INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
existing living thing]
BIOLOGY – the study of life or living
and once living things
- living things share 8
characteristics
- NO SINGLE characteristic
sufficiently describes a living
thing
ORIGIN OF LIFE
1. DIVINE CREATION THEORY –
first form of life is created by
a supernatural being called
GOD
2. COSMOZOIC OR
INTERPLANETARY THEORY –
proposed by HERMANN
RICHTER (1865) and
supported by SILVESTRE
ARRHENIUS
[life had reached the earth
from some other heavenly
body in the form of resistant
spores of simple organisms
in meteorites or in
spaceship]
3. PHILOSOPHICAL THEORY OF
ETERNITY – LIFE has no
beginning and has no end;
life has been here even at
the very beginning of time
4. ABIOGENESIS OR
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
– supported by ALEXANDER
OPRIN [living things are
coming from non – living
things]
: challenged by
FRANCISCO REDI, JOHN
NEEDMAN, LAZZARO
SPALLANZANI
5. BIOGENESIS – proposed by
LUIS PASTEUR [every living
thing come from a pre –
6. BIOCHEMICAL THEORY –
proposed by Russian
biochemist A.I. OPARIN in
1923 and later supported
by English scientist J.B.
HALDANE in 1928
: life started along the origin
and evolution of earth and
atmosphere
: 3 phases; [ CHEMOGENY –
chemical evolution,
BIOGENY – biologival
evolution, CAGNOGENY –
modification of life]
FORMATION OF SIMPLE MOLECULES
2H2 + O2 >>> 2H2O
N2 + 3H2 >>> 2NH3
C + 2H2 >>> CH4
FORMATION OF ORGANIC
MOLECULES
CH4 + H2O >>> sugar, fatty acid,
glycerol
CH4 + H2O + NH3 >>> amino acid
CH4 + H2O + NH3 + HCN >>> purine
+ pyrimidine
- The hot water ocean
containing organic
compounds was described by
Haldane as “The Hot Dilute
Soup” or “The Primordial Soup”
or “Prebiotic Soup”
FORMATION OF COMPLEX
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- A large number of complex
organic compounds in ocean
remained to unspoil due to the
absence of life
- There was the information of
nucleotides by the
combination of sugar,
phosphate, purine and
pyrimidine
- Nucleotides formed nucleic
acid which is the basic
component of life
trapping pigment called
chlorophyll. In this way,
prokaryotic, anaerobic and
photoautotrophic organisms
evolved

FORMATION OF COACERVATIVES

COACERVATIVES – complex
organic compounds of primordial
soup in ocean aggregated
together through the colloidal
system and bounded by water
layer

BIOGENY - coacervatives may

produce the first cell – like
structure. The first cell – like
structure with the power of division
is called EABIANT or pre – cell. A.
Oparin called it as PROTOBIONT

COGNOGENY – heterotrophs
began to search other alternatives
for obtaining food i.e.
saprophytism, parasitism,
chemosynthesis and
photosynthesis

- During photosynthesis, solar

energy was trapped by light

WHERE DID LIFE BEGIN

1. PRIMITIVE EARTH’S
ATMOSPHERE - Earth’s first
atmosphere is composed of
hot hydrogen gas (H2),
while the second is made
with the mixture of water
(H2O), carbon monoxide
(CO), carbon dioxide
(CO2), nitrogen (N2),
 ammonia (NH4), and
methane (CH4)
- the atmosphere had very
little oxygen then, which
enables amino acids and
sugars to react to form
carbon dioxide and water
- The formation of organic
molecules could have
associated and
eventually evolved to
become functional cells
2. FROZEN OCEAN – a
hypothesis which stated
that life originated under a
frozen ocean similar to
what coversJupiter’s tiny
moon Europa today.
- It’s been said that early earth
may had frozen oceans
containing water and carbon
3. UNDERNEATH EARTH’S CRUST
- Life may have been
formed as a product of
intense energy from
volcanic activity, with
metallic molecules such as
iron and nickel minerals
which act as catalysts to
fuse gases ejected by
eruptions
4. CLAY ON EARTH’S CRUST –
life may have resulted from
silicate surfaces
- clay have positive charges to
attract organic molecules and
exclude water
- thus, act as a catalytic surface
to produce more complex
molecules
5. VENTS IN DEEP SEA – it is a
popular hypothesis
: genetic profiling revealed
that theoretical ancestors
of prokaryotes are closest
to the profiles of bacteria
that still thrive today in
deep – sea vents
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
1. AEROBIOLOGY – study of
airborne organic particles
2. AGRICULTURE – study of
producing crops and raising
livestock
3. ANATOMY – study of internal
structures of living things
4. BACTERIOLOGY – study of
bacteria
5. BIOCHEMISTRY – use of
chemistry in the study of living
things
6. BIOENGINEERING - study of
living things through the means
of engineering
7. BIOGEOGRAPHY - study of the
geographical distribution of
living things
8. BIOINFORMATICS - is the use of
information technology for the
study, collection, and storage
of genomic and other
biological data
9. BIOMECHANICS - study of the
mechanics of living beings
10. BIOLOGICAL EARTH SCIENCES -
the use of earth sciences, such
as geography, in the study of
living things
11. BIOMATHEMATICS - is the
application of math to the
study of living things
12. BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH - study
of health and disease
13. BIOMUSICOLOGY - study of
music from a biological
perspective
14. BIOPHYSICS - is the application
of physics to the study of living
things
15. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY - is
the application of biology to
the study of the human mind
16. BIOSEMIOTICS - study of
biological processes through
semiotics, by applying the
models of meaning-making
and communication
17. BOTANY - study of plants
18. BUILDING BIOLOGY - study of
the indoor living environment
19. CELL BIOLOGY - study of the
cell as a complete unit.
20. COGNITIVE BIOLOGY - study of
cognition as a biological
function
21. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY -
study of preservation,
restoration, and protection of
the natural environment
22. CRYOBIOLOGY - study of lower
than normally preferred
temperatures on living beings
23. CYTOLOGY - study of cells
24. DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY –
study of the processes through
which an organism forms
25. ECOLOGY - study of the
relationships of living things to
each other and to the
environment
26. EMBRYOLOGY - study of the
formation and development of
living things from fertilization to
birth as independent organisms
27. ENDOCRINOLOGY - study of
hormones
28. ENTOMOLOGY - study of insects
29. ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY -
study of the natural world
especially as affected by
human activity
30. EPIDEMIOLOGY - study of the
health of populations
31. EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY -
study of the origin and descent
of species over time
32. GENETICS - study of heredity
and the lifelong development
of living things
33. HISTOLOGY - study of tissues
34. HELMINTHOLOGY - study of
worms
35. HEMATOLOGY - study of blood
and blood-forming organs
36. HERPETOLOGY - study of
reptiles and amphibians
37. ICHTHYOLOGY - study of fish
38. INTEGRATIVE BIOLOGY - study
of whole organisms
39. LICHENOLOGY - study of lichen
40. LIMNOLOGY - study of inland
waters
41. MAMMOLOGY - study of
mammals
42. MARINE BIOLOGY - study of
ocean ecosystems
43. MICROBIOLOGY - study of
microorganisms
44. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY - study of
biological functions at the
molecular level
45. MYCOLOGY - study of fungi
46. QUANTUM BIOLOGY - study of
quantum mechanics on
biological functions
47. SOCIOBIOLOGY - study of the
biological bases of sociology
48. STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY -study of
the molecular structure of
biological macromolecules
49. TAXONOMY - study of the
classification and naming of
living things
50. VIROLOGY - study of viruses
51. ZOOLOGY - study of animals
52. ZOOGEOGRAPHY - study of the
land and its animals
1. PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC
CELLS: EUKARYOTIC cells are cells
containing membrane-bound
organelles and are the basis for
both unicellular and multicellular
organisms. PROKARYOTIC cells do
not have any membrane-bound
organelles and are always part of
unicellular organisms.
Cellular Organization:
a.) PROKARYOTIC CELLS: Lack a
true nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles. Their
genetic material is present in a
nucleoid region.
b.) EUKARYOTIC CELLS: Have a true
nucleus that contains the
genetic material enclosed
within a nuclear envelope.
They also have membrane-
bound organelles.
Nucleus:
a.) PROKARYOTIC CELLS: Lack a
defined nucleus; their genetic
material is in direct contact
with the cytoplasm.
b.) EUKARYOTIC CELLS: Possess a
distinct nucleus enclosed by a
nuclear membrane.
Size:
a.) PROKARYOTIC CELLS: Generally
smaller, typically ranging from 0.5
to 5 micrometers in diameter.
b.) EUKARYOTIC CELLS: Typically
larger, with a wide size range,
often ranging from 10 to 100
micrometers in diameter.
Membrane-bound Organelles
a.) PROKARYOTIC CELLS: Lack
membrane-bound organelles such
as mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, and Golgi apparatus.
b.) EUKARYOTIC CELLS: Contain
various membrane-bound
organelles, including the
mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, and more.
Reproduction:
a.) PROKARYOTIC CELLS:
Reproduce through binary fission,
a simple form of asexual
reproduction.
b.) EUKARYOTIC CELLS: Reproduce
through mitosis (asexual) and
meiosis (sexual).
2. PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS:
PLANT CELLS have a cell wall in
addition to a cell membrane,
whereas ANIMAL CELLS have only
a cell membrane. Plants use cell
walls to provide structure to the
plant, contain organelles called
chloroplasts, while animal cells DO
NOT.
Cell Wall
a.) PLANT CELLS: Have a rigid cell
wall composed primarily of
cellulose outside the cell
membrane.
b.) ANIMAL CELLS: Lack a cell wall;
their outermost structure is the cell
membrane.
Chloroplasts
a.) PLANT CELLS: Contain
chloroplasts, where photosynthesis
occurs, allowing them to produce
their own food.
b.) ANIMAL CELLS: Do not contain
chloroplasts, as they are
heterotrophic and obtain food
from external sources.
Vacuoles
a.) PLANT CELLS: Typically have a
large central vacuole that stores
water, nutrients, and waste
products.
b.) ANIMAL CELLS: Have smaller
and often multiple vacuoles with
various functions, including
storage and transport.
Lysosomes
a.) PLANT CELLS: Lysosomes are less
common or absent in plant cells.
b.) ANIMAL CELLS: Contain
lysosomes, which are involved in
intracellular digestion and waste
removal.
Centrioles
a.) PLANT CELLS: Lack centrioles or
have them in very limited cases.
b.) ANIMAL CELLS: Contain
centrioles, which are involved in
cell division (e.g., mitosis and
meiosis).
3. MEMBRANE-BOUND AND NON-
MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES
Membrane-Bound Organelles
- These organelles are enclosed
by a lipid bilayer membrane that
separates their internal contents
from the cytoplasm. Examples
include the nucleus, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, and
peroxisomes.
- Functions vary widely, from
genetic storage and processing
(nucleus) to energy production
(mitochondria) and protein
synthesis (endoplasmic reticulum).
Non-Membrane Bound Organelles
- These organelles do not have
a surrounding lipid bilayer
membrane. They are typically
composed of proteins and RNA.
Examples include ribosomes,
cytoskeleton elements (e.g.,
microtubules and microfilaments),
and nucleolus.
- Ribosomes, for instance, are
involved in protein synthesis, while
the cytoskeleton provides
structural support and facilitates
intracellular transport.
--------------------------------------------------
1. NUCLEUS
a.) Description: The nucleus is a
membrane-bound organelle
found in eukaryotic cells. It
contains the cell's genetic
material, including DNA, organized
into chromosomes.
b.) Function: The nucleus controls
and regulates cell activities by
containing the genetic information
needed for growth, development,
and reproduction. It also directs
the synthesis of RNA and
ribosomes.
2. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
a.) Description: Smooth ER is a
network of membranes within the
cell, lacking ribosomes on its
surface. It appears smooth under
a microscope.
b.) Function: Smooth ER plays a
role in lipid metabolism and
detoxification. It synthesizes lipids,
metabolizes carbohydrates, and
detoxifies drugs and toxins in the
cell.
3. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
a.) Description: Rough ER is similar
in structure to smooth ER but has
ribosomes attached to its outer
surface, giving it a "rough"
appearance.
b.) Function: Rough ER is primarily
involved in protein synthesis and
modification. It synthesizes proteins
and transports them to other
cellular compartments or for
secretion.
4. GOLGI APPARATUS
a.) Description: The Golgi
apparatus consists of flattened
membrane sacs. It is typically
located near the nucleus.
b.) Function: The Golgi apparatus
processes, modifies, sorts, and
packages proteins and lipids
received from the endoplasmic
reticulum. It prepares them for
transport within the cell or for
secretion outside the cell.
5. RIBOSOMES
a.) Description: Ribosomes are
small, spherical structures
composed of RNA and proteins.
They can be found either free in
the cytoplasm or attached to the
rough ER.
b.) Function: Ribosomes are
responsible for protein synthesis.
They read the genetic code from
mRNA and assemble amino acids
into polypeptide chains to form
proteins.
6. LYSOSOMES
a.) Description: Lysosomes are
membrane-bound vesicles
containing enzymes.
b.) Function: Lysosomes are
involved in intracellular digestion.
They break down waste materials,
cellular debris, and foreign
invaders (e.g., bacteria) through
the action of enzymes,
maintaining cellular cleanliness
and recycling nutrients.
7. MITOCHONDRIA
a.) Description: Mitochondria are
double-membraned organelles
with a folded inner membrane
(cristae) and a central matrix.
b.) Function: Mitochondria are the
powerhouses of the cell,
producing energy (ATP) through
cellular respiration. They
metabolize glucose and fatty
acids to generate ATP, which fuels
various cellular processes.
8. CHLOROPLASTS
a.) Description: Chloroplasts are
unique to plant cells and some
protists. They contain green
pigments called chlorophyll.
b.) Function: Chloroplasts are
responsible for photosynthesis in
plant cells. They capture light
energy from the sun and convert it
into chemical energy in the form
of glucose, producing oxygen as a
byproduct.
CELL THEORY
1. 1665 Robert Hooke – observed
cells in co’ coined term “cel”
2. 1673 Anton van Leeuwenhoek
– created a powerful
microscope
3. 1827 – 33 Robert Brown –
noticed that pollen grains in
water jiggled around called
“Brownian motion”
- Discovered the nucleus
4. 1838 Matthias Schleiden – a
botanist who concluded that
all plants are made of cells
5. 1839 Theodor Schwann – a
zoologist who concluded that
all animals are made of cells
6. 1855 Rudolph Virchow – a
physician who did research on
cancer cells and concluded
“omnis cellula e cellula”, “all
celles are from other pre-
existing cells”
THE CELL THEORY
1. All living things are composed
of one or more cells.
2. Cells are the basin units or
structure and function in an
organism.
3. Cells come only from existing
cells.
Cells are Diverse both in size,
shape, and internal
organization.
WHY ARE CELLS SO SMALL?
• Transport- Cell volume to
surface area ratios favor small
size.
• Control- Nucleus to cytoplasm
consideration.
Mycoplasmas - bacteria that are
0.1 to 1.0 m.
(1/10 the size of regular bacteria).
Note: 1.0 m = one millionth of a
meter
ALL CELLS HAVE…………….
a. Plasma (cell) Membrane
b. Nucleus (Eukaryotes Only)
c. Cytoplasm (an area)
d. Organelles (structures with
specialized functions)
TYPES OF CELL
1. PROKARYOTES – simple cells
that do not have internal
membranes. Ex: bacteria
2. EUKARYOTES – more complex
cells that do have internal,
membrane-bound structures.
Ex: plants and animals
TIMELINE
PROKARYOTIC ORGANISMS: first
appeared 3.5 BYA include
bacteria and cyanobacteria.
- lack a nucleus and other
membrane bounded
structures.
- have small ribosomes
- DNA is not organized
into chromosomes
- Flagella are not made of
microtubules and does not
have a 9+2 structure
- Cell walls are made of
peptidoglycan, not cellulose

EUKARYOTIC ORGANISMS: first

appeared 2.0 BYA include protists,
fungi, plants and animals.

- Have a nucleus and other

membrane bounded
structures.
- Have large ribosomes
- DNA is organized into
chromosomes
- Flagella are made of
microtubules and have a 9+2
structure
- Cell walls are made of
cellulose