FIRST PRINCIPLES

1. Moral Hazard
This exists when a party insulated from risk behaves differently than it would behave if it
were fully exposed to the risk.

Moral Hazard arises because of an individual or institution does not take the full
consequences and responsibilities of its actions, and therefore has a tendency to act less
careful than it otherwise would, leaving another party to hold some responsibility for the
consequences of those actions

Ex. Individual Action – A person with insurance against automobile theft may be less
cautious about locking his/her car because the negative consequences of the vehicle theft
are partially the responsibility of the insurance company.

Ex. Institutional Action – Deposit Insurance for banks make banks less cautious in investing,
this is because the worst case scenario leads to the government shouldering the losses of
the depositors.

2. Indivisibility Principle
Free speech rights are indivisible. Restricting the speech of one group of individual
jeopardizes everyone’s rights because the same laws or regulations used to silence bigots
can be used to silence you.

Ex. 1949 case of Terminiello v Chicago, the ACLU successfully defended an ex catholic priest
who had delivered a racist anti-Semitic speech. He denounced Jews, communists and
Democrats and accused them of trying to destroy America. He praised Hitler and contended
that he had the solution.

The precedent set became the basis for the defense of civil rights demonstrations in 1960s
and 70s.

Ex. Neo-Nazi’s right to march in Skokie, Illinois in 1979 was defended by ACLU. The director
commented that “Keeping a few Nazis off the streets of Skokie will serve the Jews poorly if
it means that the freedoms to speak, publish or assemble any place in the US are thereby
weakened.”

3. Moral Shock
Cognitive and emotion process that encourage participation in social movements in spite of
the absence of pre-existing social ties with members due to a visceral unease, triggered by
personal or public events, that captures people’s attention. Moral shocks often force people
to articulate their moral intuitions. It has been shown to help recruit people into diverse
social movements, i.e. Animal rights, anti-abortion, anti-racism, etc.

Ex. The murder of Harvey Milk, the first openly gay man to be elected into office, bolstered
protests by the gay community.

4. Perverse Incentives
A perverse incentive is an incentive that has an unintended and undesirable result which is
contrary to the interests of the incentive makers. (counter-intuitive)

Ex. In Hanoi, under French colonial rule, a program paying people a bounty for each rat pelt
handed in led to the farming of rats

Ex. Paying medical professionals and reimbursing insured patients for treatment and not
prevention encourages leaving medical conditions until they require treatment

5. Broken Windows Theory

Criminological theory of the norm setting and signaling effects of urban disorder and
vandalism on additional crime and anti-social behavior.

The theory states that monitoring and maintaining urban environments in a well-ordered
condition may prevent further vandalism as well as an escalation into more serious crime.

Stats: A social experiment conducted by the University of Groningen in the Netherlands

showed that the presence of litter raises the chances for graffiti, squatting and petty theft
up from 33% to 69%

Ex. Consider a building with a few broken windows. If the windows are not repaired the
tendency is for vandals to break a few more windows. Eventually, they may even break into
the building and if it is unoccupied, perhaps even squatters light fires inside.

6. Gentrification and Urban Gentrification

Refers to the changes that result when wealthier people (gentry) acquire property in low
income and working class communities. Consequently, the average income increases and
average family size decreases in the community, which sometimes results in the eviction of
lower income residents because of increased rent, house prices and property taxes. Taxes
paid to the city go up, and the cost of police, fire and welfare services go down.
7. Unintended Consequences
Outcomes that are not the outcomes intended by a purposeful action

Ex. Prohibition in the 1920s US of alcohol enacted to restrict alcohol trade drove many
small-time alcohol suppliers out of business and consolidated the hold of large scale
organized crime over illegal alcohol industry. Since alcohol was still popular, the criminal
organizations were well funded and increased their other activities. The same principle
applies to drugs.

Ex. The CIA jargon blowback, refers to the unintended consequences of covert operations.
The covert funding of the Mujahideen, which contributed to the rise of Al-Qaeda

Ex. Introduction of exotic animals and plants for food, decorative purposes or to control
unwanted species leads to more harm than good done.

- Introduction of rabbits in Australia and New Zealand for food allowed an explosive
growth in rabbit population, they are now a feral pest

- Cane Toads, introduced to control canefield pests were unsuccessful and became pests
themselves

- Kudzu, introduce an ornamental plant used to prevent erosion in earthworms, displaced

native plants and has taken control of significant portions of land

8. Soft Power
The ability to get what you want through attraction rather than through coercion. It can be
developed through relations with allies, economic assistance, and cultural exchanges. This
would result in a more favorable opinion and credibility abroad.

The success of soft power relies heavily of the actor’s reputation within the international
community, as well as the flow of information between actors. Sources include pop culture,
media, spread of national language. A nation with large amount of soft power and good will
inspire others to acculturate (assimilate culturally), avoiding the need for expensive hard
power expenditures.

9. Enclave Mentality
Total devotion to those within the circle, total war on those outside. Because the boundaries
of decadent treatment are limited to the family or tribe, they exclude people who are
outside of their ethnic enclaves in spite of similar nationalities, thus carving exclusionary
spaces and a sense of otherness that become grounds for prejudice, intolerance, and hate
crimes.
Understanding human relationships in terms of individual rights and fluid group
relationships, where people of different ethnicities is viewed as humans lead to better social
cohesion.

10.Right to Make Momentous Decisions

Invoking fundamental religious or philosophical convictions about life’s value for himself.

People may make such decisions impulsively, or out of emotional depression. When their act
does not reflect their enduring convictions, it is therefore acceptable that state exercises
constitutional power to override that right in order to protect citizens from mistaken but
irrevocable acts of self-destruction.

11.Conceptualization of Culture through Education

Since culture is learned, education can play a major part in shaping the basic assumption of
citizens, hence, molding their behavior. Education is therefore an important and common
socialization process in which cultural soft power is communicated. Education has a
snowballing effect towards changing people’s values and behaviors.

Common Elements of Culture:

1st Level – Basic Assumptions

2nd Level – Values
3rd Level – Behavior

At the core of culture are basic assumptions. These assumptions can include a general
understanding of good and evil, the design and role of men and women, the inherent ability
of humankind, amongst others. Historically, the assumptions have been based on religion.
However, they are becoming increasingly cosmopolitan. Values manifest from the core and
based on these identified values, norms are established.

Values and norms – expectations or rules of behavior that develop out of those values. The
most visible element of culture is behavior which is generally driven by the individual values
held.

12. Right to Privacy

13.Veil of Ignorance
In allocating/re-allocating rights and in re-fashioning social roles, one should be under a veil
of ignorance where he does not know what roles they will be assigned.
Ex. Whites in South US, pre-Civil war, did indeed condone slavery, but they most likely
would not have done so had there been a re-fashioning of society so that they would not
know whether they would be the ones enslaved. Since one may occupy any position in
society once the veil is lifted, this theory encourages thinking about society from the
perspective of all members.

Because of the birth lottery, public policy is made with the veil of ignorance.

14.Principles of Justice
1st principle, equal and basic rights and liberties needed to secure the fundamental interests
of free and equal citizens and to pursue a whole range of conceptions of the good.

2nd principle, fair equality of educational and employment opportunities enabling all to fairly
compete for powers and prerogatives of office, and it secures for all a guaranteed minimum
of the all-purpose means including income and wealth that individuals need to pursue their
interests and to maintain their self-respect as free and equal persons.

15.Public Good
A good that is non-rival and non-excludable.

Non-rival – consumption of the good by one individual does not reduce availability of the
good for consumption by others.

Non-excludable – no one can be effectively be excluded from using the good

16.Kuznet’s Curve
Hypothesis that inequality increases over time while a country is developing, and then after
a certain average income is attained, inequality begins to decrease.

The transition from an agrarian sector to urban industrialization, in which we see a growth
of income inequality as income in agriculture is low compared to income in the city. With
this opening up of inequality, we also see that the level of income a people earn in rural
areas is similar to one another, whereas we see a wide range of income levels in the
industrialized city, which further opens up inequality. Wage inequality occurs both between
and within various sectors. What then generates a decline in Kuznet’s curve?

1st, a rise of mass education movement may open up opportunity for all and reduce the gap
in income inequality.

2nd, social policy put forth by the government, as a country becomes rich may explain a
decline in inequality as the government provides transfers, welfare, pension, and healthcare
in an effort to redistribute income throughout different levels of income earning groups.
This is possible because with more inequality comes a larger population of voting citizens
that would stand to benefit from government action.

Complements phases of development

17. Environmental Kuznet’s Curve

Environmental degradation increases along with sustained economic activity. Environmental
degradation, however, goes down upon reaching a particular income due to development
and it has been argued that this trend occurs in the level of many environmental pollutants
such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, lead, DDT, chlorofluorocarbons, sewage and other
chemicals previously released directly into the air or water.

Ex. Between 1980 and 2006, US inflation-adjusted GDP grew by 195%, the number of cars
and trucks in the country more than doubled, and the toal number of miles driven increased
by 178%. However, during that time, regulartory changes meant that annual emission of

Stats

- Carbon monoxide fell from 197 million tons to 19 million

- Nitrogen oxide emissions fell from 27 million to 19 million
- Sulfur dioxide emission fell from 31 million to 15 million tons
- Particulate emissions fell by 80% and lead emissions fell by 98%

18. Intergenerational Justice

19. Proactionary Principle

People’s freedom to innovate technologically is highly valuable, even critical, to humanity.
This implies several imperative when restrictive measures are proposed.

A. Assess risks and opportunities according to available science, not popular perception.
B. Account for both the costs of the restrictions themselves and the opportunity costs.
C. Favor measures that are proportionate to the probability and magnitude of the impacts,
and that have a high expectation value.
D. Protect people’s freedom to experiment, innovate, and progress.

The proactionary principle is based on the observation that historically, the most useful and
important technological innovations were neither obvious nor well-understood at the time of
their invention, ex. Internet.

20.Precautionary Principle
It states that if an action or policy has a suspected risk of harm to the public or to the
environment, in the absence of scientific consensus that the action or policy is harmful, the
burden of proof that is it is NOT harmful lies on those taking action.

It is based on the concept that consequences of actions in complex systems are often
unpredictable and irreversible.

The principle implies that there is a social responsibility to protect the public from exposure
to harm, when scientific investigation has found a plausible risk. These protections can be
relaxed if further scientific finds emerge that provide sound evidence that no harm will
result.

In some legal systems, as in the law of the European Union, the application of the
precautionary principle has been made a statutory requirement.

This concept includes an implicit ethical responsibility towards maintaining the integrity of
natural systems, and acknowledges the fallibility of human understanding.

21. Manufactured Consent

Manufacturing consent is an analysis of the news media as business.

Using the propaganda model, manufacturing consent posits that corporate-owned news
mass communication media- print, radio, TV – are businesses subject to commercial
competition for advertising revenue and profits. As such, their distortion of news reportage,
i.e. what types of news, which items, and how they reported – is a consequence of the
profit motive that requires establishing a stable, profitable business. Therefore, news
businesses favoring profit over the public interest succeed, while those favoring reportorial
accuracy over profits fail, and are relegated to the margins of their market (low sales and
ratings).

22. Propaganda Model

The Propaganda Model, advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky states how
propaganda, including systemic biases functions in mass media. The model seeks to explain
how populations are propagandized and how conset for various economic, social, and
political policies are “manufactured” in the public mind due to this propaganda.

The theory posits that, based on how the news is structured, through advertising media
ownership, government sourcing and others. It creates an inherent conflict of interest which
acts as propaganda for undemocratic forces.

Ex. Gulf War (1990) failure of the media to report Saddam’s peace offers
Ex. Iraq Invasion (2003), media failure to report on legality of the war despite
overwhelming public opinion in favor of only invading Iraq qith UN authorization. According
to the liberal watchdog group Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting, there was a
disproportionate focus on pro-war sources while anti-war sources only made up 10% of the
media (3% of US sources anti-war)

5 editorially-distorting filters applied in news reporting:

1. Size, Ownership, and Profit Orientation:

Dominant mass-media outlets are large firms which run for profit. Therefore, they must
cater to the financial interest of their owners – often corporations or particular controlling
investors. The size of the firm is necessary consequence of the capital requirements for the
technology to reach a mass audience.

2. Advertising License to do Business:

Majority of the revenue of major media outlets derive from advertising and not from sales of
subscriptions. Media outlets are not commercially viable without support of advertisers.
Therefore they cater to the political prejudices and economic desires of their advertisers.
This has weakened the working-class press, for example, and also helped explain the
attrition (wearing down to weaken or destroy) in the number of newspapers.

3. Sourcing Mass Media News:

Herman and Chomsky argued that the large bureaucracies of the powerful subsidize the
mass media, and gain special access to the news, by their contribution to reducing the
media’s costs of acquiring and producing news. The large entities that provide this subsidy
become routine news sources and have privileged access to the gates. Non-routine sources
must struggle for access, and may be ignored arbitrarily.

4. Flak and the Enforcers:

Flak – refers to the negative responses to a media statement or program via letters,
complaints, lawsuits, legislation. Flak can be expensive to the media, or either due to loss of
advertising revenue, or due to the costs of legal defense of the media outlet’s public image.
Flak can be organized by powerful, private influence groups (think tanks). The prospect of
eliciting flak can be deterrent to the reporting of certain kinds of opinions.

5. Anti-Communism:
Since the end of the cold war, anti-communism has been replaced by the War on Terror, as
the major social control mechanism.

23. Chilling Effect

A chilling effect is a term in law and communication which describes a situation where
speech or conduct is suppressed by the fear of penalization at the interest of individual or
groups. It may prompt self-censorship and therefore hamper free speech. Since many
attacks rely on libel law, the term libel chill is also often used. This is the same concept as a
strategic lawsuit against public participation or “SLAAP” suit.

24. Tragedy of Commons

The Tragedy of the Commons is a dilemma arising from the situation in which multiple
individuals, acting independently and rationally consulting their own self-interest, will
ultimately deplete a shared limited resource even when it is clear that it is not in anyone’s
long term interest for this to happen.

Ex. The population of fish in international waters has plummeted to dangerous levels
leading to failing fisheries, where commercial boatmen and unsustainable practices have rid
the water of life.

25.Culture of Fear
Term used to those who believe that some in society incite fear in the general public to
achieve political goals. The term is used to describe fears about Islamic Terrorism which, it
is argued, are fears that usually exaggerated or irrational in nature. The term has also been
used to describe irrational fear in other contexts such as citizens fearing persons of different
ethnic backgrounds, or neighborhood residents fearing retribution if they assist police in
identifying criminals.

26.Fighting Words
Written or spoken words, generally expressed to incite hatred or violence from their target.
Specific definitions, freedoms, and limitations of fighting words vary by jurisdiction. It is also
used in a general sense of words that when uttered create deliberate or not, a verbal or
physical confrontation by their mere usage.

The fighting words doctrine, in the US constitutional law, is a limitation to freedom of

speech as protected by the 1st Amendment to the US constitution, in its 9 – 0 decision,
Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire 1942, the Supreme Court established the doctrine and held
that insulting or fighting words, those that by their very utterance inflict injury or tend to
incite an immediate breach of peace are among the well defined and narrowly limited
classes of speech that the prevention and punishment of have never been thought to raise
any constitutional problem.

27.Cognitive Dissonance
The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce
dissonance. They do this by altering beliefs, attitudes, and actions. Dissonance is also
reduced by justifying, blaming, and denying. In a state of dissonance, people may feel
surprised, dread, guilt, anger, or embarrassment. People biased to think of their choices as
correct, despite contrary evidence. This bias gives dissonance theory its predictive power,
shedding light on otherwise puzzling, irrational behavior.

28.Hyperbolic Discounting
The preference to prefer the present over the future. This way of thinking leads to the
instant gratification culture.

29.Social License to Operate

The need to gain and maintain the support of people in policies/projects/institutions.

In practice, the absence of legitimacy leads to rejection of a project, the presence of

legitimacy and credibility leads to acceptance of a project while a high level credibility and
the presence of trust is the basis of approval. The most significant level of Social License,
co-ownership, can only occur when a high level of trust is present.

Components:
Social legitimacy – based ion established norms, the norms of the community that may
be legal, social, and cultural and both formal and informal in nature. Understanding of these
norms enables them to co-exist with community. Failure to do so risks rejection. In practice,
the initial basis for social legitimacy from engagement with all members of the community
and providing information on the project, the company and what may happen in the future
and then answering any and all questions.

Credibility – is largely created by consistently providing true and clear information and by
complying with any and all commitments made. Credibility is often best established and
maintained through the applications of formal agreements where the rules, roles, and
responsibilities of the company and the community are negotiated, defined, and
consolidated.

Trust – or the willingness to be vulnerable to the actions of one another, is a very high
quality of a relationship and one that takes both time and effort to create. Trust comes from
shared experiences. The challenge for any company is to go beyond transactions with the
community and create opportunities to collaborate, work together and generate shared
experiences within which trust can grow.

30.Conscience Clauses
These clauses allow for the conscience of the acting individual – such as doctors’ views on
abortion. Those who choose not to provide services may not be discipline or discriminated
against.

Ex. People in healthcare refusing to provide certain services like “providing birth control
pills, caring for gay men with AIDS, and performing in-vitro fertilization for lesbians or single
women”; pharmacists refusing to fill prescriptions for the emergency contraceptive Plan B;
doctors in California rejecting lesbian’s request for infertility treatment, and an ambulance
driver in Chicago to turn away a woman who needed transportation for an abortion.
(negative)

Ex. The inclusion of a conscience clause will allow Scotland to instate church sanctioned
same-sex marriages (positive)

31.Medical Neglect

32.Reverse Discrimination
The provision of greater opportunities for minorities should not come at the expense of the
rights of the majority.

Ex. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke imposed limitations on affirmative action
to ensure reverse discrimination would not happen. A white applicant was rejected twice
even thought there were minority applicants admitted with significantly lower scores than
his. (RACE)

Ex. Schafer v. Board of Public Education. The court held that male teacher stated a claim for
discrimination where he was not allowed to take a year of paternity leave, while female
teachers were allowed to take similar amount of maternity leave. Distinctions between men
and women can be made with respect to physical disabilities related to pregnancy or the
delivery of a child, but not with respect to child rearing. (GENDER)

Ex. McDonal v. Santa Fe Trail Transportation Co. , two white employees and one black
employee were charged with stealing property from their employer. The two white
employees were fired while the black employee was retained. (RACE)

Ex. Ricci v. DeStefano (2009) twenty New Haven firefighters won the claim that they were
discriminated against with regard to promotions. The firefighters, nineteen of whom are
white, and one of whom is Hispanic, had all passed the test for promotions to management.
City of New Haven officials invalidated the test results because none of the black firefighters
who passed the exam had scored high enough to be considered for the positions. (RACE)

Ex. Women and Children First Protocol: “The British elite used the myth of male chivalry at
sea to justify denying women the right to vote. According to their argument, there was no
reason for women to vote since men would always put the interests of women ahead of
their own interest” (backfire)

33.Herd Immunity
34.Body Policing
Expectations impressed upon an individual’s physical features and actions

Ex. Kristen Stewarts Smile. “People order each other to smile because they feel
uncomfortable around people who are not smiling, especially when those people are women
(or are read as such). Women are expected to be nice and sweet, to make other people feel
comfortable. A woman who says “hey, I think there’s a problem here” is being “negative”. A
woman who doesn’t smile while she’s being harassed is “humorless”. A woman who prefers
to stay focused on tasks is a “cold bitch”. Significant gendering is involved here; women
have an obligation to look and act a certain way and when they don’t, they need to be
hassled until they do.”

35.Environmental Theories

Deep Green Sustainable Technological

Development Development
Conceptual Approach Overconsumption = Development is More rapid economic
evil important, development will
technology will solve environmental
Cut down on it provide solutions, problems.
needs to be guided, Development leads
bad actions need to cleaner
active regulations technology.
against it

Humans v Nature Nature has intrinsic Human interest Nature is only

and equal value as trump the value of valuable if it serves
humans nature human interest

Actions they support Outlaw dirty Carbon Trade – Asia-Pacific Pact for
industries, direct Kyoto Protocol, Clean Development
intervention Pigovian Taxes

Balance of All nations must 1st world should bear Let things happen
responsibilities participate the brunt, the rest naturally
give what they can

Efficiency Efficiency is a Middle ground Efficiency is king. It

paradox – while makes things
gains are real making cheaper and more
things cheaper and environmentally
more accessible friendly (less
negates the resources needed)
efficiency

Why this may be The environment as Middle ground Peoplecare more

superior a shared resource. about the
Brutland Commission environment when
of 1987 they have enough
wealth as opposed to
struggling for
necessities

36.False Paradigm
Imposing values that are not applicable because of having a different lens or point of view

Useful in proving whether state action takes into account the situation of a specific group –
probably useful for defending minority interests like the LGBT (or even individuals)

Ex. People might think that the aborigine culture is backwards bending, but they fail to see
things from the perspective of a specific culture. Telling them to give up their traditions is
therefore cruel.

Ex. A centralized government’s priority would be to build more roads and schools, when in
fact, what the local populace need are school supplies, teachers, and job creation.

37.Erikson’s Stages of Development

Highlights the receptiveness and reactions of an individual during different stages in his life

The formative years such as infancy to adolescence are so foundational that the parental
role and any traumatic events during this period will have an almost irreversible impact.
Adolescence marks the time when children discover the world for themselves by associating
themselves with peers and fads (trends; in thing). The accumulated values children receive
from their parents to larger movements such as pop culture then become their gauge in
adulthood as to what they should then teach their own children. In their end years, these
values and influences also become the yardstick of whether they feel they achieved their
purpose in life.

Ex. Little Albert experiment – a nine month old child was purposedfully experimented upon
to engineer fear to white rats. This trauma lasted his entire life. Desensitization was
impossible.

38.Race to Bottom
Occurs when competing states give up policies and provision that limit their trade and
economic progress

The usual victims are the laborers and the environment as policies protecting them are the
usual perceived barriers to easy trade and innovation.
Ex. International trade has largely been seen as the means for efficient production and
consumption. But it has led to the shutting down of textile industries across the globe
because they cannot compete with China.

39.Inverse Commons
When more people use a particular type of product, the more that product becomes
valuable. Products that require multiple users such as communications devices and social
networks become more valuable with more users because of the increased flow of
information. Thus, a positive network externality is formed.

Ex. Wikipedia and the Linux system are clear examples of positive contributions made as
possible continue usage. The information in Wikipedia continues to be update and be more
accurate as more authors edit articles. By developing technology based on an open-source
system, Linux can fix bugs and create more user-friendly interfaces.

40.Tragedy of the Anti-Commons

Resources become underutilized because of having multiple owners or because of rights
claims for the use of the product. Before any one owner can use property, he needs consent
from other owners. The same happens when a right to use a product must be held before
being able to use it. When only one or few individuals have this right, they can either
charge large sums for others to use the same or prevent outside use altogether and this
stifles innovation.

Patents for example determine the ownership of technology. Heavy patent legislation
prevents the use of new technology. Tech giants like Apple or Microsoft must undergo
heavy investments to ensure that no patent infringement occurs before actually profiting
from a new product. Innovation is therefore stifled.

Ex. Medical innovation can also be hampered. Myriad Genetics patented a test process for
cancer patients. This meant doctors would be forced to send patient samples only to Myriad
without the participation of labs and scientists from other institutions. Myriad could also
charge up to $3,000 per sample sent by doctors and basically had a monopoly over that
cancer testing. Charging high prices, doctors were hesitant to regularly contribute to the
study slowing cancer research.

41.Eminent Domain
Is the power of the state to claim the private property of individuals in exchange for just
compensation (a price on the land)

This occurs when claiming private property is absolutely necessary to enforce a good for the
greater public, e.g. building infrastructure over a neighborhood. It has to fulfill the standard
of “public benefit”.
42.Sullivan Principle
Corporations have a large impact on how society runs. Private firms are not always evil.

These began as a protest by companies to operate under states that failed to respect the
equality of blacks and whites in the workplace. Naturally, the principles called for blacks to
have equal opportunities to promotion, training, and to receive equal protection while under
employment.

The principle has broadened tackling not only employee welfare but other branches of
corporate social responsibility such as improving the communities under which companies
operate.

Ex. Rev. Sullivan, a member of the Board of General Motors, recognized the plight of blacks
employed in South Africa where Gm had immense operations. He rallied support from GM
and threatened South Africa to end apartheid or else suffer the departure of investments by
American Corporations.

43.Social Acceptance
Acceptance to new policy/paradigm shifts are important as it dictates the success

Ex. On women empowerment = equal pay provisions – an employer is legally required to

offer equal pay, but if that boss is sexist then he can promote women slower, reduce their
access to important clients or additional training, etc. – all which affects their pay

44.Naïve Dualism

Article: Did your brain make you do it?

45.Expediency as a Non-Value

Article: The moral hazard of drones

46.Probation for Non-Violent Crimes. Critique Against Zero-Tolerance

Article: Probation works for nonviolent offenders

47.Pareto Optimum Level

48.Institutional Memory
Collective memory of an institution resulting to an ideology
It affects organizational identity, choice of individuals, actions of the individuals interacting
with the institution. Conversely, institutional memory may be ingrained to the point that it
becomes hard to challenge if something is found to contradict that which was previously
thought to have been correct/acceptable.

Ex. Corruption as a practice in government institutions is hard to eradicate. The culture has
been ingrained to the office such that when doe-eyed entrants come in demonizing the
practice, it becomes hard for them to maintain that conviction given that the history and
surrounding people all…

(This can be a powerful harm/benefit to conjure from thin air. Also, this can be linked to the
Sullivan Principle for further strength.)

49.Halo effect/horn (devil or reverse halo) effect

The tendency for a person’s positive or negative traits to “spill over” from one area of their
personality to another in other’s perceptions of them. Those who have halos are given the
benfit of the doubt. Those who have horns are demonized to the point they cannot be
judged properly.

Ex. Empirical studies have proven that more attractive individuals are served with less jail
time than average/unattractive looking people for the similar crime. Empirical studies also
show that people who are more attractive are seen to be more emotionally stable, have a
higher paying job, be better parents, have happier marriages, etc.

Ex. The overwhelming negative sentiment towards Marxism often leads people away from
its contributions to mankind – unions, minimum wage laws, how it fights against child labor,
etc.

Ex. Having the guise of impartial moral watchdogs – Human Rights Organizations, media,
the Church, Charities and other such organizations have the leeway of moving away from
their stated goals. This usually leads to biased perceptions, protection of organization
activities, and less scrutiny.

It is important to explain the special privilege given to these institutions/people. What

tipping point changes people’s perceptions/shatters the glass. Ex. Catholic Church now is
seen as a protector of child sexual abuse, etc. (when/how/what led to the halo becoming
horns)

50.Contact Theory
This is the process by which organic change occurs in changing perceptions of minorities.

One of the best ways to improve relations among groups that are experiencing conflict
If one has the opportunity to communicate with others, they are able to understand and
appreciate different points of views involving their way of life. As a result, prejudice
diminishes.

In order for this to occur, these criteria must be present:

- Equal status, both groups taken into an equal status relationship

- Common goals, both groups work on a problem/task and share this as a common
goal, sometimes called a superordinate goal
- Acquaintance potential, the opportunity of group members to get to know each other
as friends, and not merely as actors playing out social roles or as representatives of their
social groups; the familiarity between group members involving the task or situation at
hand. Contact between group members occurs often and in a variety of social contexts.
- The minority members are perceived as typical of their cultural group

Ex. Due to the shortage of men during WWII, General Eisenhower allowed black soldiers to
enlist in the army. With the greater goal of winning the war in mind, both blacks and whites
were able to fight side by side. Before this move, a survey was taken that 62% would dislike
serving in a semi-integrated platoon. Post-implementation, only 7% reported distaste.

51.Principle of permissive government accommodation of religion

Is entitled to the highest priority and the amplest protection for it involves the relationship
of man to his Creator

In fact, in the Edict of Milan, religious liberty was established saying that the liberty of
worship should not be denied to any man.

Estrada v Escritor. We have to understand that man stands accountable to an authority

higher than the state. Thus, there exists an inherent balance of state’s interest and the
religious freedom of an individual. This balance is most delicate… because for the individual,
the consequences are not temporal. A person’s conscience lives in perpetuity in his mind.

52.Herd Mentality (a.k.a. Bandwagon Effect/Group Think)

Herd mentality describes how people are influenced by their peers to adopt certain
behaviors, follow trends, and/or purchase items. This may lead to disastrous results.

Ex. Littering, vandalism, stampedes/riots, bankruns (phenomenon of panic wherein seeing

individuals withdraw money from a bank leads to sizable amounts of depositors doing the
same; this leads to further disequilibrium in the bank/smaller capacity for the bank to
bounce back)

53.Herd Behavior
Crowds that gather on behalf of a grievance can involve herding behavior that turns violent,
particularly when confronted by an opposing ethnic or racial group. The Los Angeles riots of
1992, New York Draft Riots, and Tulsa Race Riot are notorious in U.S. history, but those
episodes dwarfed by the scale of violence and death during the Partition of India.
Population exchanges between India and Pakistan brought millions of migrating Hindus and
Muslims into proximity; the ensuing violence produced an estimated death toll of between
200,000 and one million. The idea of a “group mind” or “mob behavior” was put forward by
the French social psychologists Gabriel Tarde and Gustave Le Bon.

Sporting events can also produce violent episodes of herd behavior. The most violent single
riot in history may be the sixth-century Nika riots in Constantinople, precipitated by partisan
factions attending the chariot races. The football hooliganism of the 1980s was a well-
publicized, latter-day example of sports violence.

54.Just War Theory

Four strict conditions for “legitimate defense by military force”:

- The damage inflicted by the aggressor on the nation or community of nations must be
lasting, grave, and certain;
- All other means putting an end to it must have been shown to be impractical or
ineffective;
- There must be serious prospects of success;
- The use of arms must not produce evils and disorders graver than the evil to be
eliminated. The power as well as the precision of modern means of destruction weighs
very heavily in evaluation this condition.

Just War Theory has two sets of criteria. The first establishing jus ad bellum, the right to go
to war; the second establishing jus in bello, right conduct within war.

Jus ad bellum

Just cause

The reason for going to war needs to be just an cannot therefore be solely for recapturing
things taken or punishing people who have done wrong; innocent life must be in imminent
danger and intervention must be to protect life. A contemporary view of just cause was
expressed in 1993 when the US catholic Conference said: “Force may be used only to
correct a grave, public evil, i.e. aggression or massive violation of the basic human rights of
whole populations.”

Comparative Justice
While there may be rights and wrongs on all sides of a conflict, to overcome the
presumption against the use of force, the injustice suffered by one party must significantly
outweigh that suffered by the other. Some theorists such as Brian Orend omit this term,
seeing it as fertile ground for exploitation by bellicose (having or showing a ready
disposition to fight) regimes.

Legitimate Authority

Only duty constituted public authorities may wage war.

Right Intention

Force may be used only in truly just cause and solely for that purpose – correcting a
suffered wrong is considered a right intention, while material gain or maintaining economies
is not.

Probability of Success

Arms may not be used in a futile cause