geosynthetics by R.M.Koerner). Higher the initial thickness, greater the reduction under
stress. However it must be noted that the initial thickness of needle-punched geotextiles
is much higher than thermally bonded nonwovens. Even under a stress of 200 kPa,
thickness of a typical light needle punched nonwoven geotextile is higher than that of a
typical thermally bonded nonwoven. At the relatively low stress levels encountered in
road applications, the reduced thickness of a needle-punched geotextile is still
substantially higher than the thickness of a thermally bonded geotextile. Hence the
reduction in thickness under stress cannot be considered as a disadvantage in relation to
thermally bonded nonwovens.

Reduction in Permeability

Manufacturers of thermally bonded nonwovens often highlight the reduction in normal

permeability as a disadvantage of needle-punched nonwovens (see Figure 8 taken from
the website of DuPont who are manufacturers of thermally bonded nonwoven
geotextiles).

Figure 8: Effect of compressive stress on normal permeability of nonwoven geotextiles

(From DuPont website)

It is seen that at low stresses the permeability of needle-punched geotextiles are much
higher than thermally bonded nonwovens. As the stress increases there is a large
reduction in permeability. However below 40 kPa (stress levels applicable for
pavements), the permeability of needle-punched nonwovens is higher than that of
thermally bonded nonwovens. At higher stresses the permeability of needle-punched
nonwoven is slightly lower, but the difference is not really significant.

When a needle-punched geotextile is used as a separator, the normal stress will be less
than 34 kPa (worst case). The permeability will be still higher than a thermally bonded
nonwoven geotextile. But when it comes to trench drain applications where the normal
stress will be much smaller, the permeability of needle-punched geotextile will be much
higher than thermally bonded nonwovens.

Hence it is clear that although the permeability of needle-punched geotextiles decrease

under stress, it will be still higher than that of thermally bonded nonwovens.
Reduction in Transmissivity

Application of compressive stress results in reduction of transmissivity (in plane

drainage capability) of needle-punched geotextiles. However at the relatively low stress
levels applicable to pavements, needle-punched geotextiles have a higher transmissivity
than thermally bonded.

Koerner’s book (Table 2.7, page 123) gives the following typical values of
transmissivity (at a stress of 40 kPa) for geotextiles.

 Nonwoven needle-punched geotextile 2 x 10-6 m2/s

 Nonwoven thermally bonded geotextile 3 x 10-9 m2/s

It may be noted that the transmissivity of needle-punched geotextile is three orders of

magnitude higher than the thermally bonded geotextile.

Therefore it is clear that for the relatively low stress levels applicable for highways (less
than 40 kPa), needle-punched nonwoven geotextiles have higher thickness, normal
permeability and in-plane permeability. Hence their performance may be expected to be
somewhat better than thermally bonded geotextiles.

Interface Friction

Needle-punched nonwovens have a rough surface, hence develop higher frictional

resistance. Thermally bonded nonwovens have a flatter and hence relatively smoother
surface. Hence lower frictional resistance is developed. The ability of geotextile to offer
lateral restraint (one of the mechanisms of reinforcement in pavements) is a function of
both the modulus as well as interface friction. The lower modulus of needle-punched
nonwovens is somewhat compensated for by the higher interface friction.

Summary of Comparison

A comparison of the various relevant properties of needle-punched and thermally bonded

nonwoven geotextiles and their relative performance as separators and filters in highways
is presented in Table 1. From this table the following conclusions may be drawn

 In the critical and most important functions of separation and filtration needle-
punched nonwovens perform better than thermally bonded nonwovens
 Drainage (in-plane flow) capability of needle-punched geotextiles is higher
 Thermally bonded nonwovens have higher modulus, hence can develop higher
stresses at smaller strains. However, this advantage is somewhat offset by the
lower interface friction. In any case, reinforcement is not a significant function in
the case of nonwoven geotextiles.
DESIGN BY SPECIFICATION

The design by specification approach is widely used public agencies world wide
especially for separation and filtration in highway pavement related applications. One of
the most comprehensive and widely used (internationally) specifications is the AASHTO
M288-96 specification. Herein required property values for different applications are
listed. It may be noted that AASHTO M288-96 specification states only the required
property values and do not recommend the use of thermally bonded nonwovens nor
preclude the use of needle-punched nonwovens. The only requirement is that the
geotextile satisfies the required property values. It may be noted that USA is one of the
largest consumers of nonwoven geotextiles in the world and AASHTO has vast
experience of using nonwovens for highways applications. It is worth noting that a public
regulatory agency with vast experience and considerable expertise in this field, does not
discriminate against needle-punched nonwovens or favours thermally bonded nonwoven
geotextiles.

OPINION OF LEADING CONSULTANTS

Opinions of leading consultants with first hand experience of using different types of
nonwoven geotextiles can serve as a basis for an impartial assessment of the relative
advantages and disadvantages of needle-punched and thermally bonded nonwoven
geotextiles. In this context it is of great interest to note the views of Dr. G.N.Richardson
an eminent geotechnical engineer with 25 years of experience in the field of
geosynthetics and president of G.N. Richardson & Associates one of the leading
consulting companies in the field of geosynthetics.

A detailed note prepared by Dr. Richardson (supported by his credentials) is attached as

an annexure to this report. Based on his extensive experience of using geotextiles in a
large number of projects, he concludes that because of their excellent flexibility and
superior hydraulic properties needle-punched nonwovens perform much better than
thermally bonded nonwovens in separation and subsurface drainage applications. Hence
he feels that thermally bonded nonwovens should not be specified and recommends only
needle-punched nonwovens for such applications.

CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIFYING ONLY THERMALLY BONDED

NONWOVENS

There are a large number of manufacturers of needle-punched nonwoven geotextiles

many of whom have representatives in India. Hence a highly competitive environment
exists in the country. But, in the case of thermally bonded nonwovens, it is virtually a
monopolistic situation, especially in India. If the use of needle-punched nonwoven
geotextiles is precluded by project specifications, which are highly biased in favour of
thermally bonded nonwovens geotextiles, the end result will be an extremely undesirable
situation wherein the market will be controlled by one supplier. Obviously this is not in
the best interests of the owners, consultants and contractors in terms of product prices,
delivery times and service. Earlier it was shown that with respect to pavement related
applications, there is no convincing evidence that thermally bonded nonwovens are
superior to needle-punched nonwovens (in fact needle-punched nonwovens are better in
several respects). Hence to ensure that the users have a wider choice and to promote
competitive bidding by the suppliers, the use of needle-punched geotextiles should be
allowed (and in fact preferred over thermally bonded nonwovens) in all roads and
highways projects. At this juncture when the use of geotextiles in roads is showing signs
of growth, policy makers and implementers should consider the long-term consequences
while laying down guidelines. The overall aim should be to promote the use of quality
products and to encourage competitive bidding. Hence if there is an impression among
consultants and contractors that needle-punched geotextiles cannot be used, then
immediate steps must be taken to correct this situation.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. A thorough analysis of the properties of needle-punched and thermally bonded

geotextiles and the functions of nonwoven geotextiles in highway applications
was carried out. There is absolutely no evidence that performance thermally
bonded nonwovens will be better than that of needle-punched nonwovens. On the
contrary, there are substantial grounds to believe that in the most important
functions of separation and filtration needle-punched nonwovens are definitely
better.

2. International public agencies like AASHTO with vast experience and

considerable expertise in the use of nonwoven geotextiles in roads, do not make
any distinction against needle-punched or in favour of thermally bonded
nowovens. Hence there is no reason why in India (where large scale use of
geotextiles in roads is only beginning) a policy (which when followed to its
logical consequence) will allow the use of only thermally bonded geotextiles
should be adopted.

3. Some of the leading international consultants like Dr. G.N. Richardson are of the
firm opinion that in separation and subsurface drainage applications needle-
punched nonwovens perform much better than thermally bonded nonwovens.

4. Precluding the use of needle-punched nonwovens will ultimately lead to a

virtually monopolistic situation where one supplier will control the entire market.
Denying a level playing field to the manufacturers and suppliers of needle-
punched geotextiles and preventing them from competitive bidding is not in the
best interest of owners, consultants and contractors. The logical consequence of
this situation will be higher prices, longer delivery times and poor service.
 5. In view of the above, it is strongly recommended that any explicit or implicit bias
against the use of needle-punched nonwoven geotextiles be removed from policy
guidelines and tender specifications in all roads projects. It is requested that in
view of their superior performance of needle-punched nonwoven geotextiles,
consultants and contractors should be encouraged to use these in separation,
filtration and subsurface drainage applications.

Prepared by

Dr. Jimmy Thomas

Manager (Technical Services)
Geosynthetics Division
Garware-Wall Ropes Ltd.
 Table 1: Comparison of performance of needle-punched and thermally bonded nonwovens as separators and filters in highway
applications

Property Needle-punched nonwovens Thermally bonded Remarks

nonwovens
Flexibility High Low Because of high flexibility needle-punched
nonwovens can adapt to uneven soil surfaces. Stiff
thermally bonded geotextiles may span across small
depressions and hence could be subjected to high
stresses and may fail.
Puncture resistance Higher Lower Needle-punched nonwovens perform better as
(Fibre bonding is through mechanical (The relatively brittle bonds separators and filters
entanglement which is highly ductile. fail at small strains. The
Hence yielding without rupture is amount of yielding is limited
possible. Can undergo large amount of and gets punctures at
deformation without being punctured) relatively small strains).
Soil retention Higher Lower Needle-punched nonwovens have better soil
(Higher thickness means larger filter (Lower thickness means retention characteristics and hence perform better
length) smaller filter length) as filters and separators
Permeability High Low Needle-punched nonwovens perform better as
normal to the plane (Due to the open unconsolidated (Due to the dense filters and separators
structure) consolidated structure)
In-plane High Low At the relatively low stress levels applicable for
permeability (Due to higher thickness and open (Due to lower thickness and highway pavements (typically less than 30 kPa),
unconsolidated structure) dense consolidated structure) needle-punched nonwovens have better drainage
capacity
Interface friction High Low Needle-punched nonwovens develop better
frictional resistance and hence offer better restraint
to lateral movement of granular base/subbase
materials.