Meteorology Today 11th Edition Ahrens Test Bank

Meteorology Today 11th Edition Ahrens
Test Bank
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Chapter 07 - Precipitation
1. An important factor in the production of rain by the collision-coalescence process is the number of ice crystals in the
cloud.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
REFERENCES: Precipitation Processes
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: METT.AHRE.16.7.2 - Describe the environments in which precipitation occurs due to the
collision-coalescence process.
OTHER: Bloom's: Remember
2. Generally, the smaller the pure water droplet, the lower the temperature at which it will freeze.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: METT.AHRE.16.7.3 - Explain the formation of ice crystals and supercooled cloud droplets
in cold clouds, and the conditions required for the ice crystal (Bergeron) process to cause
precipitation.
OTHER: Bloom's: Understand
3. Bacteria in decaying plant leaf material can act as ice nuclei.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
precipitation.
4. After a rainstorm, visibility typically deteriorates.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
REFERENCES: Precipitation Types
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: METT.AHRE.16.7.5 - Differentiate between precipitation types, and state their properties,
size and shape, formation conditions, and respective effects on life on Earth.
5. A fluffy covering of snow protects sensitive plants and their root systems from damaging low temperatures.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
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6. Large, heavy snowflakes are associated with moist air and temperatures well below freezing.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
7. Large cloud droplets fall faster than small cloud droplets because gravity acts more strongly on larger droplets.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: METT.AHRE.16.7.1 - Identify the relationship between evaporation/condensation, the
curvature effect, and the solute effect and cloud droplet size.
8. When the temperature in a cloud is -30°C, larger cloud droplets are more likely to freeze than smaller cloud droplets.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
precipitation.
9. In a cloud over land, where the air temperature is -10C, we would find many more cloud droplets than ice crystals.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
precipitation.
10. In a cloud composed of water droplets and ice crystals, the saturation vapor pressure is greater over the droplets than
over the ice.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True

11. Very small cloud droplets of pure water can evaporate even when the relative humidity is 100 percent.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
12. During cloud seeding, dry ice is much easier to handle than silver iodide, because it can be supplied to the cloud from
burners located either on the ground or on the wing of a small aircraft.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: METT.AHRE.16.7.4 - Discuss the different ways cloud seeding can be achieved in
experiment, and compare them with cloud seeding processes that occur naturally in Earth's
atmosphere.
13. A problem with the tipping bucket rain gauge is that during each “tip” it loses some rainfall and, therefore, under
measures rainfall amounts, especially during heavy downpours.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
REFERENCES: Measuring Precipitation
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: METT.AHRE.16.7.6 - Compare and contrast the instruments and techniques commonly used
to measure precipitation.
OTHER: Bloom's: Analyze
14. With a Doppler radar smaller targets require detection by longer wavelengths.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: METT.AHRE.16.7.7 - Examine the uses and benefits of Doppler radar and other radar types
with regard to measuring precipitation.
15. The Doppler radar has the capacity to measure the speed at which falling rain is moving horizontally toward or away
from the radar antenna. Falling rain moves with the wind. Consequently, Doppler radar allows scientists to peer into a
tornado-generating thunderstorm and observe its wind.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
OTHER: Examine the uses and benefits of Doppler radar and other radar types with regard to
measuring precipitation.
16. Modern satellites are equipped with very sensitive radars that are able to peer into a cloud and provide a vertical view
of its tiny cloud droplets and ice particles, as well as precipitation.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: METT.AHRE.16.7.8 - Describe how satellites are used to measure precipitation from space.
17. A single rain gauge on top of a building cannot represent the total precipitation for any particular region.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
18. Generally, the concentration of nuclei is less over the oceans than over land.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
19. In calm air, a typical cloud droplet falls over 600 times faster than a typical raindrop.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
20. A warm stratus cloud is typically less than 500 m thick and has slow upward air movement (generally less than 0.1
m/sec).
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
21. Which below best describes the solute effect?

a. keeps water droplets from freezing at temperatures below 32°F
b. removal of pollutants from the atmosphere by cloud droplets
c. water droplets dissolve hygroscopic nuclei and condensation can occur at relative humidities less than 100
percent
d. evaporation of cloud droplets and growing of ice crystals in a cold cloud
e. condensation occurs at relative humidities of 100 percent
ANSWER: c
22. Which statement below best describes the curvature effect?

a. large cloud droplets fall faster than small droplets.
b. small droplets evaporate more quickly than large droplets.
c. small droplets collide and coalesce more easily than larger droplets.
d. it explains the six-sided shape of ice crystals.
e. it explains the shape of rain drops.
ANSWER: b
23. Condensation onto hygroscopic nuclei is possible at relative humidities less than 100 percent due to the
a. curvature effect.
b. electrical charge on these nuclei.
c. solute effect.
d. crystalline structure of these nuclei.
e. size of the nuclei.
ANSWER: c

24. Which cloud type below will only produce precipitation by the collision-coalescence process?
a. a thick, cold nimbostratus cloud
b. a thick, warm cumulus cloud
c. a thick, cold cumulus cloud
d. a thick, supercooled cumulonimbus cloud with abundant nuclei
e. a supercooled cumulus congestus cloud
ANSWER: b
25. Large raindrops fall ____ smaller raindrops, and have ____ terminal velocity than/as small raindrops.
a. faster than; a lesser
b. faster than; a greater
c. slower than; a lesser
d. slower than;, a greater
e. at the same rate as; the same
ANSWER: b
26. Which cloud would most likely produce drizzle?

a. stratus
b. cumulus
c. cumulus congestus
d. cirrostratus
e. cumulonimbus
ANSWER: a
27. If you observe large raindrops hitting the ground, you could probably say that the cloud overhead was ____ and had
____ updrafts.
a. thick; weak
b. thick; strong
c. thin; weak
d. thin; strong
e. thin; no
ANSWER: b
28. If rain falls on one side of a street and not on the other side, the rain most likely fell from a ____ cloud.
a. nimbostratus
b. stratus
c. cumulonimbus
d. altostratus
e. altocumulus
ANSWER: c
precipitation.
29. During the ice crystal process of rain formation,

a. only ice crystals are present in a cloud.
b. ice crystals grow larger at the expense of the surrounding liquid cloud droplets.
c. the temperature in the cloud must be -40°C (-40°F) or below.
d. the cloud must be a cumuliform cloud.
e. the surface temperature must be below freezing.
ANSWER: b
precipitation.
30. The region of a cloud where only ice particles exist is called
a. iced.
b. coated.
c. graupled.
d. nucleated.
e. glaciated.
ANSWER: e
precipitation.
31. A supercooled cloud droplet is

a. an ice crystal surrounded by air warmer than 0°C (32°F).
b. a liquid droplet that is cooler than the air around it.
c. a liquid droplets observed at temperatures below 0°C (32°F).

d. a water droplet that has had all its latent heat removed.
e. another term for ice crystal.
ANSWER: c
precipitation.
32. For sub-freezing temperatures, the saturation vapor pressure just above a liquid water surface is ____ the saturation
vapor pressure above an ice surface.
a. greater than
b. the same as
c. less than
d. 10% less than
e. 50% less than
ANSWER: a
precipitation.
33. Contact freezing is

a. the freezing of supercooled droplets by contact with a nucleus.
b. the sticking together of ice crystals to make a snowflake.
c. the joining of many nuclei to form an ice nucleus.
d. the freezing of supercooled droplets when they come into contact with a supercooled surface.
e. the sticking together of any type of nucleus.
ANSWER: a
precipitation.
34. The growth of a precipitation particle by the collision of an ice crystal (or snowflake) with a supercooled liquid droplet
is called
a. accretion.
b. spontaneous nucleation.
c. condensation.
d. deposition.
e. collision.
ANSWER: a
precipitation.
35. Cloud seeding using silver iodide only works in

a. cold clouds composed entirely of ice crystals.
b. warm clouds composed entirely of water droplets.
c. cold clouds with a low ratio of ice crystals to water droplets.
d. clouds with more ice crystals than supercooled droplets.
e. clouds that can produce precipitation.
ANSWER: c
atmosphere.
36. What are the two main substances used in cloud seeding?
a. lead iodide and dry ice
b. silver iodide and lead iodide
c. ice crystals and flood powder
d. dry ice and sea salt
e. silver iodide and dry ice
ANSWER: e
atmosphere.
37. Rain which falls from a cloud but evaporates before reaching the ground is referred to as
a. sleet.
b. virga.
c. graupel.
d. dry rain.
e. drizzle.
ANSWER: b
38. The most common ice crystal shape is

a. graupel.
b. dendrite.
c. rime.
d. virga.
e. a pentagon.
ANSWER: b
39. Fallstreaks usually ____ before reaching the ground.

a. evaporate
b. condense
c. sublimate
d. deposit
e. perspirate
ANSWER: c
40. Fallstreaks most often form with

a. nimbostratus clouds.
b. cumulonimbus clouds.
c. stratus clouds.
d. altostratus clouds.
e. cirrus clouds.
ANSWER: e
41. In the winter you read in the newspaper that a large section of the Midwest is without power due to downed power
lines. Which form of precipitation would most likely produce this situation?
a. snow
b. hail
c. freezing rain
d. sleet
e. rain
ANSWER: c
42. Which is the correct association?

a. snow grains - hail
b. ground blizzard - graupel
c. snow squall - intense snow shower
d. sleet - glaze
e. freezing rain - hail
ANSWER: c
43. Which is the correct association?

a. snow grains - ice pellet
b. ground blizzard - graupel
c. snow squall - intense snow shower
d. sleet - glaze
e. freezing rain - hail
ANSWER: c
44. Which of the following might be mistaken for hail?

a. virga
b. graupel
c. dendrite
d. supercooled droplet
e. ice crystal
ANSWER: b
45. The primary method used in preventing the growth of large, destructive hailstones is to inject a thunderstorm with
large quantities of
a. silver iodide.
b. ice crystals.
c. dry ice.
d. hydrophobic nuclei.
e. hailstone embryos.
ANSWER: a

46. Precipitation with the greatest size (diameter) is

a. the snow pellet.
b. the snow grain.
c. a hailstone.
d. sleet.
e. a rain drop.
ANSWER: c
47. An amount of precipitation measured to be less than one-hundredth of an inch (0.25 mm) is called
a. a trace.
b. drizzle.
c. light rain.
d. mist.
e. fog.
ANSWER: a
48. If a city were to receive 1/2 inch of rain in the morning and then 5 inches of snow that afternoon, about how much
precipitation would the weather service report for that day?
a. 5 1/2 inches
b. 1/2 inch
c. 1 inch
d. 10 inches
e. 2 1/2 inches
ANSWER: c
49. After a snowstorm, the newspaper reports that Buffalo, New York, received 1.50 inches of precipitation. If we assume
an average water equivalent ratio for this snowstorm, then Buffalo received about ____ inches of snow.
a. 3
b. 1.5
c. 10
d. 9
e. 15
ANSWER: e
50. On average, the water equivalent of 10 inches of snow is about ____ inch(es) of water.
a. 0.5
b. 1
c. 2
d. 2.5
e. 5
ANSWER: b
51. Radar gathers information about precipitation in clouds by measuring the

a. energy emitted by the precipitation particles.
b. absorption characteristics of falling precipitation.
c. amount of energy reflected back to a transmitter.
d. amount of sunlight scattered off the precipitation.
e. amount of solar energy passing through the cloud.
ANSWER: c
52. In a typical advancing winter storm, which of the following sequences of precipitation types is most likely to occur?
a. freezing rain, rain, snow, sleet
b. freezing rain, rain, sleet, snow
c. rain, freezing rain, snow, sleet
d. rain, sleet, freezing rain, snow
e. rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow
ANSWER: e

53. The main difference between a cloud drop and a raindrop is its
a. color.
b. size.
c. shape.
d. nucleus type.
e. associated precipitation type.
ANSWER: b
54. A typical raindrop is about ____ than a typical cloud droplet.

a. one thousand times smaller
b. one thousand times larger
c. one hundred times smaller
d. one hundred times larger
e. ten times larger
ANSWER: c
55. The lightest form of rain is

a. shower.
b. cloudburst.
c. virga.
d. drizzle.
e. fallstreak.
ANSWER: d
56. Satellites measure rainfall from space using which instrument?

a. radar
b. tipping-bucket rain gauge
c. ceiliometer
d. weighing-type rain gauge
e. standard rain gauge
ANSWER: a
57. The Doppler radar uses the principle called Doppler ____ to measure the speed at which falling rain is moving
horizontally toward or away from the radar antenna.
a. signal
b. radiance
c. acceleration
d. speedometer
e. shift
ANSWER: e
58. A Doppler radar is used to detect ____ and to measure ____.

a. cloud droplets; nucleus types
b. storm systems; wind speed
c. snow covers; snow cover thickness
d. precipitation type; cloud coverage
e. areas of precipitation; rainfall intensity
ANSWER: e
59. The idea in cloud seeding is to first find clouds that have too low a ratio of ice crystals to droplets and then to add
enough artificial ice nuclei so that the ratio of crystals to droplets is about ____.
a. 1:100
b. 1:1,000
c. 1:10,000
d. 1:100,000
e. 1:1,000,000
ANSWER: d
atmosphere.
60. Some of the first experiments in cloud seeding were conducted by Vincent Schaefer and Irving Langmuir during the
late 1940s. To seed a cloud, they dropped crushed pellets of ____ from a plane.
a. silver iodide
b. silver iodine
c. lead iodide
d. cupric sulfide
e. dry ice
ANSWER: e
atmosphere.
61. Dry ice has a temperature of

a. -28 degrees Celsius (-18 degrees Fahrenheit).
b. -48 degrees Celsius (-54 degrees Fahrenheit).
c. -58 degrees Celsius (-72 degrees Fahrenheit).
d. -78 degrees Celsius (-108 degrees Fahrenheit).
e. -98 degrees Celsius (-144 degrees Fahrenheit).
ANSWER: d
atmosphere.
62. A standard rain gauge consists of a funnel-shaped collector attached to a long measuring tube. The cross-sectional area
of the collector is ____ times that of the tube. Hence, rain falling into the collector is amplified ____ in the tube,
permitting measurements of great precision.
a. 2; twofold
b. 4; fourfold
c. 6; sixfold
d. 8; eightfold
e. 10; tenfold
ANSWER: e
63. In a standard rain gauge ____ inches of water in the tube would be measured as 1 inch of rainfall.
a. 2.5
b. 5
c. 7.5
d. 10
e. 12.5
ANSWER: d
64. In dry powdery snow, the water equivalent ratio may be as high as
a. 15:1.
b. 20:1.
c. 25:1.
d. 30:1.
e. 35:1.
ANSWER: d
65. The radar unit consists of a transmitter that sends out short, powerful ____ pulses.
a. microwave
b. ultraviolet light
c. transmitted light
d. reflected light
e. X-ray
ANSWER: a
66. Radar images typically are displayed using various colors to denote the intensity of precipitation, with ____
representing the lightest precipitation and ____ representing the heaviest precipitation.
a. white; black
b. light grey; dark grey
c. orange; green
d. dark blue or purple; yellow or bright green
e. light blue or green; orange or red
ANSWER: e
67. The Precipitation Radar, located onboard the TRMM (Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission) satellite, is able to
measure rainfall intensity in previously inaccessible regions of the tropics and subtropics, and is capable of detecting
rainfall rates down to about ____ per hour.
a. 0.1 mm (0.004 in.)
b. 0.3 mm (0.01 in.)
c. 0.5 mm (0.02 in.)
d. 0.7 mm (0.03 in.)
e. 0.9 mm (0.04 in.)

ANSWER: d
68. In clouds with tops warmer than -15 degrees Celsius (5 degrees Fahrenheit), the ____ can play a significant role in
producing precipitation.
a. solute effect
b. condensation
c. curvature effect
d. evaporation
e. collision-coalescence process
ANSWER: e
69. The speed of falling cloud droplet increases until the air resistance
a. is greater than gravity.
b. is greater than the droplets inertia.
c. is less than gravity.
d. equals the pull of gravity.
e. is less than the droplets momentum.
ANSWER: d
70. Raindrops that reach Earth’s surface are seldom larger than
a. 2 mm
b. 3 mm
c. 5 mm
d. 8 mm
e. 10 mm
ANSWER: c
71. Typical cloud droplets seldom reach the ground as rain because they ____________________ before reaching the
ground.

ANSWER: evaporate
72. A common term used for saturation vapor pressure when referring to cloud droplets is ____________________ vapor
pressure.
ANSWER: equilibrium
73. Heavy showers usually fall from ____________________clouds, whereas steady precipitation normally falls from
____________________clouds.
ANSWER: cumulus; stratus
cumuliform; stratiform
74. Atmospheric conditions that produce sleet differ from those that produce hail because for sleet to form, surface
temperatures must be ____________________ freezing, whereas surface temperatures are typically well
____________________ freezing during hailstorms.
ANSWER: below; above
75. Suppose a thick nimbostratus cloud contains ice crystals and cloud droplets all about the same size. The precipitation
process most important in producing rain from this cloud is called the ____________________ process.
ANSWER: ice crystal
ice crystal (Bergeron)
Bergeron
REFERENCES: Precipitation Process
precipitation.
76. An instrument that can collect and measure rainfall is called a(n) ____________________.
ANSWER: rain gauge
77. Remote recording of precipitation can be made with a(n) ____________________rain gauge. With this gauge,
precipitation is caught in a cylinder and accumulates in a bucket. The bucket sits on a sensitive weighing platform. Special
gears translate the accumulated weight of rain or snow into millimeters or inches of precipitation.
ANSWER: weighing-type
weighing type
weighing
78. Snow accumulation rates may be measured at a single site by using a(n) ____________________, a small wooden
platform resting near the ground that is cleared off after each measurement.
ANSWER: snow board
79. Radar stands for ____________________.

ANSWER: radio detection and ranging
80. When a Doppler radar has collected data, the returning signal is amplified and displayed on a screen, producing an
image, also called a(n)____________________, from the target.
ANSWER: echo
81. The next improvement for Doppler radar is called the ____________________. This form of Doppler radar, which has
been installed around the United States over the last several years, transmits both a vertical and horizontal pulse, which
makes it easier to determine whether falling precipitation is in the form of rain or snow.
ANSWER: polarimetric radar
82. In February 2014, another precipitation-measuring satellite was launched. It represents a joint initiative between the
United States and Japan, and is called the ____________________ mission.
ANSWER: Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM)
Global Precipitation Measurement

GPM
83. In various parts of the world where the air is typically moist but rainfall is scarce, _____________________ are used
to gather fresh water.
ANSWER: fog collectors
a fog collector
fog collector
84. Clouds that have above-freezing temperatures at all levels are called ____________________.
ANSWER: warm clouds
85. A raindrop is falling at constant speed. This constant speed is also called ____________________.
ANSWER: terminal velocity
86. Is silver iodide used as a cloud seeding agent in warm or cold clouds? Why is it the most commonly used cloud
seeding agent?
ANSWER: Cloud seeding has been attempted in both cold and warm clouds.
Silver iodide has a crystalline structure similar to an ice crystal, which is why it acts as an
effective ice nucleus at temperatures of -4°C (25°F) and lower. Silver iodide causes ice
crystals to form in two primary ways:
1) Ice crystals form when silver iodide crystals come in contact with supercooled liquid
droplets.
2) Ice crystals grow in size as water vapor is deposited onto the silver iodide crystal.
Silver iodide is much easier to handle than dry ice, since it can be supplied to the cloud from
burners located either on the ground or on the wing of a small aircraft. Although other
substances, such as lead iodide and cupric sulfide, are also effective ice nuclei, silver iodide
still remains the most commonly used substance in cloud-seeding projects.
atmosphere.
87. What is the main difference between a raindrop and a cloud droplet?
ANSWER: An ordinary cloud droplet is extremely small, having an average diameter of 20 micrometers
or 0.002 cm. A typical cloud droplet is 100 times smaller in diameter than a typical raindrop.
If a cloud droplet is in equilibrium with its surroundings, the size of the droplet does not
change because the water molecules condensing onto the droplet will be exactly balanced by
those evaporating from it. If, however, it is not in equilibrium, the droplet size will either
increase or decrease, depending on whether condensation or evaporation predominates.
88. About how large can raindrops get? Why can't they get any larger?
ANSWER: Raindrops that reach Earth’s surface are seldom larger than about 5 mm (0.2 in.), the reason
being that the collisions (whether glancing or head-on) between raindrops tend to break them
up into many smaller drops. Additionally, when raindrops grow too large they become
unstable and break apart.
89. Would you expect the heaviest snowfall to occur on an unusually cold night or a night when the temperature was just a
little below freezing?
ANSWER: Large snowflakes are those that fall through moist air that is slightly above freezing. In this
condition the snowflakes slowly melt as they descend. A thin film of water forms on the edge
of the flakes, acting like glue when other snowflakes come in contact with it. In this way,
several flakes can join to produce giant snowflakes often measuring several inches or more in
diameter. When snowflakes fall through extremely cold air with a low moisture content,
small, powdery flakes of dry snow accumulate on the ground.
90. Explain why it is much more difficult to measure snowfall amounts than rainfall amounts, and describe the
instruments commonly used to measure snowfall amounts.
ANSWER: Snow is challenging to measure, since accumulations can vary greatly from one spot to the
next, especially when winds are strong. Traditionally, the depth of snow in a region is
determined by measuring its depth at three or more representative areas. The amount of
snowfall is defined as the average of these measurements. Snow accumulation rates may be
measured at a single site by using a snow board, a small wooden platform resting near the
ground that is cleared off after each measurement. Snow depth may also be measured by
removing the collector and inner cylinder of a standard rain gauge and allowing snow to
accumulate in the outer tube. Automated gauges are now used in many areas to collect
snowfall and measure the amount of liquid water it contains. Typically, these gauges are
surrounded by one or more octagonal fences that help to block wind and produce more
accurate readings. Remote sensing techniques are becoming a popular way to measure snow
depth, especially where harsh winter conditions make it difficult to reach observing stations.
Laser beams and pulses of ultrasonic energy can be sent from a transmitter to a snowpack,
where the energy bounces off the snowpack back to the transmitter. This procedure allows
the height of the snow accumulation to be measured in much the same way that radar
measures the distance of falling rain from a transmitter. Snow height can also be obtained by
measuring how long it takes a GPS signal to travel from a satellite to a snow field and then be
reflected upward to a receiver located in the snow field.
91. Given that precipitation can be accurately measured at surface weather stations, explain why it is desirable to measure
rainfall from space.
ANSWER: The benefits of measuring precipitation from space are numerous.
1) Satellites are able to measure rainfall intensity in previously inaccessible regions of the
tropics and subtropics.
2) Inbuilt radars are capable of detecting rainfall rates down to about 0.7 mm (0.03 in.) per
hour, while at the same time providing vertical profiles of rain and snow intensity from the
surface up to about 20 km (12 mi).
3) Equipment, such as the Microwave Imager, can measure the emitted microwave energy
from Earth, the atmosphere, clouds, and precipitation, which it translates into rainfall rates.
Visible and Infrared Scanners measure visible and infrared energy from Earth, the
atmosphere, and clouds, which is used to determine information such as the temperature of
cloud tops, which in turn can be translated into rainfall rates. Dual-frequency precipitation
radars are even able to obtain three-dimensional data about precipitation particles, and radar
onboard the satellite CloudSat, launched in April 2006, is able to peer into a cloud and
provide a vertical view of its tiny cloud droplets and ice particles, as well as precipitation.
Such vertical profiling of liquid water and ice will hopefully provide scientists with a better
understanding of precipitation processes that go on inside the cloud and the role that clouds
play in Earth’s global climate system.
92. How is precipitation measured using Doppler radar?

ANSWER: Every radar unit consists of a transmitter that sends out short, powerful microwave pulses.
When this energy encounters a target a fraction of the energy is scattered back toward the
transmitter and is detected by a receiver. The returning signal is amplified and displayed on a
screen, producing an image, or echo, from the target. The elapsed time between transmission
and reception indicates the target’s distance.
The Doppler radar is like a conventional radar in that it can detect areas of precipitation and
measure rainfall intensity. Using special computer programs called algorithms, the rainfall
intensity, over a given area for a given time, can be computed and displayed as an estimate of
total rainfall over that particular area. Furthermore, the Doppler radar uses the principle
called Doppler shift, which is why it has the capacity to measure the speed at which falling
rain is moving horizontally toward or away from the radar antenna. Falling rain moves with
the wind. Consequently, Doppler radar allows scientists to peer into a tornado-generating
thunderstorm and observe its wind.

93. List and describe three ways in which ice crystals can form in a cloud.
ANSWER: Spontaneous or homogeneous freezing is the freezing of pure water (without the benefit of
some nucleus). For this type of freezing to occur, enough molecules within the water droplet
must join together in a rigid pattern to form a tiny ice structure, or ice embryo. When the ice
embryo grows to a critical size, it acts as a nucleus. Other molecules in the droplet then attach
themselves to the nucleus of ice and the water droplet freezes. Tiny ice embryos form in
water at temperatures just below freezing, but at these temperatures thermal agitations are
large enough to weaken their structure. The ice embryos simply form and then break apart.
At lower temperatures, thermal motion is reduced, making it easier for bigger ice embryos to
form. Hence, freezing is more likely. The chances of an ice embryo growing large enough to
freeze water before the embryo is broken up by thermal agitation increases with larger
volumes of water. Consequently, only larger cloud droplets will freeze by homogeneous
freezing at air temperatures higher than -40 degrees Celsius. In air colder than -40 degrees
Celsius, however, it is almost certain that an ice embryo will grow to critical size in even the
smallest cloud droplet. Thus, any cloud that forms in extremely cold air (below -40 degrees
Celsius), such as cirrus clouds, will almost certainly be composed of ice, since any cloud
droplets that form will freeze spontaneously.
Contact freezing is the process in which contact nuclei cause supercooled droplets to freeze if
they collide with them. Contact freezing may be the dominant force in the production of ice
crystals in some clouds.
Accretion is the process of ice crystals growing larger as they collide with supercooled cloud
droplets. Upon contact, the liquid droplets freeze into ice and stick together. It occurs in
especially those clouds with relatively warm tops.
precipitation.
94. How does the ice-crystal (Bergeron) process produce precipitation? What is the main premise describing this process?
ANSWER: The main premise is that the saturation vapor pressure just above a water surface is greater
than the saturation vapor pressure above an ice surface. This difference in vapor pressure
causes water vapor molecules to move (diffuse) from the droplet toward the ice crystal. The
removal of vapor molecules reduces the vapor pressure above the droplet. Since the droplet is
now out of equilibrium with its surroundings, it evaporates to replenish the diminished supply
of water vapor above it. This process provides a continuous source of moisture for the ice
crystal, which absorbs the water vapor and grows rapidly. Hence, during the ice-crystal
(Bergeron) process, ice crystals grow larger at the expense of the surrounding water droplets.
precipitation.
95. Why are large snowflakes usually observed when the air temperature near the ground is just below freezing?
ANSWER: Snowflakes that fall through moist air that is slightly above freezing slowly melt as they
descend. A thin film of water forms on the edge of the flakes, which acts like glue when
other snowflakes come in contact with it. In this way, several flakes join to produce giant
snowflakes often measuring several inches or more in diameter. These large, soggy
snowflakes are associated with moist air and temperatures near freezing. However, when
snowflakes fall through extremely cold air with a low moisture content, small, powdery
flakes of “dry” snow accumulate on the ground.
96. Explain how clouds can be seeded naturally.

ANSWER: Under certain conditions, clouds may be seeded naturally. For example, when cirriform
clouds lie directly above a lower cloud deck, ice crystals may descend from the higher cloud
and seed the cloud below. As the ice crystals mix into the lower cloud, supercooled droplets
are converted to ice crystals, and the precipitation process is enhanced. Sometimes the ice
crystals in the lower cloud may settle out, leaving a clear area or “hole” in the cloud. When
the cirrus clouds form waves downwind from a mountain chain, bands of precipitation often
form—producing heavy precipitation in some areas and practically no precipitation in others.
atmosphere.
97. List the advantages and disadvantages of heavy snowfall.

ANSWER: Advantages: A blanket of snow is a good insulator. A light, fluffy covering of snow protects
sensitive plants and their root systems from damaging low temperatures by retarding the loss
of ground heat. Snow can prevent the ground from freezing downward to great depths. The
accumulation of snow in mountains provides for winter recreation, and the melting snow in
spring and summer is of great economic value in that it supplies streams and reservoirs with
much-needed water. Disadvantages: Rapid melting of the snowpack may flood low-lying
areas. Too much snow on the side of a steep hill or mountain may become an avalanche as
the spring thaw approaches. The added weight of snow on the roof of a building may cause it
to collapse, leading to costly repairs and even loss of life. Each winter, heavy snows clog
streets and disrupt transportation.
98. Describe how hail might form in a cumulonimbus cloud.

ANSWER: Hail is produced in a cumulonimbus cloud when graupel, large frozen raindrops, or just about
any particles (even insects) act as embryos that grow by accumulating supercooled liquid
droplets. Violent, upsurging air currents within the cloud carry small embryos high above the
freezing level. As the embryos pass through regions of varying liquid water content, a coating
of ice forms around them and they grow larger and larger. When the ice particles are
appreciable size, they become too large and heavy to be supported by the rising air, and they
then begin to fall as hail. As they slowly descend, the hailstones may get caught in a violent
updraft only to be carried upward once again to repeat the cycle.

99. List the common precipitation gauges that measure rain and snow, and explain their principles.
ANSWER: A standard rain gauge consists of a funnel-shaped collector attached to a long measuring
tube. The cross-sectional area of the collector is 10 times that of the tube. Hence, rain falling
into the collector is amplified tenfold in the tube, permitting measurements of great precision.
A wooden scale, calibrated to allow for the vertical exaggeration, is inserted into the tube and
withdrawn. The wet portion of the scale indicates the depth of water. So, 10 inches of water
in the tube would be measured as 1 inch of rainfall. Because of this amplification, rainfall
measurements can be made when the amount is as small as one-hundredth (0.01) of an inch.
An amount of rainfall less than one-hundredth of an inch is called a trace. The measuring
tube can only collect 2 inches of rain. Rainfall of more than this amount causes an overflow
into an outer cylinder. Here, the excess rainfall is stored and protected from appreciable
evaporation. When the gauge is emptied, the overflow is carefully poured into the tube and
measured.
The tipping bucket rain gauge. This gauge has a receiving funnel leading to two small metal
collectors (buckets) attached to each other and mounted on a pivot. The bucket beneath the
funnel collects the rain water. When it accumulates the equivalent of one-hundredth of an
inch of rain, the weight of the water causes it to tip and empty itself. As the first bucket turns
on the pivot, the second bucket immediately moves under the funnel to catch the water.
When it fills, it also tips and empties itself, moving the other direction on the pivot, and the
original bucket moves back beneath the funnel. Each time a bucket tips, an electric contact is
made, causing a pen to register a mark on a remote recording chart. Adding up the total
number of marks gives the rainfall for a certain time period. A problem with the tipping
bucket rain gauge is that during each “tip” it loses some rainfall and, therefore,
undermeasures rainfall amounts, especially during heavy downpours. The tipping bucket is
the rain gauge used in the automated (ASOS) weather stations.
Remote recording of precipitation can also be made with a weighing-type rain gauge. With
this gauge, precipitation is caught in a cylinder and accumulates in a bucket. The bucket sits
on a sensitive weighing platform. Special gears translate the accumulated weight of rain or
snow into millimeters or inches of precipitation. The precipitation totals are recorded by a
pen on chart paper, which covers a clock-driven drum. By using special electronic
equipment, this information can be transmitted from rain gauges in remote areas to satellites
or land-based stations, thus providing precipitation totals from previously inaccessible
regions.

100. In the beginning of a rain storm you might experience large, heavy raindrops. Explain why these occur first, and
where they originated.
ANSWER: Large raindrops fall faster and reach the ground before smaller ones, which is why they
typically occur at the beginning of a rain shower. These large drops originate in warm,
convective cumulus clouds. Clouds that have above-freezing temperatures at all levels are
called warm clouds. In such clouds, precipitation forms by the collision and coalescence
process. For example, in tropical regions, where warm cumulus clouds build to great heights,
convective updrafts of at least 1 m/sec (and some exceeding many tens of meters per second)
occur. Suppose a cloud droplet of 100 µm is caught in an updraft whose velocity is 6.5 m/sec
(about 15 mi/hr). As the droplet rises, it collides with and captures smaller drops in its path
and grows until it reaches a size of about 1000 µm. At this point, the updraft in the cloud is
just able to balance the pull of gravity on the drop. Here, the drop remains suspended until it
grows just a little bigger. Once the fall velocity of the drop is greater than the updraft velocity
in the cloud, the drop slowly descends. As the drop falls, larger cloud droplets are captured
by the falling drop, which then grows larger. By the time this drop reaches the bottom of the
cloud, it will be a large raindrop with a diameter of over 5000 µm (5 mm).

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3. Bacteria in decaying plant leaf material can act as ice nuclei.

4. After a rainstorm, visibility typically deteriorates.

OTHER: Bloom's: Understand

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: METT.AHRE.16.7.1 - Identify the relationship between evaporation/condensation, the

21. Which below best describes the solute effect?

22. Which statement below best describes the curvature effect?

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26. Which cloud would most likely produce drizzle?

29. During the ice crystal process of rain formation,

31. A supercooled cloud droplet is

c. a liquid droplets observed at temperatures below 0°C (32°F).

33. Contact freezing is

35. Cloud seeding using silver iodide only works in

38. The most common ice crystal shape is

39. Fallstreaks usually ____ before reaching the ground.

40. Fallstreaks most often form with

42. Which is the correct association?

43. Which is the correct association?

44. Which of the following might be mistaken for hail?

REFERENCES: Precipitation Types

46. Precipitation with the greatest size (diameter) is

51. Radar gathers information about precipitation in clouds by measuring the

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54. A typical raindrop is about ____ than a typical cloud droplet.

55. The lightest form of rain is

56. Satellites measure rainfall from space using which instrument?

OTHER: Bloom's: Remember

58. A Doppler radar is used to detect ____ and to measure ____.

61. Dry ice has a temperature of

OTHER: Bloom's: Analyze

e. 0.9 mm (0.04 in.)

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OTHER: Bloom's: Analyze

79. Radar stands for ____________________.

Global Precipitation Measurement

92. How is precipitation measured using Doppler radar?

with regard to measuring precipitation.

96. Explain how clouds can be seeded naturally.

97. List the advantages and disadvantages of heavy snowfall.

98. Describe how hail might form in a cumulonimbus cloud.

REFERENCES: Precipitation Types

REFERENCES: Measuring Precipitation

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58. A Doppler radar is used to detect and to measure .