CHAPTER-01

HOMEOSTASIS
 Homeostasis (Greek: Homo=Same + Stasis=Standing).
 Homeostasis term coined by Walter Cannon.
 Homeostasis is the process in which living organisms maintain their internal environment.
For example: If the concentration of glucose, temperature, water, salts, PH etc increased or
decreased in the body of living organisms, it will try to normal (maintain) again.

MAIN ASPECTS OF HOMEOSTASIS

There are three main aspects of homeostasis in living organisms.
Osmoregulation
Maintaining a balance between water and salute concentration within the body is called as
osmoregulation.
OR
Regulate the osmotic pressure between water and concentration within the body is called as
osmoregulation.

Thermoregulation
Regulation of temperature with in body up to tolerable (reasonable) limit is called as
thermoregulation.

Excretion
Removal of unwanted, toxic, poisonous and harmful substances produced from the metabolic
activities in the body is called as excretion.

 FEED BACK SYSTEM (Regulating the Internal Environment and Control System)
 There are numbers of physiological systems functioning in the living organisms to maintain the
homeostasis.
 It is the process in which check and balance mechanism is known as feedback system.
 Homeostasis required the check and balance system operating the body.
 Any change takes place in internal environment of body by special organ known as receptor (it
receive stimulus or external or internal environment) and immediate report to brain (in higher
animals).
 Brain is control system which decides appropriate response to effectors and finally effecter
performs work according to command of brain.

Types of Feedback Mechanism

1. NEGATIVE FEED BACK MECHANISM

 It is the process in which opposite effect produced in the relation to any change in body
Example: level of glucose level raised in blood. It starts mechanism decrease the glucose level in
blood to normal limit.
2. POSITIVE FEED BACK MECHANISM
 It is the process in which any change in body by effectors under the consideration.
Example: Thermoregulation in warm blooded animals, increase in body temperature (eg: in heat
stroke), release of oxytocin hormone during child birth. Activation of platelets to prevent blood
loss.

Components of Control System in Homeostasis

 Receptor
It receives the stimulus
 Control centre
It sends a necessary command, what action to be taken
 Effectors
It performs the task according to command from brain

Osmoregulation
Maintaining a balance between water and salute concentration within the body is called as
osmoregulation.
OR
Regulate the osmotic pressure between water and concentration within the body is called as
osmoregulation.

Water Potential
 Capacity (ability) of water to move from one place to another place is known as Water Potential.
 If water potential is pure than value Water Potential is 0.

Solute Potential
 The decrease in water potential when solute is added and it is always -ve in value.

Pressure Potential
 Pressure builds inside the cell due to entry of water.

Osmosis
 It is movement of only water from its higher concentration to lower concentration when solute
particles are not allowed to diffuse.
OR
 Movement of water molecules from region of high water potential to region of low water
potential through semi-permeable membrane is called as osmosis.
 Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across the semi-permeable membrane.
 Movement of water into and out of cells depends on osmosis.
 Water moves from outside to inside the cell is called as endo-osmosis.
 Osmosis works only liquid medium.
 A semi-permeable membrane is must for process of osmosis.
 Diffusion
 It is the movement of all types of substances from higher concentration to lower concentration.
 Diffusion is applicable to all types of substances such as solid, liquid and gas.
 Diffusion works in any medium.
 This process continues until the concentration of the substances is same on the both sides of the
membrane.
 It does not require any semi-permeable membrane.

TONICITY
 Relationship of solute (sugar) to solvent (water).
Isotonic
 Both internal and external environments have same solute concentration.
 Amount of water transported into cell equal to the amount of water transported out from the cell.
 Solute concentration inside the cell is equal to the environment and cells will stay same and
awesome.

Hypertonic
 Removal of Water from cell and solute concentration inside the cell is LOWER and cell becomes
flaccid (lifeless).
 Cytoplasm with plasma membrane (cell) shrinks from cell wall and condition is known as
plasmolysis.
 HYPOTONIC
 Water is transported into cell and solute concentration inside the cell is HIGHER.
 Cells will SWELL and BURSTS because solute concentration inside the cell is HIGHER than
the environment.

 Osmoregulation in Plants
 Efficient functioning of plant cells and whole plant depends upon maintaining the water
content at a steady state. According to availability of water.
Plants are classified into four groups.
1. HYDROPHYTES
 Hydrophytes are those plants which are found in fresh water.
 Plants may partially or totally sub-merged in water.
 They do not have any difficulty in obtaining water to remove excessive water.
 Their leaves are larger so surface area is larger for removal of excessive water by
transpiration.
 They have large number of stomata at upper surface of leaves.
 Stems and leaves are without cuticles.
 The stomata always remain opening.
 Root is absent, if present root hairs are absent.
Example: Water Lilly.

2. HALOPHYTES
 Halophytes are those plants which are found in salty and marshy water and close to the sea
are called HALOPHYTES.
 They have to absorb water.
 They have high salt concentration (higher osmotic pressure).
 These plants actively absorb the salts by their roots.
 Salt concentration becomes high in their roots (lower water potential).
 They absorb water by osmosis.
 Excess amount of salts absorbed by roots, stored in the cells is excreted out from salt glands
(epidermal gland) in leaves.
Example: glasswort, cord-grass etc.
3. MESOPHYTES
 Mesophytes are those plants which are found in moderate supply of water.
 Majority of angiosperms plants are mesophytes.
 They are land plants and can easily maintain their water balance.
 When there is sufficient supply of water, the stomata are kept open but when there is
restricted supply, the stomata are closed.
 To excessive loss, the stems and leaves are covered with cuticles.
 Shape of leaves is variable which also help in regulating the water and also leaves help to
regulate the water.
Example:

4. XEROPHYTES
 Plants living in dry places such as desert area, steep hills etc.
 Water potential is very low.
 Roots are deep vertical to absorb much water from the soil.
 They are also spread horizontally.
 Mostly leaves are absent or shed during dry season and stems become green and perform the
functions of photosynthesis.
 If leaves are present which are small in size or modified into spines to reduce the rate of
transpiration.
 Leaves are covered by with cuticles (thick waxy layer) by hairs.
 Numbers of stomata are reduced and sunken type stomata.
 During the rainy season stems, leaves, roots of plants store the water in Parenchymatous
Cells such plants are known as Succulents (Moist) as a result stems or leaves becomes juicy.
 Leaves folded themselves to reduce the rate of transpiration.
 Germination of seeds during the rainy season.
Example: Acacia, Banyan etc.

OSMOREGULATION IN TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC ANIMALS

 All terrestrial animals, fresh water habitat and most of the marine vertebrates have body fluid
whose solute concentration is different from that of their environment.
 Therefore they must use energy in controlling water lose or gain and such animals are known
as osmoregulator.

Osmoregulation in Terrestrial Animals

 Terrestrial losing the water by evaporation through the body surface to environment.
 Only arthropods and vertebrates become most successful land animals to maintain
osmoregulation of their body fluid.
A. Water proof external covering
 To prevent water lose through external surface (epidermis layer).
 Vertebrates such reptiles, birds and mammals have water proof external covering (epidermis
layer).
 Insects have also water proof external covering known cuticle.
B. Storing and excretion of solid waste.
 Reptiles, birds and insects excrete nitrogenous waste product is known as uric acid which is
insoluble in water.
 Uric acid stored in cloaca for temporary.
 In cloaca water is reabsorbed used in body.
 Uric acid is removed from body in semi-fluid form (paste).
C. Use of metabolic water
 Some mammals such as camel, kangaroo-rat etc break down the body fat into simple
compound from which water is produced and that water is used for metabolic activities.
D. Storage of harmful dissolved material
 Mammals stored/ retained some urea in their kidneys where kidneys help reabsorption of
water.

Osmoregulation by contractile vacuoles

 Fresh water Protoctists such as amoeba, parameciums have one or more membrane bounded,
tiny sac like structure is known contractile vacuoles.
 Fresh water Protoctists have higher osmotic pressure than their surrounding water therefore
water enters into body by osmosis.
 If it is not regulated, organism bursts so excess amount of water enters into contractile
vacuole.
 When contractile vacuole completely filled with water and swells finally contractile vacuole
bursts and water moved out from the cell through pores into surrounding water.

Osmoregulation in Fresh Water fishes and Animals

 Fresh water fishes have much amount of salt concentration in their body is called hypertonic.
 Fresh water fishes do not drink water.
 Water comes into body through gills and skin.
 Gills actively absorbed the salt from the water.
 There are two problems in fresh water fishes;
 Deficiency of salt.
 Excess of water.
 Solution
 Deficiency of slat balanced by eating food (salt).
 Kidneys excrete out excess dilute urine (maximum water and minimum salt).
 Osmoregulation in marine Fishes and Animals
 Marine animals live in sea water therefore less amount of internal salt concentration in body
is called hypotonic.
 These fishes drink water continuously.
Problems in Marine fishes;
 Deficiency of water
 Excess salt.
Solution
 Deficiency of water balanced by drinking the sea water.
 Excess salt ions such as Na+ and Ca+ excrete out through the gills.
 Kidneys excrete out the conc: urine (max: salt and man: water).
 But filtration rate is very low as compare to gills.
 Salt is also excretes out from the rectum in the form of faces through Rectal Gland.
 Osmo-conformers
 Animals maintain internal environment which is isotonic to external environment of body
fluid therefore they do not have osmoregulatory mechanism and such animals are known as
osmo-conformers.
 Osmotic pressure of cell is equal to osmotic pressure of surrounding environment.
 Shark, rays store high concentration of urea therefore their body fluid is slightly hypertonic
than surrounding water.
Example: Marine invertebrates (Star Fish, Jelly Fish etc) and Hag Fishes.

Osmo-regulator
 They regulate osmolarity of their body.
 They do not face the loss of water because they are osmo-regulator.
Example: Bony fishes, Marine fishes, Fresh water fishes etc.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
 Removal of unwanted, toxic, poisonous and harmful substances produced from the metabolic
activities in the body is called as excretion.
 Plants also need to excrete waste product such as carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, ions etc.
 Carbon dioxide is the waste product of an aerobic respiration in plants.
 Oxygen is waste product of photosynthesis in plants.
 Oxygen is by product generated during photosynthesis.
 Plants do not have special excretory organs excess carbon dioxide and oxygen is excreted
from the plants through stomata.
 Substances which are produced in excess amount are
EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
 It is the process in which removal of nitrogenous metabolic waste product form the body is
called as excretion.
 There is different nitrogenous metabolic waste product in different animals such as ammonia,
urea, uric acid, creatinine or trimethylamine oxide, hypoxanthine etc are produced.
 These waste products are produced where there is metabolism of proteins and nucleic acids.
 We will discuss only ammonia, urea, and uric acid due to their high toxicity.

Excretory Product and Their Co-Relation with Habitat of Animals

1. Ammonia (NH3)
 It is small gaseous molecules which are highly soluble in water.
 Ammonia can rapidly across the plasma membrane even dissolved in water.
 Ammonia is highly toxic in nature.
 Its toxicity can be reduced when diluted with large amount of water.
 Removal of ammonia does not required energy but required lot of water for its dilution.
 Entire body surface is involved for the removal of ammonia.
Example: Sponges, Coelenterates, Mollusca (soft bodied animals), Earth Worm (live in
water), Aquatic Amphibian (salamander).

2. Urea (CO (NH2)2)

 Urea is relatively less soluble in water.
 100000 times less toxic than ammonia.
 Animals excrete out excess nitrogen (concentrated form) in the form of urea.
 Terrestrial animal such as mammals which cannot afford loss of water during excretion
therefore ammonia is converted into urea.
 Conversion of ammonia into urea requires ATP.
 NH3 and CO2 combines and formed the Urea in the liver
Example: Mammals, Amphibians, Sharks, Bony Fishes Etc.

3. Uric Acid (C5 O3 N4 H4)

 Uric acid is insoluble in water.
 Uric acid is produced as colloidal substance thus absorption of water produced crystallization
of urates.
 Formation of uric acid requires ATP.
 Suspension of uric acid is discharged in the form of thick paste or solid pellets.
 They minimize loss of water and their eggs enclosed by shells.
 Example: Terrestrial animals such as Insects, Birds, Reptiles, Gastropods (Snail) Etc.

Excretion in Hydra
 In hydra excretory product is ammonia.
 There is no special excretory organ in hydra because absence of excretory system.
 While ammonia is removed by simple diffusion through general surface.
 Ammonia is excreted from endoderm in gastro-vascular cavity from where ammonia with
undigested food is removed out from the mouth.

Excretion in Planaria
 Planaria belongs to Platyhelminthesis (flat worm) and free living fresh water habitat.
 Excretory system consists of longitudinal branching tubules or excretory canal present on
both side and extending along entire length of Planaria.
 They have simple tubular system known as Protonephridium.
 No internal opening.
 Each tubule opens to external surface by many excretory pores known as Nephrediopores.
 Each tubules gives rise numerous blind bulb like cells called flame cells or Protonephridia
which are connected with excretory opening.
 Each flame cells bears tuft of cilia which perform a beating like flickering of flame therefore
called flame cells.
 Beating action of cilia propels ammonia into excretory canal where Ammonia excreted out
through excretory pores.
 Flame cells regulate the osmoregulation and metabolic waste product removed from body
surface or excreted in gut from where they are removed through mouth along with undigested
food.
 Flat worms used the flame cells as excretory organ.
 Excretion in Earth Worm
 Earth worm belongs to Annelida (segmented animals), triploblastic and coelomic in nature.
 Tubular excretory system is known as meta-nephridium.
 Each segment has Pair of meta-nephrium except 02 and 03 segments.
 Earth worm have combined excretory and osmoregulatory organ called as meta-nephridia.
 Meta-nephridium contains internal ciliated opening like funnel known as Nephriostome as
well as external opening is known as Nephridiopore which opens in skin.
 Each meta-nephridium is highly coiled tubules dipped in coelomic fluid and surrounded by a
net work of blood capillaries.
 Coiled tubular part open to form bladder before external opening (Nephridiopore).
 Due to beating of cilia of Nephriostome, coelomic fluid into excretory tubules.
 Some excretory substances are also secreted by cells of tubules.
 Selective reabsorption of useful substance (salt) also accurs, which are taken back into blood
during the circulation.
 Excretory fluid (urine) stored in bladder for short time.
 Finally waste product excreted out through Nephridiopore.
 Excretion in Cockroach
 Cockroach and other insects have excretory system which consists of thin, blind tubules are
known as malpighian tubules.
 Malpighian tubules arise from mid gut and hind gut.
 Digestive system associated with excretory system.

 Body cavity (coelom) is filled with colorless blood called as HAEMOLYMPH.

 Malpighian tubules absorb waste product along with useful substance in Haemolymph.
 Useful substance such water, salt etc reabsorbed into body from rectum.
 Uric acid (thick paste) along with faces excreted out from rectum.

EXCRETION IN MAN
 Kidneys, skin and liver play an important role to regulate the homeostasis in body.
 Kidneys regulate the osmoregulation and remove nitrogenous waste product, excess of salts
and excess of water.
 Liver excretes out nitrogenous waste, bile pigments etc.
 Skin also excretes out salts, water along with sweet glands during perspiration.

LIVER- An Important Homeostatic Organ

1. Largest gland (gland is organ which produce and release substances that perform specific
function in body).
2. Liver is largest radish brown organ glandular present in abdominal region below the
diaphragm.
3. It is centre of metabolic activities and highly supplied with blood.
4. Sac like structure attached with liver is known as gall bladder which store the bile secreted by
liver.
5. Bile is transferred/ moved into duodenum by bile duct.
6. Rest of substances such as glucose, protein, lipids and vitamins is transferred into blood
through hepatic vein.

Function of liver

1. Metabolism of carbohydrates and lipid

1. Liver regulate the amount of glucose into blood.
2. Excess amount of glucose is converted into glycogen (reserve food).
3. Glycogen is breakdown into glucose when shortage of glucose in blood.
4. When glycogen is reduced in size than amino acids are converted into glucose through liver.
5. Liver also removes lipid from blood and changed into fats through oxidation process or
modified and then store as fats
6. Liver also prepared the non essential amino acids as well as plasma protein such as
Prothrombin (protein present in blood plasma), Fibrin (used for blood clotting), Glubin
(simple protein soluble in salt forming the serum protein).

2. Deamination and formation of urea

 Excess amount of protein or amino acids cannot store in the body of animals therefore
Excess amount of amino acids breakdown is called as deamination (removal of amino acids).
 R

2NH2 C COOH

AMINO ACID
H
+ Amino group is converted into ammonia (2NH3)
O2 and rest part of amino group is used to carbohydrates
metabolism for respiration.

DEAMINATION

2C COOH REST OF AMINO ACID

O
2NH3 (AMMONIA)

H2O H2O

AMMONIA + CO2 CITRULINE + NH3 ARGININE + H2O

ORNITHINE CYCLE
OR
UREA CYCLE

ORNITHINE UREA
 Ammonia is highly toxic reacts with CO2 to form urea by cycle called ornithine
cycle. This cycle takes place in liver.

3. Production of bile
1. Bile or gall is yellowish green alkaline fluid containing bile pigment such as biliverdine,
bilirubin, and salt such as sodium glycocholate, sodium taurocholate, cholesterol,
phospholipids and mucus.
2. Bile pigments are excretory products of Heme which is broken part of hemoglobin of RBCs.
3. Its Globin is breakdown into amino acids for synthesis of new protein molecules.
4. Bile salt is used for emulsification (breakdown of fats into simple form) of fats in small
intestine.

4. Detoxification
 Liver converts toxic substances (drugs and poisons) into non-toxic means converts poisons
materials into harmless is called as detoxification.
Example: hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is toxic compound, liver secrets catalase enzyme and
converts the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into hydrogen and oxygen which are non-toxic.

5. Formation of cholesterol
1. Cholesterol is highly prepared in liver and excess amount of cholesterol is removed in bile.
2. Excess amount of gall bladder can form the gale stone and causes jaundice.

6. Thermoregulation
 Due to continue blood supply and high rate of metabolic activities, liver produces heat to
maintain the body temperature.

7. Storage of vitamins.
 Liver also stores the vitamin-A, B and D.

URINARY SYSTEM OF MAN

1. Urinary System of Man consists of pair of bean shaped organs known as kidneys.
2. Pair of ducts (tubes) called as ureters which are attached to each kidney and ureters carry the
urine from kidney to urinary bladder.
3. Bladder is muscular sac like organ which stores the urine for short time and removed out the
urine from body through urethra.
4. Urethra arises from urinary bladder and which carries the urine from bladder to outside the
body.
5. Bladder end of urethra has sphincter valve which controls the release of urine from bladder.
 THE KIDNEY
1. Location: kidneys are present in abdominal cavity and attached with dorsal body wall on
each side of vertebral column.
2. Characters: bean shaped, 10 cm or 4-inches or about fist.
3. Right kidney is slightly lower than left kidney.
4. Each kidney is enclosed by thin membrane covering called Peritoneum.
5. Adrenal gland (suprarenal gland) is present on the on the top of each kidney.
6. Kidney received the oxygenated blood through Renal Arteries from the heart and arteries
arise from the Dorsal Aorta.
7. De-oxygenated blood is drained out from each kidney through Renal Veins and renal veins
arise from the Vena Cava.
8. Both renal arteries and renal veins leave the kidney that position/place is known as Hilus.
9. Kidney consists of two parts:
10. Outer darker region of kidney is known as cortex and inner lighter region of kidney is known
as medulla.
11. Medulla consists of many cone shaped form is known as Pyramids.
12. Urine expelled out continuously from the top of pyramids into funnel shaped space is known
as Pelvis and pelvis is connected with ureter.

NEPHERON
 Each kidney is composed of about one millions microscopic tubules is known as Nepheron.
 Nepheron is structural and functional unit of kidney which performs duty of osmoregulation
as well as excretion.

Each Nepheron is divided into two portion:

 a) Renal capsule (malpighian capsule)
 Each nepheron begins with spherical structure known as malpighian capsule.
 Malpighian capsule is present in cortex region of kidney.
 Malpighian body is composed of cup like Bowman’s capsule and inside the cup net work of
capillaries is known as glomerulus.

b) Renal tubules
 Bowman’s capsule gives out a coiled tubule known as proximal convoluted tubule.
 It is present in cortex region.
 Net work of capillaries is also attached with proximal convoluted tubule.
 Proximal convoluted tubule is also attached with Loop Of Henle.
 Proximal convoluted tubule moving downwards in medulla region and attached with U-
shaped part of tubule is known as Loop Of Henle and tubules comes back into cortex region.
 Loop of henle has descending limb and ascending limb.
 Ascending limb is larger in diameter in cortex region and forms a coil known as Distal
Convoluted Tubules.
 Distal convoluted tubule finally open into collecting ducts.
 Collecting ducts receive the urine from the nepherons and drains out in to pelvis of kidneys.
 Blood supply to glomerulus of nepheron through afferent arteriole which arises from renal
arteriole.
 Blood is carried by through efferent arteriole into two capillary networks.
 Net work of capillaries is known as Peritubular Capillaries which are associated with PCT
and DCT.
 Vasa Recta forms series of other capillaries which run parallel to the lop of henle.

Regulatory Functions of Kidney

i. It has been calculated that 1100-2000 liters of blood flows through the kidneys in each day.
ii. Nepheron and collecting ducts filtered 180 litters but kidneys excrete only 1-2 liters of urine.
iii. Rest of the filtrate is reabsorbed into blood.
Kidneys perform the regulatory functions by different process:
1. Ultra filtration (filtration of molecular level)
A. Water, salts, glucose, nitrogen waste products separated from blood but pure blood in
present in glomerulus.
B. Ultra filtration accurs in Bowman’s capsule of malpighian body.
C. Two factors are responsible for Ultra filtration:
 2. Capillary wall of glomerulus
3. Wall of Bowman’s capsule
4. These are sieve like in nature.
5. Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus permits all molecules such as Water, salts,
glucose, nitrogen waste products except plasma protein and blood cells.
6. Blood pressure is high because diameter of efferent arteriole than afferent arteriole
therefore hydrostatic pressure is generated the force on blood glomerulus into
Bowman’s capsule.

7. Reabsorption
8. Nepheron removes water and solutes from tubular filtrate (fluid) and returns to
circulatory blood are called as reabsorption.
Example: water, glucose, amino acids, salts, vitamins, lactose, urea, uric acids etc.
9. Filtrate moves from Proximal convoluted tubule to descending limb of loop of henle
than water and sodium reabsorbed in descending limb because it is permeable to
water and sodium but impermeable to other solutes.
10. In ascending limb is impermeable to water therefore sodium and chlorine ions
reabsorbed in to blood through active transport.
11. Fluid (filtrate) moves from ascending limb to Distal convoluted tubule and fluid is
slightly hypotonic to blood plasma.
12. In Distal convoluted tubule various salts (sodium and chlorine ions) under the
influence of hormones.
13. Now filtrate changed into urine with high concentration of water which moves into
collecting ducts and finally passes out from collecting ducts of nepheron.

Tubular secretion
1. In PCT and DCT poisonous and nitrogenous sub: such as ammonia, urea, uric
acid and creatinine secreted from blood into filtrate through active transport.
 2. Those nitrogenous molecules which are escaped during the filtration from
glomerulus.
3. Hydrogen and ammonium ions are also secreted from interstitial fluid into DCT
which maintains acid-base balance in blood.

Counter current exchange

There are two counter current in medulla which are exchange water and solutes.
A. Counter Current Multiplier In Loop Of Henle
1. This Counter Current Multiplier is maintained concentration of ions across the
medulla.
2. When isotonic filtrates moves through descending limb of loop of henle, water is
reabsorbed and filtrates becomes hypertonic.
3. While in ascending limb sodium and chloride ions are actively reabsorbed from
therefore hypertonocity is reduced and becomes turn into hypotonic.
4. Sodium and chloride ions reabsorbed from ascending limb and slowly diffuse back
into descending limb.
5. This maintains highest concentration of solutes (Na and urea) in inner medulla.
6. Due to hypertonic environment mostly 90% water of filtrate is reabsorbed.
7. Therefore urine is hypertonic to body fluid and removed out from the body.

B. Counter Current Of Vasa Recta

1. Vasa Recta forms series of other capillaries which run parallel to loop of henle.
2. 1% blood of kidneys flows through vasa recta with very slow speed.
3. Blood supply to Vasa Recta provides nourishment and oxygen to the cells of medulla.
4. Vasa Recta absorbed the water to the blood from filtrate (fluid).

Adaptation of kidney and effect of hormones on its working

1. Structure of kidneys is adapted to natural habitat of animals.
2. Mammals must conserve the water in blood and excreted out high rate of concentrated
urine.
3. Concentration of urine depends upon length of loop of henle.
4. Longer length of loop of henle causes the high rate of reabsorption of water therefore
high concentration of salt present in filtrate.
There are two types of nepheron
A. Cortical nepheron
 1. Cortical nepheron has short loop of henle.
2. Therefore less amount of water is reabsorbed to the body and excreted out the dilute urine
(high amount of water).
3. Only present in cortex region but slightly present in medulla.

B. Juxtamedullary Nepheron
1. Juxtamedullary Nepheron has longer loop of henle.
2. Therefore large amount of water is reabsorbed to the body and excreted out the
concentrated urine.
3. Only Present in Medulla Region.

Effect of hormones on its working of kidneys

A. Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
1. Antidiuretic hormone acts on collecting ducts to regulate water level and secreted
by posterior pituitary gland under the dehydration condition
2. It increases the reabsorption of water in collecting duct and decreases osmotic
pressure of body (dehydration) or shortage of water.

B. Aldosterone
1. Concentration of sodium ions in body controlled by aldosterone which is secreted
by from adrenal cortex.
2. Aldosterone increases the reabsorption of sodium ions in nepheron.
C. Parathormone
1. Concentration of calcium ions in body controlled by Parathormone which is
secreted by from parathyroid gland.
2. Parathormone increases the reabsorption of calcium ions in nepheron.
Composition of urine and variation in the composition and its significance
 It is estimated that urine contains about 95% water and 5% solids.
 The average values of various substances per 100 cm3 are given bellow in table:

components Composition
(Concentration/100cm3)
Water 95.00
Protein 00.00
Glucose 00.00
Urea 02.00
Creatinine 0.3-0.70
Ammonia 0.3-0.70
Uric acid 0.30
Sodium 0.30
Chlorides 0.60
Ca, Mg, K, PO, SO 0.47
PH 5.00

KIDNEY PROBLEM AND THEIR PREMEDIES

Kidney stone (Culculi)

1. About 70% Kidney stones are mainly composed of calcium oxalate (CaC2O4) or calcium
phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2).
2. High level of Oxalate produced from metabolic process in urine which causes the
formation of stone.
3. Oxalate may be found from diet containing drink or food with high amount of oxalic
acid.
4. Oxalate may be found from tomatoes, spinach, leafy vegetable etc
5. About 20% infective stones in kidneys.
6. Stone is formed by combination of calcium, magnesium and ammonium phosphate.
7. 5% stone is formed due to uric acid.

Lithotripsy
1. It is the recent non-surgical method in which removal of stone from kidney, ureter or gall
bladder.
2. Kidney stone is break down into tiny pieces or sand by the use of shock waves or
ultrasonic waves and tiny pieces or sand removed with urine.
3. Ultrasonic lithotripsy uses ultrasonic probe through telescopic tube to break stone.
4. Shock waves lithotripsy is more advanced method in which shock waves detected the
stone from the outside the body.
5. After broken the stone, small fragments are passed out in urine.

Renal failure
1. It is the condition in which reduction in the ability of kidneys to filter the waste product
from blood and excrete them in urine for osmoregulation and to regulate the blood
pressure.
2. As a result increases level of urea and nitrogenous water products in blood.
Symptoms:
 Nausea (person may be unconscious), vomiting, loss of aptitude, weakness,
breathlessness.
 In severe cases it may lead to coma, death as well as pneumonia, bleeding in stomach,
high blood pressure etc.

Dialysis
 It is the technology used to remove the waste products and excess fluid from the body
(blood) and when kidneys are unable to remove the nitrogenous waste products from
body.
There are two methods of Dialysis

1. Haemodialysis (cleaning the blood)

 Use of dialyzer machine or artificial kidney or kidney machine.
 Dialyzer machine has two spaces, one space is filled with toxic blood and another
space is filled dialyzer fluid.
 These two spaces separated by permeable membrane.
 Nitrogenous waste and excess salt diffused out from the blood into dialsate through
Dialysis machine (dialyzer fluid).
 Therefore pure blood returned to body and nitrogenous waste products remove from
body through permeable membrane.
 Dialysis completed within 6-10 hours and three times a weak with control their diet
and fluid.
 2. Peritoneal dialysis
 Cather attached with dialsate is inserted into abdominal peritoneal cavity.
 It has two spaces, one space is filled with toxic blood (high source of blood
capillaries in abdomen) and another space is dialsate which is filled dialyzer fluid.
 Nitrogenous waste and excess salt diffused out from the blood into dialsate through
Dialysis machine (dialyzer fluid).
 Therefore pure blood returned to body and nitrogenous waste products remove from
body through peritoneal membrane.

Kidney transplant
 Young patient having failure kidney may be replaced by another healthy person but
person having same blood group.
 Permanent solution and better than dialysis.
 Surgical process.
 80% successful.

THERMOREGULATION
 It is the maintenance of temperature with in body up to tolerable (reasonable) limit is
called as thermoregulation.
 Normal temperature range is 10C to 35C for most of living organisms.
 Temperature influence directly upon membrane properties as well as metabolism of cells.

Adaptation of plants to low and high temperature

1. Low temperature
 2. High temperature

THERMOREGULATION IN ANIMALS
Organisms obtain heat energy by following two sources
1. Externally, heat is gained from sun (solar radiation) or indirectly by radiation,
convection, conduction from environment.
 Convection: Transfer of heat due to movement of molecules in liquid or gas is called as
convection.
 Conduction: Transfer of heat solid molecules.
2. Internally, Heat is gained from metabolic activities as well as muscles contraction.
 Organisms lose the heat energy through radiation, convection and conduction from their
body surface and evaporation of water.

Animals are classified into two categories on the basis of body temperature.
1. Poikilotherms (Gr: Having Variable Temperature)
 They are commonly known as cold blooded animals.
 Those organisms having body temperature can be changed with fluctuation (change) of
environmental temperature.
Example: all invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles etc.

2. Homoeothermic (Gr: Having Same Temperature)

 They are commonly known as warm blooded animals.
 Those organisms having constant body temperature and which are not depends on the
environmental temperature.
Example: Birds, Mammals etc
Note:
 Above both term have been discarded because Poikilotherms also maintain their body
temperature instead of Homoeothermic.
 Under these circumstances both terms Poikilotherms and Homoeothermic have replaced
by Ectotherm and Endotherm.

1. Ectotherm
Ectothermic animals gain heat energy from environment and cannot maintain their body
temperature.
Example: Reptiles (lizards basking in sun), Fishes, Amphibian, etc.

2. Endotherm
 Endothermic animals generate their heat energy by metabolic activities to maintain
internal body temperature.
Example: Mammals and Birds etc.

3. Heterotherms
  Heterothermic animals generate the heat of varying degrees therefore their body
temperature is in wider range.
Example: Bats, Humming Birds etc.

THERMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS (MAN)

 Endothermic animals such as mammals and birds maintain their body temperature within
range of 36C - 43C during metabolic activities.
 Mammals maintain their body temperature within range of 36C-38C.
 Birds maintain their body temperature within range of 41C - 43C.
 During thermoregulation Endothermic animals have ability to regulate loss of heat as
well as gain of heat.

There are two methods to increase the heat production (Thermogenesis)

1. Shivering Thermogenesis
Production of heat increases by the contraction of muscles.
2. Non Shivering Thermogenesis
 Production of heat increases by action of hormones (thyroid gland) to increase the
metabolic rate of glucose to produce heat.
 Brown fat found in neck and shoulder of some mammals which break down to produce
the heat.
 High amount of brown fat found in neck and shoulder of children which serves the
function of Non Shivering thermogenesis.

Mechanism of thermoregulation in cold temperature

1. Physiological Mechanism 2. Behavioral Mechanism

1. Physiological Mechanism

A. Non-Shivering Thermogenesis B. Shivering Thermogenesis

A. Non Shivering Thermogenesis

Erection of hairs Reduction in blood flow towards skin Subcutaneous fat accumulation

i. Erection of hairs
 During the cold temperature, skin hairs are raised in vertical position (goose bump) due
to contraction of erector pili muscles.
Example: Ferry animals (non-human) such as sheep, cow etc.
 Ferry animals contain skin hairs in vertical position which trapped the air to skin
therefore loss of heat is reduced.
ii. Reduction in blood flow towards skin
 Heat is transported by blood all around the body of living organisms.
 During the cold temperature, narrowing (limited) of arteriole OR vaso-constriction.
 Vaso-constriction: when blood vessels compressed, blood flow is slowed or blocked
towards the body surface therefore heat lose is reduced.
 Cold is more marked in the limb of hands and foot than rest of the body.

iii. Subcutaneous fat accumulation

 In mammals, fat is present below the skin in from of adipose tissues and fat is bad
conductor therefore heat lose is reduced.
 In aquatic animals such as whale, seals, walrus etc have thick layer of fat (Blubber)
therefore heat lose is reduced.
 During the cold temperature, terrestrial animals are active because fats are stored in the
form of reserved food.

B. Shivering Thermogenesis
 In cold condition muscles contraction under the nervous system.
 If cold continuous shivering begins which generate heat in muscles.
 Under the very cooler condition, metabolic rates become high to produce the heat energy
by the secretion of adrenaline hormone and thyroxine hormone.

2. Behavioral Mechanism
 Moving to warmer places.
 Huddling (grouping): one individual close together with another individual.
 In human beings wearing the additional and extra cloths.

Mechanism of thermoregulation in hot temperature

1. Physiological Mechanism
 High temperature.
 Lowering the hairs which reduce the insulating effects therefore more heat is removed
from body.
 There is reduction in subcutaneous fat therefore more heat is removed from body.
 Vaso-dilation: blood vessels expand and flow of blood increased towards skin therefore
more heat is removed from body.
 Panting: some mammals such as dogs, cows etc don’t have sweating glands or scanty
glands in skin.
 Panting animals removed saliva from tongue therefore more heat is removed from body.
 Sweating: sweat glands become active and water is removed out from body therefore
more heat is removed from body.
2. Behavioral Mechanism
 Moving to cooler location.
 Use very thin cloths.

Role of Brain in Regulation of Temperature

 Hypothalamus is the part of brain which has thermoregulatory centre (controlling center
of thermostat).
 Thermoregulatory centre is commonly known as thermostat of body.
 Thermostat of body is mechanism of switching on and off heat loss or conversation of
heat.
 Hypothalamus receives impulse (signal) from thermo-receptor.
 Thermo-receptors are present in skin, deep body tissues and it is also sense temperature
of blood flowing through the brain.
 Hypothalamus is the set at particular temperature is known as set point.
 Set point of thermostat is 37C.
 Any change in set point (below or above 37C) is detected by Hypothalamus and
Hypothalamus sends appropriate commands to maintain body temperature.
 It is complex hemostat system which maintains the body temperature.
During the hot season
 Hypothalamus closes all system of heat saving mechanism.
 Temperature is high and flow of blood is increased therefore more heat is removed.
 Vaso-dialiation:
 Sweating: sweat gland in skin therefore more heat is removed from body.
 Painting: Animals lacking of sweat glands, they removed saliva from tongue and panting
animals removed saliva from tongue therefore more heat is removed from body.
During cold season
 Hypothalamus closes all system therefore heat lose is reduced

Fever or Pyrexia
 Body Temperature is above the set point (37C or 98F) is known as fever.
 When viruses or bacteria attack to (infection) body therefore increases the rate of
leukocytes (macrophage).
 Leukocytes (wbc) release chemical substance known as Pyrogen.
 Pyrogen raised the body temperature (fever) by inhabit the growth of pathogenic virus
and bacteria.